Number 1
JCS (1) 1-135
March 2004
Table of Contents
Page
Classification of the Dromedary Camels.
M. F. Wardeh
Camel Breeds of India.
N.D. Khanna, A.K. Rai and S.N. Tandon
Studies on Pituitary-Ovarian Axis in the Female Camel with Special Reference to Cystic and
Inactive Ovaries.
A.A. Hegazy, A.Ali, M. Al-Eknah and S. Ismail
Physical and Biochemical Attributes of Camel Semen.
V.K. Agrawal, L. Ram, A. K. Rai, N. D. Khanna and S. P. Agarwal
Effect of Different Extenders on Motility Survival and Acrosomal Integrity of Camel
Speramatozoa Frozen in Ampouls.
X.X. Zhao, Y.M. Huang, Q.C. Nie, Y.K. Zhang and B.X. Chen
The Nutrient Requirements of the Dromedary Camel.
M. F. Wardeh
Maintenance Energy Requirements and Energy Utilization by Dromedary at Rest.
A. Guerouali, R.Zine Filali, M.Vermore, and M.F. Wardeh
Feed Intake and Digestibility in Camels and Wheat Straw and Meadow Hay.
D. Cianci, L. Gio, A. M.Hashi, S.Pastoreli, M. Kamoun, G. B. Liponi, and M. Orlandi
Two Transferases and Four Electrolytes in Normal One-Humped Camel Serum.
A. Sarwar, M.A. Majeed, G. Hur and l.R. Khan
Seasonal Variations in Haematological and Serum Biochemical Parameters in Racing
Camels.
R. Salman and M. Afzal .
Water Balance in the Camel (Camelus dromedarius).
R. Zine Filali and R. Shaw
Biochemical Adaptation of Camelids During Fasting.
J. Wensvoort, D.J. Kyle, E.R. 0rskov and D.A. Bourke
Effect of Dietary Zinc Supplementation on Wound Healing in Camels.
L. S. Fahmy, E. A. Berbish, H. M. Teleb and A. A. Hegazy .
Functional Anatomy of the Renal Pelvis in the One-Humped Camel.
H. Zguigal and A. Ouhsine
Microstructural Characteristics of Arabian Camel Meat.
A. Kassem, M. T. El Sayed and A. Ahmed .
Studies on Mastitis in Female Camels with Special Reference to Brucellosis.
A. A. Hegazy, A.El Dughaym, M.Alaknah, F. M.T. Housawi and M.E. Hatem
Pathology in Camel Lungs.
R. Zubair, A. Ahmed, M. Z. Khan and M. A. Sabri
Eye Affections Among Camels in Egypt. (2) Pathological Studies.
A.A. Hegazy, Lotfia. S. Fahmy, M.A. Aiad and A.A. Shamaa
Editor in Chief ..
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The Arab Center for the Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands (ACSAD)
ACSAD was established in September 1971 within the framework of the specialized organizations of
the League of the Arab States. ACSAD's main objectives include conducting regional research, studies
and integrated development programmes in arid zones and dry lands. In addition, emphasis is directed
towards training and the exchange of knowledge and experiences. ACSAD has active cooperation with
many regional and international organizations and research institutions with similar activities.
Correspondences
Dr. Muhammad F. Wardeh
Editor in Chief
ACSAD,
2440 Damascus, Syrian Arab Republic
963-11-5743039-5743087 Direct 5746892 Fax 5743063
E. Mail animalwealth@acsad.org http:\www.acsad.org
III
IV
Date
Date
Date
Date
Date
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ABSTRACT
Camels were classified into two major classes: ride and pack camels. This classification was suitable to
satisfy the needs of caravans, transport and army purposes during the first half of the 20th century. A
new system of classification is proposed based on the fact that the camel is a major component of the
agro-pastoral systems in vast pastoral areas in Asia and Africa. Camels might be classified into four
major classes: Meat, Dairy, Dual Purpose and Race camels.
Meat breed types include Jandaweel in Mauritania, Nabul in Tunisia, Kasabat in North-West Libya,
Fellahi in Southern Egypt, Delta in the Nile Delta of Egypt, and Arabi in Sudan. Dairy breed types
include the Hoor in Somalia, Fakhriya and Sirtawi in Libya, Oulad Sidi AL-Sheikh in Algeria, and
Shallageea in Sudan. Dual purpose breed types include Magribi in North Africa, Sifdar and Edimo in
Somalia, AL Rashaidi in Sudan, AL-Shameya in Syria, and AL Majaheem and Lourak in Arabia. Race
camels include the Mehari in the Sahara from Mauritania in the west to the eastern boarders of Sudan in
the east; the Anafi and Bishari in Sudan; the Rukby in Ain Safra between Mauritania, Morocco and
Algeria; Hogar in the Middle hills of Algeria; Oulad Bou Sayf in the Western Oasis of Libya and Al
Hojon in Arabia.
The main objectives of this paper include the establishment of the basis for the classification of the breed
types of the dromedary camels according to their production potentialities within the different
agro-pastoral systems.
(Key Words: Dromedary Camels, Breed Types, CARDN).
Introduction
The family camelidae is divided into two genera.
The genus camelus includes two species: Camelus
dromedarius, the dromedary, one-humped or
Arabian camel; and the Camelus bactrianus, the
bactrian or the two- humped camel. The second
genus is the llama comprising four species: llama
glama, the llama and llama pacos, the Alpaca
which are domesticated; and llama guanacoe, the
guanaco and llama vicugna, the vicuna which are
wild (Mason, 1979; Simpson, 1945).
The habitat of the dromedary is the dry hot zones
of North Africa, Ethiopia, the Near East and West
Central Asia. Bactrian camel occupies the cold
M. F. Wardeh
M. F. Wardeh
M. F. Wardeh
References
ACSAD. 1983a. Hamad Basin Studies. l. Natural
and human resources. Annexes 4-7. Animal
Wealth in Hamad of Syria. The Arab Center
for the Studies of Arid Zones and Dry lands.
ACSAD/Hamad/Final Report-31, Damascus.
ACSAD. 1983b. Hamad Basin Studies. l. Natural
and human resources, Annexes 3-7, Animal
Wealth in Iraq. The Arab Center for the
Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands.
ACSAD/Hamad/Final report-30, Damascus.
AL- Motairy, S. and A. Hashimi. 1988. Studies on
milk production and growth rate of camels in
Saudi Arabia. In: FAO Proc. the Camel:
Development
Research. Kuwait Seminar
20-23 October, 1985. MlNEADEP, FAO,
Rome. pp 53-70.
ABSTRACT
The Indian camel population presently is 1.4 m mostly confined to north western dry part of the country.
Ten breeds/strains of Indian camels having specific characteristics inhabiting different breeding tracts,
are discussed. The Indian camels did not have contact with exogenous camels from other parts of the
world for very long time and therefore various breeds have evolved through selective breeding. In this
country, camels are mostly used for draught and riding purposes, though camel milk is also utilized as a
by-product. The Bikaneri breed is the most famous and most widely distributed camel breed, mainly
developed for draught and baggage. The Jaisalmeri is very fast and gracious riding camel breed. The
animals of Kachchhi breed are heavy set and good milkers. These animals are also very good draught
animals, though comparatively slow. Mewari camels are of comparatively short stature and have been
developed as hill camels. Heavy riverain camels are available in the areas heavy good rainfall and these
animals are mostly used for hauling heavy cart loads. The other breeds/strains are Mewari, Mewati,
Shekhawati and Sindhi. Evaluation of three camel breeds (Bikaneri, Jaisalmeri and Kachchhi) with
respect to certain productive and reproductive traits is described.
(Key words: Dromedary Camels, Breeds, India).
Introduction
The Indian camel population has been estimated at
1.4 m out of 19 m world population (FAO,
1989). This is the third highest, after Somalia and
Sudan. The camel population more than doubled
between 1945 (0.654 m) and 1989 (1.4 m).
The camels in India are single humped (Camelus
dromedarius). They are utilized for various
purposes since very ancient time (Khanna, 1990).
The Indian camel is a multipurpose animal, the
principal uses being draught, transport and
agricultural operations.
Other production
functions are milk, hair and hide.
Distribution
The distribution of camels in India is in the arid
and semi arid zones. As per the livestock census
(base 1982), Rajasthan state accounted for 70.1%
of Indian camel
population followed
by
Haryana, Gujarat and Punjab (Table 1). The
camel density in the whole country and Rajasthan,
Breeds
Based on their utility, two main classes of Indian
camels were distinguished namely baggage and
riding (Nanda, 1957). Earlier, Leese (1927)
classified camels into (i) Hill camel (ii) Plain
camel and (iii) intermediate between Hill and
Plain camel. The plain camels were further
classified into Desert and Riverain camels.
Similar broad classification was adopted by Kaura
(1961). Camel breeds/strains have also been
10
Breed Evaluation
At the National Research Center on Camel
(NRCC), Bikaner, three camels breeds viz.
Bikaneri, Kachchhi and Jaisalmeri are presently
maintained under semi- intensive management
system. Few crossbred animals, Arabi x Bikaneri
are also available. Detailed information on
breeding parameters of Bikaneri has been
published by Khanna et al (1990). Breed
evaluation with respect to body weights, body
measurements, growth patterns, reproduction,
production traits and hair production are presented
in Tables 2 to 5. Variation with respect to age at
first calving, hair production, milk production,
and body measurements was observed between
four genetic groups presently studied. It may be
mentioned here that Jaisalmeri and Kachchhi
breeds were introduced recently at the NRCC and
therefore elaborate data were not available in these
breeds to arrive at some conclusive results.
Body Weights
The average birth weight of male and female
Bikaneri calves were 42.15 0.773 and 38.82
0.641 kg, respectively. Kachchhi calves were born
lightest, while Jaisalmeri occupied inter-mediate
position.
The birth weight of Arabi x Bikaneri, crossbreds
was though lower but quite close to the Bikaneri
calves (Table 2). Statistical analysis indicated
significant variation in the birth weight between
different genetic groups attained mature weight
is 600, 550, 570 and 550 kg for the 4 groups in
(Table 2). The average adult body weight was
highest in the Bikaneri breed 617.33 17.02 kg in
males and 577.83 9.79 in females, while body
weights of other genetic groups were comparable.
The adult Bikaneri animals were heaviest and
Jaisal-meri animals were lightest (Table 3).
11
Body Measurements
Body measurements are presented in Table 3. The
leg length of both fore and hind legs were
comparable in all the four groups. The length of
the hind limb was 8-10 cm more than the
forelimb. The body length, heart girth and height
at withers were more in the Bikaneri animals as
compared to other three groups. The neck length
and circumference of neck at base was also more
in the Bikaneri breed. The circumference of neck
at base was also more in the Bikaneri breed. These
observations indicated that the Bikaneri animals
had bigger and massive
body frame. The
circumference of foot pad were more in the fore
limb than the hind limb. larger foot pads were
present in Jaisalmeri and Kachchhi male as
compared to Bikaneri and crossbred males. The
Kachchhi
animals had longest face length
whereas crossbreds had smallest face length.
Body Weight Gain
The body weight gain varied from 702 7.37
gm/day (Jaisalmeri) to 789.217.33 gm/day
(Bikaneri) from birth to 3 months of age. The rate
of body weight gain per day progressively
declined as the age increased. At 1-2 years of age
it was 177 13.42 g/day to 238 1.00 g/day
(Table 4). The difference in the body weight gain
from birth to 3 months of age was statistically
significant between all the genetic groups except
Jaisalmeri and crossbreds. This parameter also
exhibited significant variability from three months
to two years of age.
Reproductive and Productive Parameters
Reproductive and productive traits of four genetic
groups are presented in Table 5. Kachchhi animals
were best milkers yielding on an average 5.2 to
14.6 liters per day with peak yield of 18 liters/day.
Limited data indicated that crossbred, were more
efficient in the reproductive behavior. Annual
clipping done once a year at the NRCC breeding
farm indicated that hair production ranged from
1089.13 0.390 to 1240 1.25g.
Studies in respect to evaluation of work
performance draught and riding potentials of
Indian camels have been conducted (Khanna,
1991). The effect of work stress on various
12
physical,
biochemical
and
parameters have been studied.
hematological
Draught Potential
Bikaneri camels carrying payloads varying from
1200-1800 kg on two wheel carts generated
90-120 kg draught at an average speed of 5
km per hr working continuously for 4 hours. The
draught produced amounted to 17.2% of body
weight. Studies on breed differences in
draughtability of the adult camels at 3 kg/kg pay
load on a two wheel cart at the speed of 5 km/hr as
per the changes in physiological responses
indicated Bikaneri (Rai and Khanna, 1991).
Test for endurance of different breeds was
conducted at 20% body weight as fixed draught in
a loading car. Bikaneri camels worked for a
period of 54. 3 2.33 min and converted a
distance of 3.43 0.13 km before exhaustion.
The horsepower generated was 1.67 0.09. This
was followed by the performance of Kachchhi and
Jaisalmeri convening 3.3 km in 53.3 1.67 and
58.3 1.67 min generating 1.58 and 1.46 horse
power respectively. Positive correlation of body
length with tractive force has been observed
during ploughing stress.
Speed and Strides
The speed of Bikaneri (5.87 km/h) was more than
Jaisalmeri (5.52 km/h) during walk while during
trot and gallop the speed of Jaisalmeri was higher
(13.37 and 26.57 km/h) than Kachchhi (12.34 and
24.06 km/h) and Bikaneri (11.82 and 24.05 km/h).
In general the observations on duration of
strides/strides per second and speed during trot
and gallop indicated Jaisalmeri camels to be more
efficient followed by Kachchhi for speed.
However, during walk, Bikaneri was found to be
superior (Rai et al. 1992).
Ploughing Capacity
The results of preliminary experiment on
ploughing capacity of different breeds of camel
showed that the average draught produced per 100
km body weight during ploughing was 11.29,
13.93 and 16.80, respectively in Bikaneri,
Jaisalmeri and Kachchhi breeds. The area
ploughed per hour was highest in Kachchhi (774
References
FAO, 1989. Production Year Book. Vol. 43.
Rome.
Kaura, R.l. 1961. Indian Breeds of Livestock.
Perm Publishers, Lucknow. 97 pp.
Khanna, N.D., A.K. Rai and S.N. Tandon. 1990.
Population trends and distribution of camel
population in India. Ind. J. Anim. Sci., 60:
331-337.
Khanna, N.D. 1990. Camels in India from the
protohistoric to the present times. Ind. J. Anim.
Sci., 60: 1093-1101.
Khanna, N.D. 1991. Overview of work
performance of camel as draught and riding
animal. In. Wardeh M.F., R. T. Wilson and
A.A. Zaied (eds). Proc. Int. Conf. Camel Prod.
and Improvement. Dec.10-13, 1990 Tobruk,
Libya. ACSAD/CARDN/P1/1991. Damascus.
pp 191-201.
Khanna, N.D., S.N. Tandon and A.K. Rai. 1990.
Breeding parameters of Indian camels. Ind.
J. Anim. Sci., 60: 1347-1354.
Leese, A.S. 1927. A treatise on the one-humped
camel in health and disease. Haynes and Sons,
Stanford. 382 pp.
Nanda, P.N. 1957. Camels and their management.
Review Series No. 6, 17 pp.
13
Population(1000)
75
121
01
04
16
01
64
756
40
Table 2. Body weight at different age groups of three Indian camel breeds and Arabi x Bikaneri
crosses (1985-90).
Weight/Breed
Birth Weight
Weight at 6
Months
Weight at 1
Year
Weight at 2
Years
Weight 3
Years
Adult Weight
4 years and above
Bikaneri
Male
Female
42.15
38.82
0.77
0.64
170.13
176.67
4.26
5.54
229.18
223.00
4.03
7.41
273.25
263.33
5.82
14.55
391.50
340.00
12.38
11.15
617.33
577.983
17.02
0.79
NA = not available.
Jaisalmeri
Male
Female
36.86
34.69
1.18
1.88
183.00
170.00
7.02
5.40
226.00
201.20
23.80
13.50
264.00
225.75
30.12
17.68
NA
341.43
NA
9.12
574.80
537.00
12.73
11.61
(Arabri x Bikaneri
Male
Female
39.80
36.60
1.07
1.88
178.50
175.00
6.51
5.01
250.00
121.00
15.04
4.01
309.00
293.33
19.06
17.66
379.00
340.00
8.94
4.16
NA
545.00
NA
54.80
14
Table 3. Body measurements of adult camels of three Indian camel breeds and Arabi x Bikaneri
crosses.
Bikaneri
Breed Measurements
Leg Length (cm)
Fore
Male
151.44
1.78
Hind
160.55
2.08
Body length (cm)
165.70
2.06
Heart girth (cm)
223.11
2.55
Height at withers (cm)
209.22
2.55
Neck length
129.77
3.27
Circumference of foot pad (cm)
Fore
73.89
1.77
Hind
62.44
0.89
Circumference of neck (cm)
At base
113.44
5.48
At head
74.00
1.64
Face length (cm)
56.25
2.86
Jaisalmeri
Kachchhi
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
140.60
4.12
149.60
3.29
158.20
4.32
215.00
4.22
195.60
5.45
120.00
3.56
150.60
3.12
162.00
1.99
156.40
1.62
210.00
3.06
206.40
2.37
119.60
2.93
140.28
2.68
150.28
2.62
157.28
1.38
211.28
2.34
191.85
2.12
115.28
2.20
150.33
2.48
161.50
1.61
156.33
6.76
206.33
5.78
195.83
4.09
111.66
5.27
138.20
1.38
145.80
1.52
158.00
4.93
214.30
2.99
189.80
3.29
115.40
1.61
148.00
4.00
155.00
5.01
157.00
219.50
4.51
202.00
125.00
5.01
136.00
1.00
149.50
0.50
137.50
2.50
192.50
2.50
186.00
9.02
104.00
2.00
67.40
1.20
59.20
1.15
75.60
1.02
64.60
0.89
66.42
1.11
56.85
0.88
75.66
1.83
66.50
1.28
68.20
0.81
59.90
0.99
66.00
7.02
58.00
6.01
66.00
1.00
57.00
2.01
92.60
2.35
57.80
1.35
54.67
1.20
98.00
2.99
64.00
1.81
58.25
1.87
92.85
1.85
56.71
0.97
54.33
1.20
97.33
6.88
66.61
3.49
61.00
1.08
94.30
2.14
54.90
0.99
57.00
0.58
119.50
3.51
77.50
2.50
55.50
3.61
83.50
1.50
51.00
1.00
50.00
0.67
Table 4. Average weight gain (g/day) of three Indian camel breeds and Arabi x Bikaneri crosses.
Age group
0-3 months
3-6 months
6-12 months
1-2 years
Bikaneri
789.217.33
(91)
703.16.62
(72)
337.805.82
(90)
227.608.71
(75)
Kachchhi
7485.48
(38)
63616.66
(21)
28111.14
(22)
19426.95
(07)
Jaisalmeri
7027.37
(31)
4114.40
(05)
29813.66
(07)
2381.00
(02)
Arabi X Bikaneri
7086.15
(20)
69219.22
(09)
3936.87
(09)
17713.42
(08)
15
Table 5. Reproductive and productive parameters of three Indian camel breeds and Arabi X
Bikaneri.
Bikaneri
Jaisalmeri
Kachchhi
Arabi X Bikaneri
Traits
Gestation length (days
Age at first service (days)
Age at first calving (days)
Calving interval (days)
Milk Yield
Lit/d
Lit/d (at peak)
3.0-8.0
NA
5.2-14.6
18
3.5-10.0
NA
ABSTRACT
The present investigation was performed on 190 female camel slaughtered at Al-Ahsa modern
slaughterhouse throughout one year. Blood samples, pituitary glands and ovaries were collected. FSH,
LH, E2 and progesterone hormones were determined in cases of cystic and inactive ovaries as well as
follicular ovarian wave. The ovarian examination revealed the increase incidence of inactive ovaries
during summer and cystic ovaries during spring and autumn.
Histological and histochemical pictures of pituitary gland during inactive, cystic and ovarian follicular
wave were described and discussed.
(Key Words: Dromedary Camel, Pituitary Gland, Cystic Ovary, Reproductive Hormones).
Introduction
She-camel is seasonally polyoestrus and induced
ovulators. Follicular growth occurs in regular
waves during the breeding season (Musa et al.
1993) where waves of follicular growth,
maturation and atresia occur constantly in both
ovaries (Musa and Abu-Sineina, 1976; ElWishy and Hemeida, 1984). Al-Eknah et al
(1993) recorded four distinct uterine phases corresponding to ovarian activity (follicular, atretic
follicular, non-follicular and growing follicular
stages). FSH and LH control growth and
reproductive activities of the gonadal tissue
(Franchimont, 1973; Daughadny, 1985). The
gonadotrophic cells of pituitary secrete both
FSH and LH in response to gonadotrophic
releasing hormone (LHRH or Gn-RH) from the
medial basal hypothalamus. Release of both
17
Results
Ovaries
The incidence of ovarian activity, inactivity and
cystic ovaries in the 190 female camels during
the different seasons of the year (January
December 2001) is presented in Table 1 and in
Figures 1-3.
Blood Samples
10 ml blood was collected from each animal
before slaughtering in silicon-coated tubes. Sera
were separated and marked according to ovarian
picture and stored at 40 oC for further
hormonal analysis.
Ovaries
Ovaries of each animal were grossly examined
and ovarian structure was recorded.
Pituitary Glands
A total of 100 pituitary glands were collected
randomly representing the different ovarian
cases. The glands were immediately dissected
from the animals just after slaughtering and
fixed directly in a 10% neutral formaline. Tissue
samples were collected and processed by
paraffin embedding method. Serial sections at 4
in thickness were performed and stained by
H&E (Harris, 1898), Orange-Fuchsine Green
(Slidder, 1961; Halmi, 1952), PFA, AB, PAS,
Orange G (Adams, 1956).
The Cell Count of Anterior Pituitary
The count of different cells of the anterior
pituitary gland was performed using the
technique adopted by Kandil (1975). Three
fields in the anterior pituitary were chosen. The
first field was adjacent to the cleft, the second
field in the core while the third one was in the
posterior part.
Hormonal Analysis
Evaluation of LH, FSH, E2 , and progesterone
were performed on 51 serum samples (20 active
Pituitary Gland
The histological study indicated that pituitary
glands of the female camels were subdivided
into adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis.
The adenohypophysis consisted of three
portions, pars distalis, pars tuberales and pars
intermedia. The pars distalis and pars intermedia
were separated from each other by
interglandular cleft. A fibrous capsule of
collagenous fibers continuous with the stromal
fibers covers it. The parenchyma consisted of
cords, clusters or pseudofollicles.
The cells of pars distalis were divided into
acidophilic, basophilic and chromophobe cells.
The acidophilic cells are localized at the central
and posterior parts of anterior pituitary glands.
Two types of acidophilic cells, the
somatotrophic cells (STH) and lactotrophic cells
(LTH) could be recognized. The somatotrophic
cells were large polyhedral and mostly localized
in posterior parts. The cells contained coarse
intra cytoplasmic granules yellow in colour. The
lactotrophic cells were mostly located in the
center of the gland. They are variable in shape,
oval, rounded or elongated with eccentric
vesicular nuclei and cytoplasmic glands stained
orange red.
The number of basophilic cells were lesser than
acidophilic ones. The cells were located mostly
in the peripheral parts of pars distalis, next to
hypophysical cleft and the boundaries of blood
vessels. The basophiles were differentiated into
gonadotrophic cells, which were more abundant
than thyrotrophic cells (Table 4).
Thyrotrophic
cells
appeared
polygonal
containing coarse cytoplasmic granules stained
magenta red by PAS after oxidation with
performic acid and blue by Sleder stain.
Gonadotrophic cells were arranged mostly at the
boundaries and near by sinusoids. They were
smaller in size and contain fine granules stained
blue by alcian blue after oxidation with
performic acid and red (LH) or purple (FSH) by
PAS.
18
Discussion
The available literature indicates the absence of
any previous study on pituitary ovarian axis in
female camels. However the pituitary gland of
male camel and the effect of seasonal variation
on pituitary -testicular axis were studied by few
authors (Fahmy and Nasr, 1963; Ismail et al
1985).
The present study revealed that the ovarian
activity was observed throughout the different
seasons with a maximum activity during winter,
which corresponds to the breeding season.
Shalash (1965), Ismail (1987) and Akral et al
(1995) reported similar results in Egypt and
Pakistan, respectively. In Saudi Arabia, Arthur
and Al-Rahim (1982) and Arthur et al (1985)
reported that breeding of she camel occurs
throughout the year provided a good nutritional
condition.
The incidence of inactive ovaries in the present
study reached its peak in the summer, which
may be responsible for the failure of conception
during May, August and October as reported by
Arthur et al (1985); Abdel Rahim and El Nazier
(1992). This may be attributed to the higher
temperature associated with adverse nutritional
status of the animals during the summer season
(Tibary and Anouassi, 1997).
In the present study, it was clear that in case of
inactive ovaries, the activity of pituitary gland
was lesser in comparison with that of active
ovaries. Moreover, the FSH level in the plasma
was lower than that of active ovaries which may
give an explanation for the increase of the
ovarian inactivity in summer.
19
20
Conclusions
It could be concluded that:
1. The maximum ovarian activity occurs in
winter.
2. The maximum ovaries inactivity occurs in
summer.
3. Cystic ovaries observed all over the year
with tendency to be increased in summer
and autumn.
4. There is a great demand to establish a base
line data for the hormonal level during the
different phases.
5. The pituitary glands showed inactivity in
association with inactive ovary and it may
be the cause of this condition during
summer season.
References
Abdel Rahim, S. E. A. and A. T. El Nazier.
1992. Study on the sexual behavior of the
dromedary camel. Proc.1st Int. Camel Conf.
February, 1992, Dubai.
Adams, C. W. M. 1956. The PFAAB, PAS,
Orange G method for the human
hypophysis. Cited by Carletons histological
technique, 4th edition, Oxford Univ. Press,
New York, Toronto.
Agarwal, S. P, N. D.Khanna, V. K. Agarwal,
and P. K. Dwaraknath. 1987. Circulating
level of estrogen and progesterone in female
camel (Camelus dromedarius) during
pregnancy. Theriogenology, 28: 849-859.
Agarwal, S. P., A. K Rai and N. D.Khanna.
1992. Hormonal studies in postpartum
female camel and their neonates.
Theriogenology, 38: 735 747.
Akral, N., and N. D. Khanna. 1995. Ovarian
activity during breeding season in Indian
camel. J. Anim. Sci., 65: 889-890.
21
22
Autumn
No
28
5
3
14
50
P/S
56%
10%
6%
28%
100%
No
10
Summer
P/S
28.57%
No
46
Spring
P/S
70.76%
No
34
Winter
P/S
85.0%
5
1
19
35
14.25%
2.85%
54.28%
100%
7
5
7
65
10.76%
7.69%
10.76%
100%
3
1
2
40
7.5%
2.50%
5.0%
100%
23
Table 2. The incidence of ovarian changes among examined cases per year (January December
2001).
Ovarian Picture
Ovarian follicular activity
Cystic ovary:
A. Follicular
B. Luteal
Inactive ovary
Autumn
28
Summer
10
Spring
46
Winter
34
Total
118
%
62.33
5
3
14
5
1
19
7
5
7
3
1
2
20
10
42
10.46
5.23
21.98
Table 3. Mean values of the FSH, LH, E2 and progesterone in different ovarian changes.
Hormone
FSH
LH
Progesterone
E2
Active ovaries
0.2135
0.0 1.2
0.0643
0.0 0.32
1.1165
0.0 4.7
14.72
1.24 67.23
Inactive ovaries
0.1515
0.0 - 0.01
0.065
0.0 0.55
4.483
1.0 21.4
69.79
24.7 117.0
Luteal cyst
0.1175
0.01 0.22
0.0975
0.3 0.19
1.657
0.57 3.4
31.1
10.4 41.9
Table 4. The percentage of different cells in the pituitary in different ovarian status.
Ovarian Status
STH
Active
30.1
ovaries
Inactive
36.2
ovaries
Cystic ovaries
28.4
Luteal cyst
23.39
LTH
33.2
Acidophils
Total
63.3
GT
24.3
Basophils
TH
10.28
Chromo phobs
Total
34.58
2.19
34.1
70.3
18.7
8.26
26.96
2.74
34.3
32.3
62.7
55.39
24.35
30.0
10.4
12.61
34.45
42.11
2.93
2.5
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
24
ABSTRACT
Six adult male camels (Camelus dromedarius) were used during breeding season (Nov. to Feb.) for
quantitative assessment of physical and biochemical attributes of semen. Six observations on each camel
bull were recorded at weekly intervals.
Data revealed considerable animal to animal and week to week variations with regard to seminal
attributes. The percentage of creamy white, milkly white and white colour of seminal ejaculate was
found to be 44, 36 and 20%, respectively, whereas the values for thick viscid, thick and watery
consistency of semen were 50, 39 and 11%, respectively. The average volume/ ejaculate, pH and sperm
concentration was found to be 6.7 0.03 ml, 7.3 0.03 and 566.4 19.4 millions/ml, respectively. The
sperm concentration gradually increased on successive weekly collections. Paradoxically, no motility
was observed.
In seminal plasma, the mean concentration of fructose, glucose, cholesterol, total proteins and citric acid
were found to be 479.5 19.1, 4.41 0.28, 19.46 0.72, 920 114 and 36.26 1.16 mg/dl,
respectively. The mean concentration of sodium and potassium was 158.6 1.6 and 16.68 0.72 meg/L,
respectively. All these constituents except protein and potassium varied significantly among the bulls.
The levels of fructose, cholesterol and citric acid showed a rising trend from 1st to 6th week.
The results provided normal values for camel semen characteristics as a step forward to attempt semen
dilution and preservation for artificial insemination to improve reproduction and production in camel.
However, absence of sperm motility remains an enigma to be investigated.
(Key Words: Camel, Dromedary, Semen Characteristics).
Introduction
India has variable geoclimatic conditions and
the distribution of camel is mainly localized in
arid and semi-arid zone of Rajasthan followed
by Hariana and Gujarat. There are no organized
camel farms in public or private sector, except
the one located in Bikaner. This appears to be
the main hindrance in persuing scientific studies
in this species. While artificial insemination has
revolutionized the breeding programme in other
26
27
28
References
Chen, B.X. and Z.X. Yuen. 1979. Reproductive
pattern of the bactrian Camel. In IFS Int.
Symp. Camels, Sudan. 251 pp.
El-Manna, M.M., M.D. Tingari, and A.K.
Ahmed. 1986. Studies on camel semen. II.
Biochemical characteristics. Anim. Reprod.
Sci., 12:223-231.
Gonalez, C.I.M. and J.P. Neues. 1984.
Biological evaluation and determination of
concentrations of fructose and citric acid in
29
30
No. of
Observations
6
6
6
6
6
6
36
White
0
0
2(3.3%)
0
1(17%)
4(67%)
7(19.5%)
Colour
Milky White
0
0
4(67%)
3(50%)
4(66%)
2(33%)
13(36%)
Creamy White
6)100%)
6(100%)
0
3(50%)
1(17%)
0
16(44%)
Thin Watery
0
0
0
0
1(17%)
3(50%)
4(11.1%)
Consistency
Thick
1(17%)
0
5(83%)
1(17%)
4(66%)
3(50%)
14(38%)
Thick Viscid
5(83%)
6(100%)
1(17%)
5(83%)
1(17%)
18(50%)
ABSTRACT
Split samples from the ejaculates of seven male bactrian camels with proven fertility were tested with
eight different extenders used for farm animals. Semen was frozen in 2.0 ml glass ampoules in liquid
nitrogen vapour and thawed in a water bath of 45-50 C and incubated at 37 C and 4 C to evaluate the
percentage of motile spermatozoa (% mot) percentage of total spermatozoa with intact acrosome (PlA)
and percentage of spermatozoa with intact health acrosome (PlHA) after 0, 1, 3 and 5h of incubation at
37 C. The initial motility of camel semen was 81.86 2.34, and the percentages of intact acrosomes and
intact healthy acrosome were 91.85 2.49 and 76.71 2.90. Differences were significant among the
extenders for all the parameters and the extender SYG-2 was found to be superior to other extenders.
(Key Words: Bactrian Camel, Semen, Cryopreservation, Extenders).
Introduction
Successful artificial insemination with deepfrozen semen in cattle by Pole and Rowson (1952)
gave a new horizon in animal industry resulting in
widespread use of this technique for rapid genetic
improvement, disease control and economic
aspects. This revolutionary biotechnique has since
been used in various domestic species with
variable degrees of success. In Camelidae, it has
not met with the same success as in cattle. Thus
there is a need to evolve suitable semen freezing
and handling techniques consistent with
attainment of an acceptable level of fertility
through Al in this species.
Reports on processing of camel semen using
different extenders, glycerol levels, equilibration
and freezing times are available (Chen et al.
1990). Earlier we have found that extender SYG2 was superior to other extenders and a high
X.X. Zhao, Y.M. Huang, Q.C. Nie, Y.K. Zhang and B.X. Chen
32
Results
The average seminal volume for 105 ejaculates
from seven bull camels was 4.71 1.98 ml with
81.86 2.34% motility and 5.82 0.92x10
sperm/ml. The percentage of intact acrosome and
percentage of intact health acrosome were 91.85
2.49 and 78.71 2.29, respectively.
Summary tables of effect of different extenders on
% MOT immediately post-thaw and at hourly
interval for 5 h and 8 h of incubation at 37 C and
4 C, respectively, post-thaw sperm survival at 37
C and 4 C and absolute index of sperm survival
were presented in Tables 3, 5 and on PIA and
PLHA in Table 4.
Discussion
Effect of Different Extenders on Motility Survival and Acrosomal Integrity of Camel Spermatozoa Frozen
in Ampoules
Acknowledgements
This research was supported partially by the International Foundation for Science, Stockholm
(Grant B/1725-1) and the International Atomic
Energy Agency, Vienna (Research Contract
6301/RB).
33
References
Brans G. and C. Maxwell. 1987. Salaman's
artificial insemination of sheep and goat.
Butterworth, Sydney.
Chen, B.X., X.X. Zhao, and Y.M. Huang. 1990.
Freezing semen and Al in the bactrian camel
(Camelus bactrianus). Paper presented at the
workshop "Is it possible to improve the
reproductive performance of the camel? 10 12 September 1990, Paris, France.
Dong, V. 1980. Reproduction in farm animals.
Agricultural Press, Beijin, China. pp 138-175.
Graham, E.F. and D.S. Schmehl, 1978. Semen
preservation in non-domestic mammals.
Symposium of the Zoological Society of
London, 43:153-157.
Milovaanof, V.K. 1962. In biology of
reproduction. 1st ed, Publ. for Agric. lit. J.
Pamph, Moscow, 451 pp.
Pole, C. and I.E.A. Rowson. 1952. Fertility
capacity of bull spermatozoa after freezing at
-79 C. Nature, 109: 626-627.
Snedecor, G.W. and E.G. Cochram. 1980.
Statistical Methods. 7th ed. Iowa State Univ.
Press. IA. pp 359-364.
San, C., Z.Y. Xuw, and X.S. Su. 1989. Artificial
insemination of bactrian camel. Acta
veterinaria et Zootechia, Supple 2: 50-51 (in
China).
Zhao, X.X., Y.M. Huan, and B.X. Chen.
1991.Artificial insemination and pregnancy
diagnosis in the bactrian camel (Camelus
bactrianus). Report of the meeting of FAO
/IAEA interregional network for improving
the productivity of camelids. Rabat. Morocco.
pp 101-107.
X.X. Zhao, Y.M. Huang, Q.C. Nie, Y.K. Zhang and B.X. Chen
34
SYG-2
Tris-bull extender
SCIDE
Stallion extender
Swine extender
Ram extener
Buck extender
Ingredients
12% sucrose
egg-yolk
glycerol
12% sucrose
egg-yolk
glycerol
penicillin
streptomycin
Tris
Fructose
citric acid monohydrate
distilled water to
egg-yolk
glycerol
penicillin
streptomycin
sodium citrate dihydrate
egg yolk
glycerol
penicillin
streptomycin
distilled water to
11% sucrose
egg-yolk
glycerol
penicillin
streptomycin
80% glucose
egg-yolk
glycerol
Penicillin
streptomycin
Tris
citric acid monohydrate
egg-yolk
glycerol
penicillin
streptomycin
distilled water to
Tris
citric acid monohydrate
egg-yolk
glycerol
penicillin
streptomycin
distilled water to
86.5%
10%
3.5%
73%
20%
7%
1000 u/ml
1000 ug/ml
30.28g
17.0 g
12.50g
100 ml
20%
7%
1000 u/ml
1000 ug/ml
23.2g
200 ml
70 ml
1000 u/ml
1000 ug/ml
1000 ml
82%
13%
5%
1000 u/ml
1000 ug/ml
77%
20%
3%
1000 u/ml
1000 ug/ml
4.361 g
2.388g
18 ml
6 ml
1000 u/ml
1000 ug/ml
100 ml
4.354 g
2.605g
3.0 ml
6 ml
1000 u/ml
1000 ug/ml
100 ml
Reference
Sun et al (1990)
Zhao et al (1991)
Rodriguez et al (1989)
Foote et al ( 1984)
Dong et al (1980)
Dong et al (1980)
Ibid
Effect of Different Extenders on Motility Survival and Acrosomal Integrity of Camel Spermatozoa Frozen
in Ampoules
35
1
2
3
4
Duration
(min)
3
2
1
3
Temp (C)
-5
-75
-175
-196
SY6-1
SY6-2
TRIS
SCDE
Stallion
Swine
Ram
Buck
82.45.3
81.53.2
71.62.7
72.43.6
73.23.7
82.42.9
70.45.1
60.63.7
75.25.3
77.47.1
35.25.2
30.43.7
50.84.6
70.95.4
45.65.3
35.45.7
42.64.1
61.54.9
22.43.9
24.82.6
41.82.7
45.42.7
25.82.6
23.22.7
33.13.2
59.47.3
20.27.5
18.24.5
38.37.2
37.31.7
14.83.2
11.42.8
12.21.9
57.43.3
17.93.2
16.22.7
30.27.4
17.32.9
6.41.3
5.31.7
5.72.3
51.67.2
15.15.5
15.26.4
17.33.9
15.33.1
3.21.1
2.40.8
3.11.1
41.26.7
10.47.2
12.22.7
8.43.1
6.41.3
1.20.7
0.480.5
1.21.1
39.33.2
8.51.7
10.52.6
4.31.4
4.21.3
0.30.1
0.140.2
37.4
61.3
31.2
30.8
38.25
39.9
27.5
24.3
4.120.37
8.470.32
3.250.73
3.10.11
4.060.27
4.310.17
3.150.39
3.130.4
75.9714.95
2677.1
78.94.78
77.833.3
117.114.1
117.914.4
38.557.9
31.56.3
Table 4. Effect of different extenders on precentage of intact and intact healthy acrosomes of
camel spermatozoa frozen in ampoules.
Criteria
% of
intact acrosome of
original incubated at 37C for
0h
1h
3h
5h
Overall mean
% of intact health acrosomes of
original incubated at 37C for
0h
1h
3h
5h
Overall mean
SYG-1
92.7
SYG-2
94.6
TRIS
95.4
SCDE
90.6
Stallion
89.4
Swine
93.1
Rame
88.4
Buck
90.6
79.3
74.3
70.2
58.4
70.6
79.4
86.2
80.4
78.4
68.1
78.3
80.3
78.0
71.6
67.2
52.3
67.3
79.6
77.2
64.5
58.4
50.4
62.6
75.4
78.4
68.7
65.3
58.6
67.8
74.6
80.3
72.3
65.2
52.7
67.8
76.2
72.3
68.5
60.4
49.8
62.8
73.4
68.1
60.2
58.1
43.2
57.4
75.8
65.7
60.4
52.6
44.3
56.5
65.3
62.7
55.6
50.4
58.5
53.1
47.8
40.3
38.2
44.9
50.4
43.2
37.2
30.1
40.2
53.1
47.6
42.3
38.2
45.3
54.2
44.3
36.4
38.2
40.8
48.3
40.2
32.1
28.7
37.3
40.7
37.2
30.2
22.5
32.7
X.X. Zhao, Y.M. Huang, Q.C. Nie, Y.K. Zhang and B.X. Chen
36
Table 5. Effect of different extenders on the percetage of motile spermatozoa sperm survival at 4
C and absolute index of sperm survival of camel semen frozen in ampoules.
Criteria
Sy6-1
Sy6-2
TRIS
SCDE
Extenders
stallion
Swine
Ram
Buck
21.63.3
21.63.2
15.74.2
13.61.9
12.73.7
10.83.1
8.43.4
6.34.2
4.23.2
12.47.7
24.33.8
21.64.7
15.44.1
14.13.7
13.45.3
11.75.2
7.62.9
4.31.7
2.71.6
13.17.4
43.27.8
41.55.3
30.63.7
28.53.1
27.65.4
24.75.4
21.64.9
19.34.4
12.13.2
28.810.5
45.66.9
43.65.5
38.34.4
36043.7
32.73.3
28.63.1
25.43.7
24.34.8
20.65.4
33019.2
27.47.1
24.56.2
17.64.9
15.83.1
15.75.8
13.45.4
11.34.0
10.12.1
7.93.8
16.54.8
22.02.8
21.53.3
12.35.4
11.43.2
11.63.2
7.41.8
5.33.7
3.11.6
2.71.3
11.57.9
16.11.9
108.25.9
16.32.7
104.26.5
56.43.2
254.47.3
56.91.9
266.28.3
32.31.6
130.75.9
24.31.5
91.85.4
ABSTRACT
The dromedary camels were not subject to modern studies as it was the case with other domestic
animals. Nutrition studies were least conducted with camels. The nutrient requirements were
speculated by military observers and desert ventures in most cases.
Data used for this study were mainly generated from studies conducted to determine the botanical and
chemical composition of the diets selected by the dromedary under natural rangeland conditions east of
the Mediterranean where growth pattern and milk production were measured in the Syrian steppe lands.
Moreover, data were generated from digestibility and adaptability studies in Egypt and Saudi Arabia.
Whenever data were not sufficient to determine the nutrient requirements for certain functions, the
requirements of cattle in hot climates were used.
This study lays the basic foundation for the nutrient requirements of the dromedary to perform different
physiological functions.
(Key Words: Dromedary Camels, Nutrition, Requirements, CARDN).
Introduction
Inspite of the fact that the camel ruminates, its
ingested feeds are subject to microbial digestion
and the final metabolic products are similar to
those in true ruminants, it is classified as
pseudoruminant, but this classification is mainly
due to the significant differences in the structure
and function of the digestive system of the
camelids (Tylo-pods) and the true ruminants
(Ruminatiae) (Bhattacharya, 1986).
The rumen (first compartment) of the camel is
characterized by its unique exterior glandular sacs
which secret a mucus-like substance that differs in
composition from rumen liquid. The third
compartment is absent from the honey comb-like
structure which is not distinctively separated from
the fourth compartment. The camel does not have
a gall bladder.
The motility pattern of the compound stomach of
the camel differs from that of the true ruminants.
M. F. Wardeh
38
Data
39
M. F. Wardeh
40
41
References
M. F. Wardeh
42
43
Table 1. Daily energy, protein, Ca, P and vitamin requirements of dromedary camels for
maintenance.
Requirements*
Body Weight
Kg0.75
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
53.2
62.9
72.1
80.9
89.4
97.7
105.7
113.6
121.2
Dry
Matter
(kg)
2.50
2.96
3.39
3.80
4.20
4.59
4.97
5.34
5.70
Metabolizable Energy
(Megajoules)
Digestible
Protein (g)
Ca
(g)
P
(g)
Vit A
(1000U)
23.14
27.36
31.38
35.23
38.91
42.51
46.02
49.41
52.76
144
169
195
218
241
264
285
307
327
8
10
12
14
17
18
20
21
22
7
9
10
11
13
14
15
16
17
9
11
13
15
17
19
21
23
26
M. F. Wardeh
44
Table 2. Daily energy, protein, Ca, P and vitamin requirements of dromedary camels for
pregnancy.
Body Weight
kg0.75
Dry
Matter
(kg)
Requirements*
Metabolizable
Digestible Protein (g)
Energy
(Megajoules)
Ca
(g)
P
(g)
Vit A
(1000U)
4.29
4.81
5.31
5.80
6.29
6.75
7.20
37.66
40.18
48.53
50.67
55.23
59.29
63.30
234
263
290
317
343
368
393
16
21
23
26
29
31
34
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
25
27
30
34
38
42
46
5.36
6.10
6.64
7.26
7.86
8.44
9.00
45.21
52.84
58.37
63.76
69.04
74.14
76.03
292
328
363
396
429
462
492
26
29
31
34
36
39
42
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
38
42
46
50
53
57
kg0.75
72.1
80.9
89.4
97.7
105.7
113.6
121.2
Dry matter
(kg)
6.55
7.00
7.56
7.90
8.33
8.74
9.15
Requirements*
Metabolizable Energy
(Megajoules)
60.25
64.56
69.62
72.72
76.65
80.46
84.31
Digestible Protein
(g)
470
493
516
539
560
582
602
Ca
(g)
26
28
31
32
34
35
36
P (g)
20
21
23
24
25
26
27
Vit A
(1000U)
13
15
17
19
21
23
26
45
Table 4. Daily energy, protein, Ca, P and vitamin requirements of dromedary camels for growth.
kg
kg 0.75
100
31.6
150
42.9
200
53.2
250
62.9
300
72.1
350
80.9
400
89.4
450
97.7
500
105.7
Gain/day
(g)
250
500
750
250
500
750
250
500
750
250
500
750
250
500
750
250
500
750
1000
250
500
750
1000
250
500
750
1000
250
500
750
1000
DM
(kg)
2.25
2.75
2.96
2.90
3.46
3.93
3.50
4.12
4.64
4.49
5.19
5.78
5.10
5.86
6.50
5.68
6.50
6.85
8.43
6.26
7.15
8.61
9.23
6.82
7.73
9.35
10.02
7.36
8.38
10.08
10.79
Requirements*
ME **
ME
Mjoules
(Mjoules)
9.20
20.75
10.04
27.70
11.72
34.69
9.20
26.69
3.46
35.06
10.88
42.80
9.20
32.26
9.20
41.42
10.04
50.54
8.37
37.57
9.20
47.78
10.04
57.99
8.37
42.63
9.20
53.93
10.04
65.23
8.37
47.57
9.20
59.91
9.20
74.56
10.04
84.68
8.37
52.34
8.37
65.81
9.20
79.24
10.04
92.68
8.37
57.03
8.37
71.55
9.20
86.06
10.04
100.58
8.37
61.59
9.20
77.19
9.20
92.80
10.04
108.37
DP
(g)
195
249
304
244
298
353
285
340
394
318
373
427
345
400
454
365
420
474
528
378
433
488
542
385
440
494
549
386
440
495
550
Ca
(g)
10
15
20
12
16
21
11
16
21
12
16
22
15
19
23
16
20
25
30
16
21
26
31
18
22
26
29
19
23
27
30
P
(g)
7
9
11
9
10
13
91
12
15
10
14
17
11
14
18
14
16
18
21
15
18
21
24
17
20
23
26
18
21
24
27
Vit A
(1000U)
6
6
6
8
9
9
1
12
13
12
13
14
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
15
17
18
19
16
17
19
20
17
19
21
23
Calculation of the energy and protein requirements took into consideration the composition of the
growth and the rate of gain of the animal.
** ME concentration in the dry matter.
The Arab Center for the Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands
CARDN, P. O. Box 2440, Damascus, Syria
ABSTRACT
Five female dromedary camels were fasted for four days to estimate the fasting heat production and then
fed three different levels of feeding during three successive periods. The dromedaries received 1 kg of
barley grains and 5 kg of wheat straw, in the first period (P1), twice and four times the amount consumed
in P1 during the second (P2) and the third period (P3), respectively. Digestive trails were conducted and
heat production of animals was estimated by indirect calorimetry during each period. All the feed offered
were consumed except about 25% of the straw in P3. Energy digestibility of the ration averaged 61% for
the three periods and was slightly higher in the third period due to straw refusals. Fasting heat production
averaged 52 kcal/kgW0.75 and all the dromedaries showed an increase in heat production with respect to
level of feeding. Retained energy was regressed against metabolizable energy (ME) intake and the
energy requirements for maintenance (MEm, zero energy gain) was estimated to average 73 kcal/kgW
0.75
. However, different estimates of the efficiency of utilization of ME above (kf) and below (km)
maintenance were obtained. Indicating that the dromedaries utilized ME below maintenance with an
efficiency of 73%, comparable to sheep and above MEm with an efficiency of 61%, better than sheep.
When the data of FHP were considered in the regression, different values of km were obtained
suggesting that the linearity of response below MEm is not obvious and at least two different slopes
could be obtained.
(Key Words: Dromedary, Digestibility, Heat Production, Maintenance, Efficiency, CARDN).
Introduction
The dromedary camel has a remarkable ability to
exploit the scanty feed and water in its natural
habitat. Long distances are covered in search of
feed and water. In extreme cases of limited natural
vegetation, the camel not only decreases its feed
intake, but also reduces its metabolic rate
(Dahlborn et al. 1992). In these circumstances,
production is adjusted to energy intake which, in
part, explains the supposed poor production of the
47
48
49
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial
support of this work by the Arab Center for the
Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands (ACSAD)
and the Institute Agronomique et Veterinaire
Hassan II (IAVHII). They also thank all the
technicians of the Physiology Department for their
care and good handling of the dromedaries.
References
ARC. 1980. The Nutrient Requirements of
Ruminant Livestock. Agricultural Research
Center, Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux.
Blaxter, K.L. 1974. Metabolizable energy and
feeding systems for ruminants. In: Proc.7th
Nutr.Conf. Feed Manufacturers. (eds. Swan
and D. Lewis). PP 3-25. Betterworths,
London.
Blaxter, K. I., and F.W. Wainman. 1964. The
utilization of energy of different rations by
sheep and cattle for maintenance and for
fattening. J. Agric. Sci., 63:113.
Brouwer, E. 1965. Report of sub-committee on
Constants
and
Factors.
In:
Energy
Metablolism of Farm Animals. Proc. the 3rd
Symp. K. L. Blaxter (ed.). K.L. Academic
Press. London.
Dahlborn, K., S. Benlamlih, F.R. Zine , A H.
Guerouali, H.J. Hossaini, and M. Oukessou.
1992. Food deprivation and refeeding in the
camel. The American Physiological Society.
262 (Regulatory Integrative Comp). Physiol.,
31: R1000-R1005.
Garrett, W.N., C. L. Ferrell, and P.V. Rattray.
1976. In Energy Metabolism of Farm Animals,
Proc. 7th Symp. Ed. M. Vermorel. Publ. EAAP
No: 19, G. de Bussac. pp 315-318.
Guerouali, A. 1990. Studies on digestion and
metabolism during pregnancy and lactation in
prolific sheep: Dman ewes. PhD thesis, Dept
of Anim Sci. CSU, fort Collins. CO 80523.
50
a
b
FHP
P1
P2
P3
0
0
0
1
0.5
50
2
1
50
4
2
50
Vitamins and mineral supplements were composed of 18% calcium, 15% Sodium Chloride, 12%
Phosphorus, 2% Magnesium, 1% Sulfur, 1.5% Trace Elements, 0.5 Vitamins and 50%
excipient.
On fresh matter basis, with 90% dry matter in the ration.
51
Table 2. Body weight, feed energy intake and digestibility variation with the level of feeding
received by animals.
Periods of study
Body weight
(kg)
Mean a SD b
Gross energy intake (kcal/day)
Mean SD
Energy digestibility (%)
Mean SD
FHP
P1
P2
P3
299.00 30.70
308.40 27.75
316.70 28.54
334.20 30.70
5648 225
11427 189
21102 1523
51.01 4.12
60.88 3.45
62.82 3.09
a the mean for the data of five dromedaries used in the study.
b the standard deviation.
Table 3. Metabolizable energy intake and total heat production variation with the level of feeding.
Periods of study
Metabolizable energy intake (kcal/kg
Mean a SD b
Total heat production (kcal/kg 0.75)
Mean SD
Retained energy (kcal/kg 0.75)
Mean SD
a
b
FHP
0.75
P1
P2
P3
).
0
0
38.68 4.62
76.63 8.47
139.54 11.52
51.01 3.55
64.92 6.21
71.59 8.11
92.22 10.56
-51.01 3.55
-26.24 4.97
5.04 4.74
47.32 9.83
the mean for the data of five dromedaries used in the study.
the standard deviation.
Table 4. Linear regression of retained energy against metabolizable energy at different level
of feeding.
Data Considered
Regression Equation
RE=.70ME-51.37
RE=.73ME-52.37
RE=.65ME-51.69
RE=69ME-50.39
RE=76ME-54.22
RE=.61ME-40.73
----
Determination
Coefficient (R2)
.97
.95
.89
.94
.86
.89
----
MEm kcal/MBS a
73.38
71.74
79.52
73.03
71.34
66.77
72.63 3.76
maintenance energy requirements expressed in kcal per metabolic body size, (kg 0.75).
1,2,4,6 & 7
ABSTRACT
In vivo digestibility trials with camels were carried out in order to assess the nutritional characteristics of
wheat straw (S), meadow hay (H) and their mixture in the ratio of 70:30 (H/S). The average daily food
intake was 44.9 g DM/kg lw 0.75 (916g DM/100 kg lw), 32 g DM/kg lw 0.75 (654 g DM/100 kg lw) and
44.2 g DM/kg lw 0.75 (902 g DM/100 kg Iw) for the H, S and H/S feeds, respectively. Water voluntary
intake was higher when hay was employed (about 14 litres vs 10 litres for the straw). However, similar
results were obtained when water intake was related to dry matter (about 2.6 l/kg DM). Apparent
digestibilities of DM, OM and CP were 55.95, 58.18 and 53.04% for meadow hay, and 44.81, 48.02 and
practically zero for straw, while intermediate values were obtained for the mixture of the two roughages.
CF, NDF and ADF digestibilities were 59.57, 52.45 and 50.95% (H), 57.33, 53.35 and 49.96% (S), and
55.45, 52.23 and 47.27% (H/S).
Energy digestibility was 57.21% (H), 46.57% (S) and 54.03 (H/S) and the nutritive values expressed in
DE and ME (Mj/kg DM) were 10 and 8.62 for the meadow hay and 8.08 and 6.9 for the wheat straw.
(Key Words: Dromedary, Camel, Feed Intake, Digestibility).
Introduction
Studies on digestion have provided an important
contribution to the knowledge of the anatomy
and histology of the gastrointestinal tract of the
camelidae (Dougbag and Berg, 1980; Hifney et
al. 1985; Vallenas and Stevens, 1971).
Subsequently, more precise research on
digestive physiology has advanced that
knowledge (Englehardt et al. 1984).
Studies on the practical aspects of nutrition have
been generally concerned with feeding
behaviour and comparative adaptations to
nutritional stresses. Although attempts made to
evaluate feed intake and digestibility of nutrients
53
Feed Intake and Digestibility in Camels Fed Wheat Straw and Meadow Hay
54
References
Andrieu, J. C. Demarquilly, and D. Sauvant,
1988. Tables de la valeur nutritive des
aliments. In: Alimentation des bovins, ovins
et caprins, Ed. TNRA, Paris.
Commissione Valutazione Alimenti (A.S.P.A.)
1980. Valutazione degli alimenti di interesse
55
Feed Intake and Digestibility in Camels Fed Wheat Straw and Meadow Hay
56
Wheat Straw
89.09
91.43
3.56
1.02
44.68
42.17
8.57
82.28
57.68
44.49
24.6
9.17
17.26
Meadow
87.33
91.36
7.29
1.58
36.95
45.54
8.64
67.07
44.28
34.17
22.79
7.18
17.45
Table 2. Daily dry matter intake and water consumption (mean + s.d.) of camel offered low quality
roughages.
Item
Wheat straw 1
Meadow hay
Meadow hay + Wheat Straw
No. of animals
D.M.I.g.
G/100 kg 1w
G/Kg1w0.75
Water intake
Ml/kg 1w0.82
1 Kg D.M.I
4
3774 + 125
654 + 33
32.0 1.0
9.9 1.7
51.28 9.4
2.5 0.48
4
5212 + 479
902 77
44.2 3.6
14.0 3.9
75.93 20.59
2.65 0.52
4
44.81 1.72
48.02 2.03
-0.90 7.41
57.33.2.06
53.35 1.76
49096 1.90
60.80 1.76
61.35 2.46
46.57 2.26
4
52.59 0.86
55.29 0.87
41.28 4.69
55.45 0.66
52.23 1.01
47.27 1.43
56.45 1.71
62.06 1.83
54.03 1.00
4
65293 + 435
916 71
44.9 3.2
13.7 4.2
74.2 21.74
2.55 0.59
Meadow hay
4
55.95 1.66
58.18 V 2.06
53.04 2.32
59.57 2.36
52.45 2.57
50.95 2.53
61.7 2.44
55.42 3.99
57.21 2.08
g/kg DM
g/kg DM
g/kg DM
Mj/kg DM
Mj/kg DM
Mj/kg DM
kg DM
Meadow hay
529.5
506.5
26.5
9.44
8.12
4.67
0.66
Meadow hay
559.1
531.5
38.7
10.00
8.62
5.01
0.70
ABSTRACT
Two serum transferases and four electrolytes were studied in 56 dromedary camels in eight equal-sized
groups (four male groups based on physiological status). Overall means and standard deviations were:
AST 47.8 2.58 lU/l, AST: 4.3 0.12 lU/;, Na: 178.4 2.86 mEq/l, K; 5.41 0.11 mEq/l; Cl: 175.80
2.02 mEq/l; and Ca: 5.64 0.10 mEq/l. Na was higher (p<0.05) in females than in males. There were no
differences for any parameter among male age groups. Heifers had higher (P<0.05) AST levels than
pregnant dry and non-pregnant dry females. Non-pregnant dry females had higher (P<0.05) K levels than
non-pregnant lactating females. Pregnancy does not appear to affect AST in dry females but serum K
levels are affected by lactation.
(Key Words: Dromedary Camel, Blood Biochemistry).
Introduction
AST and AlT are found in the tissue and body
fluids of all the domestic animals (Cornelius et al.
1959). ln man and dogs, serum level of the two
transferases are routinely used as an index of liver
function (Wroblewski and la Due, 1956;
Cornelius, 1957). On the other hand, serum
electrolytes e.g. Na, K, Ca and Cl take part in
some reactions which are critical to life (Church,
1988). It is, therefore, imperative that the
concentration of these electrolytes be maintained
within relatively narrow limits (Bone, 1988). An
unusual fluctuation in them is almost invariably
indicative of an abnormal condition (Coles, 1967).
The present study was undertaken to determine
the normal values of six parameters in
one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) and
the extent to which these are affected by sex, age
in males and lactation and/or pregnancy in
females.
Serum Enzymes
Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and Alanine
aminotransferase (AlT) expressed in lU per liter,
were determined by calorimetric method using
commercial Merckotest (E. Merck and F.R.
Darmstad, Germany) Kits. Absorbance was read
at a wavelength of 546 nm with the help of
spectronic-21 (Baush and lomb, USA).
Serum Electrodes
Serum level of sodium (Na) and potassium (K)
were determined by the Corning 480 flame
photometer. These values were expressed in mEq
per l.
Serum chloride (Cl) in mEq per l was determined
by titration employing a commercial Merckotest
Kit.
Calcium (Ca) level of serum in mEq per l was
estimated by using a commercial Merckotest Kit.
The absorbance was read in spectronic-21 at a
wavelength of 750 nm.
Statistical Analysis
Grand means, group means and their standard
error, and ranges were calculated for each
parameter separately. ln addition, effect of sex was
compared by the student "t" test, the four age
groups among males and four lactating and/or
pregnancy states in females were tested by one
analysis of variance. Significantly, different group
means were compared by Duncan's multiple
range test (Steel and Torrie, 1984). All
computations were done using MSTAT program.
58
59
References
Al-Ali, A.K., H.A. Husayni and D.M. Power.
1988. A comprehensive biochemical analysis
of the blood of the camel (Camelus
60
61
K meq/L
Cl meq/L
Ca meq/L
5.410.11
4.107.65
175.802.26
129.0204.0
5.640.10
3.757.40
5.300.14
5.530.17
175.283.42
178.403.03
5.660.08
5.620.14
5.450.20
5.180.44
5.430.23
5.120.19
173.755.94
185.205.70
171.838.30
170.367.64
6.240.27
5.420.22
5.450.27
5.510.38
5.510.34 b
6.260.28
5.520.36 b
4.830.16 b
178.204.39
171.798.32
171.884.78
183.716.10
5.350.35
5.320.70
5.560.27
6.060.33
Different letters in a column indicate significant differences between the means listed therein: at 5
percent level.
iu/l = international unit per liter. meq = mill equivalent per liter.
ABSTRACT
Seasonal variations in hematological and serum biochemical parameters were studied in 28 racing
camels. Blood samples were collected during winter (January) and summer (July/August) and analyzed
for hematological parameters. Leukocyte count, erythrocyte count and haemoglobin levels did not differ
significantly during different seasons, but hematocrit values were significantly higher (P<0.01) during
summer due to increased mean corpuscular volume of erythrocytes. Total proteins, albumin, creatine
kinase and creatine values were similar (P<0.01) during summer and winter. However, statistically
significant (P<0.01) seasonal variations were observed in serum levels of glutamate oxaloacetate
transaminase (GOT), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and iron. GOT, BUN
and iron levels were higher in winter while LDH was higher in summer.
(Key Words: Dromedary Camel, Blood Biochemistry).
Introduction
Camel racing is an important sport in this region
and its popularity has increased tremendously over
the last decades, particularly in the Arabian
Peninsula.
Some studies dealing with hematology and serum
biochemistry of the camel have previously been
reported (Soni and Aggarwala, 1958; Banerjeeet
et al. 1962; Bhattacharjee and Banerjee, 1962;
Lakhotia et al. 1964; Soliman and Shaker, 1967;
Abdelgadir et al. 1984a,b; Higgins and Kock,
1986). However, camels included in these studies
were raised under desert range conditions where
there is scarcity of feed and water. Nutrition and
management of racing camels were absolutely
different, and these animals were not only offered
24 hour drinking water but were also provided
rich nutrition including specially formulated
concentrate and green fodder. Furthermore, these
animals were closely monitored for health and
disease diagnosis.
63
Acknowledgements
The work was sponsored by H.H. Sheik Hamdan
Bin Zayed Al-Nhayan. Authors are highly
thankful to Mr. Mustajab Haider and Mr. Rashed
Ahmed for their excellent technical assistance.
References
Abdelgadir, S.E., A.G.A. Wahbi and O.F. Idris.
1984a. Some blood and plasma constituents of
the camel. In: The Camelid an All-Purpose
Animal, Vol. 1. W. R. Cockrill, (ed.).
Scandinavian lnsititute of African Studies,
Uppsalla, pp 438-443.
Adbelgadir, S.E., A.G.A. Wahbi and O.F. Idris.
1984b. A note on the hematology of adult
Sudanese dromedaries. In: The Camelid An
All-Purpose Animal Vol. 1 W. R. Cockrill.
(ed.). Scandinavian Institute of African
Studies. Uppsala. pp 444 - 448.
Banerjee, S., R.C. Bhattacharjee and T.I. Singh.
1962. Hematological studies in the normal
adult Indian camel (Camelus dromedarius).
Amer. J. Physiol., 203: 1185-1187.
Bhattacharjee, R.C. and S. Banerjee. 1962.
Biochemical studies on Indian camel (Camelus
64
65
Winter
Range
7.0 - 15.2
6.37 - 8.83
10.3 - 14.1
21.7 - 32.0
33.8 - 37.3
Leukocytes x 10/l
Erythrocytes x 10/l
Haemoglobin g/dl
Hematocrit %
Mean corpuscular volume fl
Summer
Means + S.D
11.5 + 2.3
7.57 + 0.59
12.3 + 1.0
26.5 + 2.7
34.9 + 1.1
Range
7.5 - 17.9
6.25 - 9.23
9.7 -15.8
20.4 - 39.8
34.6 - 45.6
Means + S.D
11.0 + 2.5
7.38 + 0.89
12.2 + 1.6
29.6 + 5.5
39.9 + 3.3
Table 2. Means s.d. and ranges of serum biochemical parameters in racing camels.
Parameters
Total proteins d/dl
Albumin g/dl
Glutamate oxalo acetate
Creatine kinase U/l
Lactate dehydrogenase U/l
Blood urea nitrogen mg/dl
Creatinine mg/dl
Iron ug.dl
Range
5.82 - 6.92
3.79 - 4.55
62 - 128
37 - 148
232 - 456
9 - 33
1.61 - 2.17
66 - 165
Winter
Means + S.D
6.33 0.27
4.22 0.19
80 15
72 25
321 61
20 5
1.90 0.15
111 21
Range
5.73 + 7.03
3.87 4.43
5489
40103
244543
630
1.492.29
69140
Summer
Means + S.D
6.36 0.28
4.14 0.14
71 8
71 19
370 71
15 7
1.87 0.23
98 18
ABSTRACT
Water balance was investigated in heat stressed dremdary camels during normohydration, dehydration
and after rehydration. Four camels were daily subject to high temperature (42C) in a climatic chamber,
and fed 2.5 kg of barley per day and wheat straw ad libitum. The amounts of consumed feed and water
were measured. Total body water was determined using tritiated water (TOH). During the initial heat
exposure, total body water increased by 13.5% while during a period of two weeks of water
deprivation, body water loss ranged from 12.5 to 21.9%. Upon rehydration water consumption
exceeded water loss. 60-90% of the total volume of water intake was consumed within the first 10
minutes. After rehydration, the labelled water in blood and rumen fluid achieved comparable
concentrations within 4 and 6 after dinking.
(Key Words: Dromedary Camels, Water balance, Heat stress, Physiology).
Introduction
In any hot and arid region, water is required by
endotherms for evaporative cooling (Macfarlane,
1964). However, the camel has a legendary
reputation to withstand relatively long periods of
water deprivation under hot conditions and is
reputed to be able to withstand a water loss
equivalent to 25% of body weight. The camel has
a very large drinking capacity, not to store up
water for future needs, but to replenish water
already lost via urine, feces, and evaporation.
Upon rehydration, it is able to restore its weightloss very precisely, which has led to the
conclusion that the camel has a well-developed
water satiety mechanism (Gauthier-Pilters and
Dagg, 1981; Schmidt-Nielsen, 1964). However,
studies based on body weight changes may or
may not reflect body water fluctuations. This
study involved direct measurements of total body
water using tritiated water in order to investigate
Results
Total Body Water Changes
During the initial heat exposure, total body water
increased by 0.6 13.5%. (Table 1). The loss in
67
Discussion
The dilution of a known quantity of marker such
as TOH distributed throughout body fluids
measures the total body water content. Most
workers, when comparing TOH space with actual
water space, found that TOH space overestimated
the true body water volume by 16% in sheep
(Russel et al. 1982) and 15% in cattle (Carnegie
and Tulloh, 1968). The reasons for this difference
was not fully identified, but were more apparent
under field than laboratory conditions, and would
be related in part to the incorporation of tritium
into organic molecules and in part to its dilution
with atmospheric water vapor especially when
ambient humidity was high (Robert Shaw, 1982).
An overestimate of TBW would also lead to an
over estimate of water turnover. Overestimation
obtained in this study was, with one exception,
very small since there was, a close similarity
between water turnover calculated by the rate of
68
References
Bost, J. 1964. Rgulatgion pripherique de la soif
chez les petits ruminants. Mcanisme de la
satit. J. Physiol, Paris, Tome, 56 (3) :302303.
Carnegie, A. B. and Tulloh. 1968. The in vivo
determination of bodywater space in cattle
using tritium dilution technique. Proc. Aust.
Soc. Anim. Prod., 7: 308.
Gauthier-Pilters, and A.I. Dagg. 1981. The
Camel. Chicago, U. of Chicago Press.
Holleman, D. F. , R. G. White and J. R. Luick.
1982. Application of the isotopic water
method for measuring total body water body
composition and body water turnover. In: Use
of TOH in studies of production and
adaptation in ruminants. IAEA, Vienna.
Hoppe, R., R.N.B. Kay and G.M.O. Maloiy.
1975. The rumen as a reservoir during
dehydration and rehydration in the camel.
Physiological Society, Sept. 76-77.
Macfarlane, W.V. 1964. Terrestrial animals in dry
heat. Ungulates. In: Handbook of Physiology,
Section 4, Adaptation to the environment. Ed.
D.B. Dill, Washington, D.C., Am. Physiol.
Soc., pp 509-539.
Macfarlane, W.V. and B. Howard. 1970. Water in
the physiological ecology of ruminants. In:
The physiology of digestion and metabolism
in the ruminant. A.T. Phillipson. (ed.).
Aberdeen, Scotland, Oriel Press, pp 362-374.
Olsen, J.D. 1979. Method for repeated or
prolonged
rumen
infusion
without
69
Table 1. The effect of repeated heat exposure on total body water of dromedary camels.
Camel No.
1
2
3
4
% Change
+0.6
+2.9
+13.5
+10.4
Table 2. Total body water estimated by TOH space in dromedary camels (L).
Camel No.
1
2
3
4
Dehydration
At start
183.4
186.5
181.2
172.3
At end
146
145.6
143.3
136.6
Artificial Environment
223.6 (217.6)
211.0 (206.8)
228.8 (224.2)
209.0 (205.7)
70
ABSTRACT
Biochemical changes during fasting were studied in serum of camelids (dromedary camel, llama) and
ruminants (sheep, steers). Camels maintained low levels of hydroxybutyrate (BHB) and high levels of
glucose, but showed some increased levels of non esterified fatty acid (NEFA) and urea when fasting.
Sheep and steers showed a rise in serum BHB and much higher increases of NEFA than camels and
llarnas. Sheep showed decreased serum glucose. The llama showed some increase in BHB but NEFA
was lower than the other three species. These results indicate that camelids have a unique ability to
control lipolytic and glucoenoegenic activity to prevent or postpone the pathological state of ketosis.
Understanding and manipulation of these metabolic mechanisms in cattle and sheep could have great
benefit to the livestock industry.
(Key Words: Camelids, Ruminants, Glucose requirements).
Introduction
Through evolution, camelids i.e. camels (Camelus
spp) and South American camelids (llamas,
alpacas, guanacos and vicuna) have specifically
adapted to extreme environments. Camels are
known to be able to fast for long periods and to
use dietary energy very efficiently. Their maintenance energy requirement has been found to be as
low as 314 KJ/kg0.75 (Guerouali and Filali, 1992).
This is approximately two thirds of the
requirement of beef cattle (Bos taurus) (NRC,
1985). Similarly, the maintenance requirement of
digestible energy in the llama (Llama glama) was
reported to be 37% lower than in sheep (Johnson,
1989).
The efficiency and fasting ability of camelids can
be explained in part, by behavioural and
physiological characteristics (Wilson, 1984) but
Results
Fasting did not cause any significant change in
BHB concentrations in camels, whereas marked
increases (p < 0.05) were found with the sheep
and steers (Fig. 1). In all species NEFA increased
(p < 0.05) with fasting, however much larger
increase 8 were seen in the sheep and steers than
in the camelids (Fig. 2). In camels serum glucose
72
Discussion
In camels, during fasting total ketone bodies have
been previously reported to increase (Uro, 1987)
or remain unchanged (Mirgani, 1982) during
fasting, as observed in this study. It has been
suggested that ketones have a very low entry rate
in camels (Chandrasena et al. 1979) and kinetic
studies would be required to confirm this.
The low levels of BHB observed in these studies
during fasting, may indicate that camelids can
supply sufficient carbon (C4) metabolites for
maintenance of the TCA cycle or alternatively that
they require less C4 metabolites or use different
metabolites than ruminants.
Other factors which may contribute to maintaining
the TCA-cycle and/or the high blood glucose
levels include; conversion of monocarboxylic
fatty acids; mobilised from depot fats; to
dicarboxylicacids by Q-oxidation is reported by
Verkade et al (1932), thus yielding succinic acid
(4-carbon unit) through lA-oxidation; oxidation of
acetoacetate and BHB by 3-ketoacid-CoA
transferase activity to produce succinate;
acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase activity to produce
acetyl-CoA.; conversion of acetone to pyruvate;
enzyme activity which provides NADPH i.e.
acetyl-CoA
carboxylase
in
isocitrate
dehydrogenase pathway. The increased level of
urea during fasting indicates amino acid
breakdown with supply of oxaloacetate precursors
and possible gluconeogenesis. However since
serum urea concentration does not indicate the
extent of lean tissue degradation and subsequent
gluconeogenesis, studies on nitrogen excretion in
fasting camelids are required. In camelids the
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by His Highness
Shaikh Mohammed bin Rasid A1 Maktoum,
Dubai, U.A.E., the Scottish Office Agriculture and
Fisheries Department, U.K. and the Rowett
Research Institute, Aberdeen, UK.
We are grateful for the help from Professor K. W.
J. Wahle and Dr. D. Hirst.
References
Chandrasena, L.G., B. Emmanuel, D.W. Hamar,
and B. R. Howard. 1979. A comparative study
of ketone body metabolism between camel
(Camelus dromdarius) and the sheep (Ovis
73
74
75
in Camels
L. S. Fahmy1, E. A. Berbish2, H.M. Teleb3 and A.A. Hegazy4
1
Dept. of Surgery, Anaesthesiology & Radiology, 2 Dept. of Nutrition and Clinical Nutrition,
3&4
Dept. of Pathology, Faculty of Vet. Medicine, Cairo University
ABSTRACT
The effect of oral zinc supplementation (0.5 and 1.0 g zinc oxide/camel/day) on wound healing in camels
was studied on groups,each consisted of two camels. In the first group, camels were fed basal ration
(green barseem, hay and millets). In the other two groups, the camels were fed the basal ration +0.3g
ZnO/ camel/day or basal ration +1.0g ZnO/camel/day for 45 days. Twelve wounds were induced in
shoulder and thigh regions. Blood samples were collected just before the experiment and after 15 and 30
days of wound induction. Wound biopsy was done his to pathologically examined.
Blood analysis revealed that oral zinc supplementation did not affect Ca, Zn and Cu concentration in
blood plasma throughout the experimental period. Microscopical examination showed that dietary zinc
supplementation enhanced healing process of wounds. It was clear that ZnO at a level of 1.0g/camel/day
was better than the level of 0.5g ZnO/camel /day.
(Key Words: Dromedary Camel, Nutrition, Zn, Wound Healing).
Introduction
Variations in wound healing seem to be the result
of differences in location, severity of wound and
the extent of injury to tissues. Also, wound
healing is affected by age, nutritional status and
general state of health of animal and its body
reserves and resources for the regeneration of
tissue (Blood and Virginia, 1988). Malnutrition
and hypoproteinemia adversely affect wound
healing as the repair stage of healing is prolonged
with a decreased number and activity of
fibroblasts as well as maturation of collagen.
It had been reported that wound healing of zinc
deficient animals was delayed severely. The exact
mode of action of zinc in tissue repair is unknown,
but the role of zinc in normal protein synthesis
provides a clue to the relationship (Church and
Pond, 1988). The effect of zinc deprivation may
be due to the importance of zinc for effective
77
78
with zinc
(muscle) translocated zinc to
unsaturated tissues (livers, pancreas and kidneys)
(Pekas, 1968).
Histopathological examination of wounds on the
7th day post-surgery in camels of the control
group I showed a mild epithelial proliferation at
the edges of the wound.The wound was partially
filled at its base with granulation tissue while the
superficial parts contained blood clot invaded with
round cells and scarce granulation tissue at the
edges. Camels of group II showed that the wound
gap was almost filled with granulation tissue while
superficial parts of very thin layer of blood clot
with incomplete epithelization were formed. The
surrounding wound tissue appeared hyperemic
and edematous. Wounds of camels of group III
were characterized by its filling with granulation
tissue and incomplete epithelization under the
skin with mild edema of the surrounding tissue.
Shabaan (1979) reported that wound gap was
filled with fibrous tissue at the depth of the
wounds while superficial part consisted of
granulation tissue of 6 day old surgery wounds in
camels when the lips of wounds were sutured;
while at 8 day old surgery there was regenerated
epidermis from both sides of wounds and was
proliferated in sloping manner and covered and
completely wound surfaces. Mature collagen
invaded the scar towards the surface leading to
complete union of operated wounds.
On the 14th day post-surgery, control camels
showed that the base of the wound was filled with
granulation tissue, contained collagen fibres while
the superficial parts consisted of granulation tissue
containing areas of hyalinized blood clot. Camels
of group II showed presence of granulation tissue
filling the wound gap. The superficial parts of
granulation tissue were still containing blood clot
and epithelial proliferation, was noticed. Camels
of group III showed that wound gap was filled
with granulation tissue. At the base of the wound
fibroblast cells, blood capillaries and collagen
fibers were seen. There was also a very thin
complete epithelial union. Purohit and Chouban
(1992) found that collagen content was increased
from day 4 to 20 in healing stages of camels. On
the 21st day post -surgery control animals showed
References
A.O.A.C. 1980. Official Methods of Analysis,
13th ed, Washington, USA.
Bettger, W.J., P.G. Reeves, J.E. Savages and B.L.
O'Dell. 1980. Interaction of zinc and vitamin
E in the chick. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med.,163:
432.
Blood, D.C. and P.S. Virginia. 1988. Baillieres
Comprehensive
Veterinary
Dictionary.
Bailliere-Tindall.
Bremner, I., B.W. Young and C.F. Mills. 1976.
Protection effect of zinc supplementation
against copper toxicosis in sheep. Br. J. Nutr.,
36: 551.
Church, D.C. and W.G. Pond. 1988. Basic
Animal Nutrition and Feeding. John Wiley and
Sons, U.S.A.
Dufty, J.A. J. B. Bingley and L.Y. Cove. 1977.
The plasma zinc concentration of nonpregnant, pregnant and parturient Hereford
cattle. Aust. Vet. J., 53: 519-522.
79
80
DM %
17.0
91.3
89.1
CP%
1.7
10.37
11.2
Ash%
2.02
12.8
1.98
Ca mg%
1.31
0.66
0.081
Zn ppm
38.0
68.0
56.0
Ca
9.195
Zn
0.0674
Cu
0.0602
8.186
0.0782
0.0782
0.0799
0.0731
7.999
9.535
8.651
0.0846
0.0701
0.0951
0.731
0.0662
0.0639
10.09
Cu ppm
17.1
47.0
30.0
ABSTRACT
The morphology and the vasculature of the kidney of the dromedary was described. Information
obtained from gross dissection of embalmed camel kidneys was correlated with latex and Batson's
solution injected vascular and in excretory casts. The functional significance of the renal pelvis was discussed.
(Key Words: Dromedary, Camel, Kidney, Anatomy).
Introduction
Results
The paired kidneys of dromedary camel are
located retroperitoneally inside the abdominal
cavity; the right kidney being somewhat located
more cranially than the corresponding left. They
are bean-shaped with smooth surfaces with grey
or blue coloration. The right kidney is situated
ventral to the transverse processes of the first
lumbar vertebrae. It measures about 17 cm in
82
Discussion
Presence of recesses in the renal pelvis of the
camel kidney was the most important anatomical
characteristic feature which was designated as
specialized fornices in sheep and dog (Pfeiffer,
1968) . These structures should not, however, be
confused with the calices of the multipapillated
kidney of the ox and pig. The camel, similar to the
horse, sheep, goat and dog possesses a renal
crest-type kidney.
These recesses had the
appearance of flowers with many petals and a
complicated arrangement. The angioarchitecture
of the camel kidney was similar to that of the dog
(Evans and Christensen, 1979). Examination of
the renal pelvis revealed that these recesses
extended in the medullar zone of the kidney where
the capillaries were in close association with the
lining epithelium. At the arch of the specialized
recess a dense plexus of capillaries intermingling
with elastic nets that apparently protecting the
blood vessels were discernible. The functional
significance of these recesses is not clearly
understood. Pfeiffer (1968) reported a good
References
Abdalla, M. 1973. Anatomical study of the urinary
system of the camel. M.V. Sci. Khartoum
University, Sudan.
Abdallah, M.A. and O. Abdallah. 1979.
Morphometric observations on the kidney of
the camel. J. Anat., 129 (1): 45-50.
Barone, R. 1978. Anatomie comparee des
mammiferes domestiques. Tome lll (splanchonologie). ascicule ll: 5-15. Laboratoire
d'Anatomie, Ecole Nationale veterinaire,
Lyon.
Bourdelle, E.T. and C. Bressou. 1949. Anatomie
Regionale des Animaux Domestiques. Tome l,
Equides. Librairie J.B. Bailliere et Fils, Paris.
Bourdelle E.T. and C. Bressou. 1953. Anatomie
Rgionale des Animaux Domstiques. Tome
lV, Carnivores (Chien et chat) Librairie J.B.
Bailliere et Fils. Paris.
Bourdelle, E.T. and C. Bressou. 1978. Anatomie
Rgionale des Animaux Domstiques. Tome
II, les Ruminants. J. B. Baillire (ed.), Paris.
Bradely, M.P. 1948. Urinary System in
Embryology of the Pig. 3rd edition: 197-210
Mc Graw-Hill Book Company.
83
84
Fig. 3. Batson's cast of the vascular and excretory systems of the kidney.
1. Ureter; 2. Renal pelvis; 3. Pelvic recesses; 4. Site of pyramid; 5. Renal artery;
6. Dorsal branch of 5; 7. Ventral branch of 56; 8. Interlobar artery; 9. Renal vein.
85
ABSTRACT
The ultra structural and histological features of camel (Camelus dromedarius) meat were examined.
The unaged muscles displayed all the major ultra structural features i.e. Z-line, A-band, l-band, H-band
and M-line. In addition, N2-line was observed in the Psoas major (PM) muscle only. Upon aging, some
of these features were affected and displayed marked changes. Typing of fibers indicated that W,
R and R fibres exist in the skeletal muscle of the camel.
(Key Words: Dromedary, Camel, Meat, Histology, Fibre)
Introduction
Compared with other types of red meat, camel
meat was widely believed to be tough.
Accordingly, several investigators used proteolytic
enzymes to improve its tenderness (Abdalla et al.
1982). There are several factors that could
affect the physical, chemical and palatability
attributes.
Meat scientists have used the
microscope (electron or light) effectively to
study
meat qualities. Calkin et al (1981)
examined the relationship of fibre type
composition to marbling and tenderness of
bovine muscle. Several investigators tried to
relate ultrastructural changes in bovine, ovine or
porcine skeletal muscles. Furthermore, some of
the investigators tried to build a link between the
extent of Z-line degradation and the muscle fiber
types (Abbott et al. 1977).
Since studies on camel meat are very scarce, the
purpose of the current study was to high light the
muscle fibre type and ultrastructure of camel
skeletal muscle.
Electron Microscopy
Within 45 minutes postmortem, samples (fixed on
tooth picks with Astra sutures before removing
from the carcass) were removed from PM, ST
and LD muscles. Samples were fixed in
glautaraldehyde (2%) and osimium tetraoxide
(1%) both in 0.1M phosphate buffer (pH 7.2),
dehydrate with acetone solutions, stained with
uranyl acetate, infiltrated, embedded in spurs
epoxy formulation and cured overnight at 70C.
Thin sections were cut using a diamond knife on
lKB ultra microtome, stained with lead citrate and
examined with Carl Zeis's electron microscope
operated at 40 to 60 Kv.
87
References
Abbott, M. T., A. M. Pearson, J.F. Price and G.R.
Hooper. 1977. Ultrastructural changes during
autolysis of red and white porcine muscle.
J. Food. Sci., 42: 1185-88.
Abdalla, N.M., N.M. El-Shimi, and M.H.G.
Moussa. 1982. Effect of using papaya leaves
and fruits for tenderization on the quality
characteristics of camel meat. Research
Bulletin No. 1745, Faculty of Agric., Ain
Shams, Egypt.
Ashmore, C.R. and I. Doett. 1977. Postnatal
development of fiber types in normal and
dystrophic chick muscle. Expt. Neurol, 30:
431-437.
88
89
Table 1. Distribution of the skeletal muscle fiber types of the Arabian camel and steers.
Species and Muscles
LD
ST
Soleus
Black Camel (n =2)
LD
ST
PM
Beef (n=2)
LD
38.8
36.7
30.2
R*
14.5
20.0
21.7
13.4
20.9
30.4
41.7
30.5
27.8
44.8
47.6
41.7
34.8
52.1
13.0
90
91
92
93
94
95
ABSTRACT
A total of 392 quarters of mammary glands, 98 supramammary lymph nodes and 98 blood samples
collected from 98 female camels. Serological studies were conducted using Rose Bengale Plate Test and
serum agglutination test for detection of Brucella antibodies. The most commonly incriminated
organisms responsible for mastitis, as well as a detailed description for the pathological picture of the
resulting lesions.
(Key Words: Dromedary camel, Mastitis, Mammary Glands, Brucella).
Introduction
Mastitis has both an extreme zoonotic and
economic importance. It is the cause of multiple
hazardous effects on human health and animal
production. The increase demands on camel milk
and its products necessitate the identification of
the clinico-pathological changes of mammary
glands in relation to the causative pathogen aiming
at establishing a rapid method for diagnosis.
Different hitopathological types of mastitis
previously described; acute diffuse fibrinous
mastitis (Bakeer et al. 1994), subacute interstitial
mastitis (Quandil and Qudan, 1984; Bakeer et al.
1994), gangrenous mastitis (Bolbol, 1982),
chronic obstructive mastitis (Ramadan et al.
1987). Acute necrotic, hemorrhagic and chronic
interstitial mastitis was reported as different types
of mastitis in the female camel (Kaspakov, 1976;
97
Results
Serological Studies
Seven out of 98 sera samples reacted positively to
RBPT and SAT. Brucella melitensis was isolated
from the mammary glands of 5 cases (Table 1).
Bacteriological Examination
The most commonly isolated bacterial species
from
mastitic
mammary
glands
were
Pseudomonas
aeruginosa,
Staph
aureus,
Streptococcus group A. pyogenes, Brucella
melitensis, E. coli, and Pasteurella hemolytica
either in pure or mixed infections.
Pathological Studies
The macroscopical examination of the mammary
glands revealed that 39 quarters showed the
clinical picture of mastitis, while the
microscopical examination added another 29 cases
concluding a total of 68 (17.34%) mastitic
cases.The types of mastitis and isolated organisms
were presented in Table 2. Moreover, microscopic
examination revealed disturbance of growth and
neoplasia in another 11 cases. Types and
incidence of these lesions were presented in Table
3. The macroscopical and microscopical pictures
of different types of the aforementioned lesions
are described below:
Acute diffuse mastitis
Grossly, the affected quarter(s) was swollen and
firm with reddish discoloration. The cut surface
appeared granular and dry with presence of clotted
milk in the cisternae.
Microscopically, the acini showed severe
aggregations of inflammatory cells mainly
neutrophils and mononuclear cells, in addition to
desquamated epithelium and eosinophilic
exudates. The interstitial tissues appeared
edematous and infiltrated with inflammatory cells,
and vascular congestion and hemorrhages were
commonly seen. E. coli was isolated from these
cases.
98
Discussion
The incidence of clinical mastitis in the female
camel in the present investigation was 9.95%. The
microscopical examination revealed a higher
percentage rate (17.34%) and this was attributed
to the subclinical and granulomatous mastitis,
which could not be recognized clinically and is
only detected microscopically. The clinical
percentage of mastitis was less than reported by
Hafez et al (1987), while the microsopical
incidence was similar to that of Bakeer et al
(1994).
99
100
References
Abdurahman, O.A.S. 1996. The detection of
subclinical mastitis in the bacterian camel
(Camelus bactrians) by somatic cell count and
California mastitis test. Vet. Res. Communications, 20 (1): 9-14.
Bakeer, A.M., M.Afify, El Jakee and M., Hemeda.
1994. Pathological and bacteriological studies
on mammary gland affections in one humped
she camel. Vet. Med. J. Giza, (B): 321-326.
Barbour, E.K., N.H. Nabbut, W.M. Frerichs, Al
Nakhli H. M. and A.A.Mukayel. 1985.
Mastitis in Camelus dromedaries in Saudi
Arabia. Trop. Anim. Hlth. Prod., 17 (3): 173
179.
Bolbol, A.E. 1982. Mastectomy in she-camel.
Assiut Vet. Med. J., 10: 215.
Carleton, M.A., A.B. Drury, E.A. Wallington, and
H.Cameran. 1967. Carletons Histological
Technique. 4th ed. Oxford Univ. Press New
York. Toronto.
Carter, G.R. and J. R. C. Cole. 1990. Diagnostic
Procedures in Veterinary Bacteriology and
Mycology. 4th ed. Academic Press. Harcourt
Brace Jov publishers New York, London,
Tokyo, Toronto.
El Jakee, J. 1998. Microbiological studies on
mammary glands of one-humped she-camel in
Egypt. J. Camel Practice and Res., 5 (2): 243246.
Erskin, R.S., R. J. Eberhart, S.B. HutchinsonSpencer and M.A. Cambeel. 1988. Incidence
and types of clinical mastitis in dairy herds
with high and low somatic cell counts. Journal
of the American Vet. Assoc., 192: 761-765.
101
102
RBPT
SAT
Brucella Isolation
14
160
22
80
25
640
29
40
35
20
36
320
46
1280
3 (4.41%)
29 (42.64%)
15 (22.05%)
3 (4.41%)
9 (7.35%)
5(7.35%)
4 (5.88%)
Bacterial Isolate
E.coli
Staph.aureus &Srept.agalactiae
Strept .agalactiae
Pseudomonas aeruginosa &E.coli
A.pyogenes
Brucella melitensis
Past.hemolytica &Streptococcus sp.
Table 3. The type and incidence of mammary neoplasia and disturbances of growth.
Type of Lesion
Fibrosclerosis
Duct ectasia
Intra ductal fibroma
Adeno-carcinoma
Total
No of Cases
4
3
3
1
11
Incidence
4.08%
3.06%
3.06%
1.02%
11.2%
ABSTRACT
One hundred camel lungs having gross pathology changes were collected from abattoirs of Lahore and
Faisalabad. The prevalence of various pathological condition in lungs were 48.90 %, stage of red
hepatization 33.33% and stage of gray hepatization 17.77%, Hydatidosis 40% bronchitis 8%,
Penumonicosis 5% and Tubercle nodules 2%. The microorganisms isolated were Corynaebacterium,
Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Echerichia, Pseudomonas, Proteus, Bacillus lebsiella and Mycobaterium.
(Key Words: Dromedary Camels, Pathology, CARDN).
Introduction
Pathological conditions of lungs, particularly
pneumonia in farm animals may result in severe
reduction in production and even terminate in
death causing economic losses to the farmers.
Pneumonia in farm animals has been recognized
as a major malady in all parts of the world (Jubb
et al. 1985). Infectious agents like bacteria, virus
and fungi are known as major causes of
pneumonia (Jones and Hunt, 1983). Literature
revealed only sparse reports about pathological
changes and associated bacterial isolation from
the camel lungs (Nabiha et al. 1981).
104
105
References
106
Number of cases
45
22
15
8
8
5
40
2
Dept. of Pathology,
Dept. of Surgery, Anaesthiology and Radiology,
Faculty of Vet. Med.,
Cairo University, Giza, Egypt.
ABSTRACT
Histopathological and parasitological investigations were conducted on 488 camel eyes collected from
Cairo slaughterhouse. The ocular lesions were classified according to the anatomical structure of the eye
and nature of the lesion. Pathological changes were reported in 15.7 % of the examined cases. The most
prevalent pathological lesions were keratitis epithelialis, superficial stromal keratitis, interstitial keratitis,
ulcerative keratitis, keratoconjunctivitis, choroidal coloboma, uveal melanoma, retinal folds, peripheral
retinal cystic degeneration, panophthalmitis and glaucoma. Parasitological examination revealed the
presence of ticks and mites on the eye lids while no thelazia or filaria could be detected.
(Key words: Camel, Dromedary, Eye, Pathology).
Introduction
The camel constitutes an important source for
meat and fiber in arid and semi-arid areas. Many
investigators have studied the camel in health
and disease, but little attention has been paid to
the pathology of the eye of the camel. Tracing
the available literature, no information wasn
found concerning the histopathological investigation of the camel eyes and its classification,
a fact which initiated the idea of the present
investigation on the pathological profile of the
ocular infections and its incidence in this
species.
108
Results
The incidence and type of pathological
affections are presented in Table 1.
Parasitological Findings
The parasitological examination was negative
for nematodes (Thelazia and Filarial), while
arthropods; ticks and mites were present in 12
cases. This induced blepharitis in the affected
cases, which showed thickened eyelids, blepharospasm and epiphora together with chemosis of
the conjunctiva. In eight of the cases, tick
infestation (Hyaloma species) was found on the
periphery of the lower eyelid. The other 4
camels had alopecia with hemorrhagic crusts
along the upper eyelid and pruritis.
Microscopical examination of skin scrapings of
the crusted eyelids revealed the presence of
sarcoptic mite.
Histopathological Findings
Affection of the Eyelids
Parasitic blepharitis
Acanthosis
associated
with
relative
hyperkeratosis and hypertrophy of epidermal
papillae
were
observed.
In
addition,
intraepithelial accumulation of inflammatory
cells mainly mononuclear cells and neutrophils
were detected. The underlying connective tissue
appeared diffusely infiltrated with macrophages
and eosinophils. In these areas the sebaceous
glands and hair follicles showed degenerative
changes.
Affections of the Fibrous Coat
Keratitis epithelialis
Grossly, corneal edema and loss of transparency
were the noted lesions .
Microscopically, the pathological alteration here
was restricted to the epithelial layer. There was
an irregular increase in the thickness of lamina
epithelialis
associated
with
hydropic
degeneration of the superficial epithelial cells.
Few deep epithelial cells were ruptured with
109
ball
showed
black
110
Discussion
The present investigation revealed that the
incidence of eye affection was 15.7%, which is
higher than that previously reported by Fahmy
et al (2002). This might be attributed to the fact
that the first study was a field study while the
present was conducted slaughterhed animale
whose owners got rid of them. The parasitic
examination revealed that the changes observed
in eye lids were due to ticks and mites
infestation. Similar changes were reported by
Simth et al (1974). Infestation of the eyelids
with arthropods (ticks and mites) usually leads
to blepharitis. Parasitic infestation causes
changes in the eyelids due to severe irritation. In
addition, the self inflicted trauma by the animal
111
112
References
Amman, V.K. 1966. Hornhauten Krankingen
beim hund vergleichene - klinisch. Untersuchungen Kleindeir practisch, 11: 1-9.
Bellhorn, M. and C. Henkind. 1976. Superficial
pigmentary keratitits in the dog. J. Vet.
Med. Assoc., 149: 173-175.
Carleton, M. A., R. A. B. Druvy, F. A.,
Wallinton and H. Cameron. 1967. Carletons
Histo-pathological Technique. 4th ed,
Oxford Univ. Press, New York, Torento.
Higgins, A. J. 1985. Common ecto-parasites of
camel and its control. Br. Vet. J., 141: 197216.
Jubb, K. V. F. and P. C. Kennedy. 1985.
Pathology of Domestic Animals. 2ed, Vol. 2,
Academic Press New York and London.
Ladoucer, C.A. and K. R. Kazacos. 1981.
Thelazia lacrymalis in horses India. J. Am.
Vet. Med. Assoc., 178(3): 301-302.
113
No. of Cases
12
16
21
7
5
4
20.77
27.27
9.09
6.49
5.19
2
1
2.59
1.29
2
1
2
4
2.59
1.29
2.59
5.19
77
15.7
114
research, education, industry, or administration. The Journal of Camel Science (JCS), accepts
manuscripts presenting information for publication with this mission in mind. Its editorial policies are
established by the Editor-in-Chief, and Editorial Board, subject to review by the Publications Committee,
and the membership of CARDN.
Views expressed in papers published in JCS represent the opinions of the authoris) and do not
necessarily reflect the official policy of the institution with which the author is affiliated, CARDN, or the
Editor-in-Chief.
Electronic Publication
The Journal of Camel Science is published as a full journal electronically on the Internet in addition to
being published as a paper Journal. Access to the journal electronically is via the ACSAD home page
(http:/ www.ACSAD.org). Members can elect not to subscribe to the paper journal but have access to the
full journal electronically by paying only their membership fee (Access to JCS is free at this stage).
All manuscripts submitted to JCS must be accompanied by a manuscript, submission form certifying that
any research that involves animals has followed established standards for the humane care and use of
animals. Only investigations that have followed high standards for The humane care and use of animals
in research will be reported in JCS. If research requires discomfort to the animals or stressful conditions,
justification for these conditions must be evident in papers published in JCS. The manuscript should
discuss anaesthetics, analgesics, tranquillisers, and care taken to minimize pain and discomfort during
preoperative, operative, and postoperative procedures.
Procedures used shall be those of accepted veterinary medical practice. If the study or condition of the
animal requires that the animal be killed, a humane method shall be used. All animals used in
experiments shall be under the direct supervision of an experienced investigator.
Types of Articles
Research Articles. Results of work contained in manuscripts submitted to JCS must not have been
published previously in a refereed scientific journal. Previous presentation at a scientific meeting or the
use of data in field day reports or similar documents, including press publications, does not preclude the
publication of such data in JCS. Authors are discouraged from submitting manuscripts based on routine,
repetitive product testing, especially if it is derived from a single station report, that is part of a widescale commercial efficacy trial.
Review Articles. Unsolicited review manuscripts will not be accepted. However, invited speakers
delivering symposium presentations sponsored by programme committees are encouraged to submit
their reviews for publication. Such manuscripts will be subject to the same review policies as
manuscripts presenting original research. Review manuscripts must conform to JCS Style and Form.
Each review manuscript shall include a standard footnote indicating the date and title of symposium,
indicate the objective of each article, ensure all articles follow appropriate style and format, and include
with the set of manuscripts a listing of potential reviewers for manuscripts from the symposium.
115
The suitability of manuscripts for publication in JCS is judged by reviewers, Editors, and the Editor-inChief. The Editor-in-Chief, the Editors, and most reviewers are members of the Editorial Board,
Appointments to the Editorial Board are guided by the need for individuals with particular scientific
knowledge within a given field of specialization. Members of the Editorial Board are chosen on the basis
of demonstrated expertise and editorial competence.
There are three main grounds for rejection of manuscripts. First, the substance of the manuscript may not
meet JCS standards: The work may be incomplete, the evidence may not support the conclusions, or the
experimental approach may be poorly conceived. Second, although the work may be sound and the
results valid, the paper may be better suited for publication elsewhere. Third, the work may repeat
established fact or represent no advance of existing knowledge.
After a paper has been accepted, every effort will be made to publish it promptly. The interval from the
date when the manuscript is received to the date that it is accepted for publication by the Editor-in-Chief
will vary depending on the time required for review and revision. The author is notified when the
manuscript is accepted by the Editor-in-chief. After acceptance, correspondence concerning the
manuscript should be directed to the Technical Editor.
Copyright Issues
The copyright to material published in JCS is held by CARDN. Persons who wish to reproduce material
in JCS must request written permission from the Editor-in-Chief to reprint copyrighted information.
Likewise, authors of JCS manuscripts who include material (usually tables or figures) taken from other
copyrighted sources must secure permission from the copyright holders and provide written evidence of
this permission at the time the manuscript is submitted to JCS for review. Tables or figures reproduced
from the work of others must include an acknowledgment of the original source in a footnote or legend.
116
Preparation of Manuscript
The first page of each manuscript must include the running head, title, names of authors, institutions,
city, zip code, and phone (and Fax) number of the contact author. The running head (an abbreviated title
consisting of no more than 45 characters plus spaces) should appear at the top of page 1 of the
manuscript entirely in capital letters. The title of the manuscript is typed in upper-and lowercase letters;
abbreviations are not permitted in the title. Authors (initials or full name(s) and last name), institution,
and city are listed in upper-and lowercase letters. Supplementary information, such as- current addresses
of authors, is given in footnotes on the first page. Indications of professorial rank or other professional
titles should not be used. Acknowledgments are given as a footnote on the first page. Footnotes on the
first page and other text pages are referenced sequentially by superscript numbers. Brand names and
company names and locations for all substances and equipment referred to in the text should be included
in parentheses within the text, not in footnotes.
Headings
Major headings (Introduction, Materials and Methods [or Experimental Procedures], Results, Discussion
[or Results and Discussion], Implications, and Literature Cited) are centred and appear in roman type,
the first letter of each major word capitalized. Major headings of review papers or papers from symposia
may deviate from this standard format; however, all papers must contain an abstract, key words, an
introduction, and an implications section. Abbreviations should be avoided in headings.
First subheadings appear at the left margin on a separate line in italics (indicated by underlining) and are
not followed by punctuation. First subheadings are used when subsections below major headings consist
of several paragraphs, especially if some or all of the paragraphs begin with a second subheading.
Second subheadings appear at the beginning of the first line of a paragraph. They are indented, italicised,
and followed by a period. They do not require labelling (a, b, c. etc.). Second subheadings may be used
with or without first subheadings; generally second sub-headings introduce sections three to four
paragraphs in length or longer sections below a first subheading.
Abstract
The abstract, consisting of no more than 2500 characters plus spaces in one paragraph, appears at the
beginning of the manuscript with the word "ABSTRACT" capitalized. the abstract should summarize
pertinent results in a brief but understandable form. References are never cited in the abstract.
Abbreviations that appear in the abstract that are not included in the standard abbreviation listing found
in each issue of JCS must be defined before they are first used. The abstract should start with a clear
statement of the objective and must conclude with one or two sentences that highlight important
conclusions.
Key Words
At the end of the abstract, list up to six key words that best describe the nature of the research; key words
should include the species, variables tested, and the major response criteria. The first letter of each key
word is capitalized; key words are separated by commas.
Introduction
The introduction follows the abstract and should not exceed 2,000 characters plus spaces. It briefly
justifies the research and specifies the hypotheses to be tested. Extensive discussion of relevant literature
should be included in the discussion of results, not in the introduction. To minimize length and avoid
redundancy, generally no more than three references should be cited to support, a specific concept.
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118
its standard deviation). Adequate reporting may require only 1) the number of observations, 2) arithmetic
treatment means, and 3) an estimate of experimental error. The pooled standard error of the mean is the
preferred estimate of experimental error. Standard errors need not be presented separately for each mean
unless the means are based on different numbers of observations or the heterogeneity of the error
variance is to be emphasized. Presenting individual standard errors clutters the presentation and can
mislead the reader.
For more complex experiments, tables of subclass means and tables of analysis of variance or covariance
may be included. When the analysis of variance contains several error terms, such as in split-plot and
repeated measures designs, the text should indicate clearly which mean square was used for the denominator of each F statistic. Unbalanced factorial data can present special problems. Accordingly, it is well
to state how the computing was done and how the parameters were estimated. Approximations should be
accompanied by cautions concerning possible biases.
Contrasts (preferably orthogonal) are used to answer specific questions for which the experiment was
designed; they should form the basis for comparing treatment means. Nonorthogonal contrasts may be
evaluated by Bonferronit statistics. The exact contrasts tested should be described for the reader,
Multiple-range tests are not appropriate when treatments are orthogonally arranged. Fixed-range, pairwise, multiple comparison tests should be used only to compare means of treatments that are
unstructured or not related. Adjusted, or so-called least squares, means should not be employed unless
the design is unbalanced or contains missing values or an adjustment is being made for a covariate. In
factorial treatment arrangements, means for main effects should be presented when important,
interactions are not present. Means for individual treatment combinations also should be provided in
table or text so that future researchers may combine data from several experiments to detect important
interactions. An interaction may not be detected in a given experiment because of a limitation in the
number of observations.
The terms "significant" and "highly significant" traditionally have been reserved for P < .05 and P <.01,
respectively. Other probability levels can be discussed if properly qualified so that the reader is not
misled, but do not report P-values to more than three decimals. When available, the exact probability
levels (alpha levels) should be presented rather than merely P<.05 or P < .01 so the reader can decide
what to reject. Such information is useful for future analyses in which data are combined. Regardless of
the probability level used by the authors, failure to reject a hypothesis should be based on the relative
consequences of type I and II errors. A "non significant" relationship should not be misinterpreted; it is
not proof that no relationship exists. An inadequate number of experimental units or inadequate control
of variation limits the power to detect relationships, Use of P>.05 to indicate non significance should be
avoided; readers may interpret this as the probability of a beta error, not an alpha error. This problem can
be avoided by citing the absolute probability of an alpha error.
Give only meaningful digits. A practical rule is to round values so that the change caused by rounding is
less than one-tenth of the standard error. Such rounding increases the variance (if the reported value by
less than .1%, so that less than 1% of the relevant information contained in the data is sacrificed. In most
cases, two or three significant digits (not decimal places) are sufficient.
Results
Results (may be combined with discussion) should be presented in tabular form when feasible. The text
should explain or elaborate on the tabular data, but numbers should not be repeated extensively within
119
the text. Sufficient data, all with some index of variation attached, should be presented to allow the
reader to interpret the results of the experiment.
Discussion
The discussion (may be combined with results) should interpret the results clearly and concisely in terms
of biological mechanisms and should integrate literature results with the research findings to provide the
reader with a broad base on which to accept or reject the hypotheses tested.
Implications
This section, consisting of no more than 1,000 characters plus spaces in one paragraph, follows the
discussion and should explain in lay terms, without abbreviations, acronyms, or citations, what the
findings of this research imply for camel production and(or) biology. Though some speculation is permitted, this section should also caution the reader against over extrapolation of results. For manuscripts
with direct applications, this section will consist of an interpretive summary. If results have no
implications, this should be stated.
Appendixes
To provide readers with numerical examples or give extensive details of analytical procedures, an
appendix can be included with a manuscript, However, if the supplemental material is of interest only to
a limited number of JCS readers, it should not he. included as an appendix. Instead, mention that
supplemental information is available on request from the author. In the manuscript, the appendix should
follow the literature cited section and be introduced by a major heading.
Citations
Text: Published literature is referenced in the text in one of two ways, depending on sentence structure:
(1) The daily crude protein requirement for maintenance of camels was 190g (Wardeh 1997; Geurouali
and Wardeh 2002); 2) Wardeh (1997) and Geurouali and wardeh (1990) have reported that the daily
protein requirements for camels was 190g.When two or more citations are included in a grouping within
a sentence, the citations within the grouping are arranged in chronological order. Multiple citations for a
given year are further arranged alphabetically. When a citation has one or two authors, cite the reference
throughout using the name(s) and the date (e.g., Fahmy and Hegazi, 2000). When a citation has more
than two authors, cite the reference throughout the text with "et al." following the last name of the first
author (e.g., Fahmy et al. 2001). When the same author(s) have two references with different dates, cite
them together in the text (e.g., Fahmy et al. 2001;2002). If two papers abbreviate identically in the text,
place a letter after the date both in the text and in the citation in literature cited. Letters should not be
included unless the text citations are identical. Check the literature cited to make certain that all text
citations are represented, and that all citations listed are cited in the text. Unpublished literature is listed
in the text as follows by: (personal communication); (M. F. Wardeh, personal communication); ...
according to M. F. Wardeh (unpublished data). The individual's full name and location should be
provided. If the unpublished data are from the authors' laboratory, it can be cited as (our unpublished
observations).
Literature Listing
The number of citations should be minimised by careful scrutiny; select only the most pertinent ones. No
more than three references should be cited to support a specific concept. Interested readers can examine
those references or cited reviews for further citations. Initials are used for first and middle names in all
citations. Initials are placed after the first author's name but before the last names of all co-authors.
120
Citations are listed in strict alphabetical order by authors. If all authors are identical for two or more
citations, chronological order of publication should dictate the order of citations. When more than one
paper in a given year is listed by authors whose names are in the same order in each paper, the papers are
arranged in alphabetical order of the paper title, and the date is assigned a letter suffix (e.g., Wardeh,
1999a). Only the first word and proper nouns in titles of papers begin with a capital letter. When a total
book is cited, page numbers are not provided. When the reference is a chapter or section from a book,
give inclusive page numbers. Use inclusive page numbers for journal articles. If the pages of the journal
cited are numbered within an issue rather than consecutively for a total volume, include the issue (or
month), supplement, or part number in parentheses after the volume number. No comma follows the
name or abbreviation of the journal cited.
References should be abbreviated in accordance with Serial Sources /or the BIOSIS Previews' Database published annually by BIOSIS, 2100 Arch Street, Philadelphia, PA 19103-1399. Periods are placed
after each abbreviated word. The abbreviation "(Abstr.)" should be used to designate each reference that
is an abstract. Citations of unpublished work are listed in parentheses in the text only; they do not appear
in the literature cited. Articles submitted for publication but not yet accepted cannot be cited. References
from nonrefereed publications should be avoided, but they can be employed when information is not
available from refereed publications. Manuscripts that have been accepted for publication but are not yet
published can he listed in the literature cited with the designation "(In press)" following the journal title.
To be consistent with current journal convention, inclusive page numbers should now be included in
literature citations.
Abbreviations of Frequently Cited Periodicals
Acta. Agric. Scand.
Acta. Endocrinol.
Adv. Appl. Microbiol.
Adv. Carbohydr. Chem. Biochem.
Adv. Genet
Adv. Lipid Res.
Adv. Protein Chem.
Agric. Eng.
Agron. J.
Am. J. Anat.
Am. J. Clin. Nutr.
Am. J. Clin. Pathol.
Am. J. Hum. Genet.
Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.
Am. J. Pathol
Am. J. Physiol.
Anim. J. Vet. Res.
Anal. Biochem.
Anal. Chem.
Anim. Behav.
Anim. Freed. Abstr.
Anim. Feed Sci. Technol.
Anim. Prod.
Ann. Hum. Genet.
Annu. Rev. Biochem.
121
122
J. Reprod. Fertil.
J. Sci. Food Agric.
Lab. Anim.
Lipids
Livest. Prod. Sci.
Meat Sci.
Metabolism
Methods Enzymol
Mol. Cell. Endocrinol.
N. Z. J, Agric. Res.
Nature (Lond.)
Nature (Paris)
Neth. J. Agric. Res.
Neuroendocrinology
Nutr. Abstr. Rev.
Nutr. Metab.
Nutr. Rep. Int.
Nutr. Res.
Obstet. Gynecol.
Pharmacol. Rev.
Physiol. Rev.
Prof. Anim. Sci.
Recent Prog. Horm. Res.
Reprod. Fertil. Dev.
Residue Rev.
S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci.
Sci. Agric.
Science
Steroids
Theor. Appl. Genet.
Theriogenology
Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol.
Vet. Res.
Vet. Res. Commun.
Vitam. Horm.
World Anim. Rev.
Z. Tierz. Zuechtungsbiol.
Zentralbl. Veterinaermed. Reihe A
Tables
When possible, tables should be organized to fit across the page (similar to the text), so that the page can
be read without turning it sideways. Tables are numbered consecutively in Arabic numbers; each table
begins on a separate page. All parts of tables should be typed double-spaced. Tables should be inserted in
the manuscript after the literature cited section. Tables should specify whether composition and analyses
are provided on an "as-fed" or a "dry matter" percentage basis.
Titles of tables should be descriptive enough to be able to stand alone. With the exception of proper
nouns or parenthetical, abbreviated units of measure or acronyms that are ordinarily capitalized, only the
123
first letter of "Table" and the initial letter of the title should be capitalized. A period should follow the
table title. Every column must have a heading (e.g., Ingredient, Trait, Fatty acid, Item. etc.). Side-type
titles, providing rows as column headings, can be employed. Only the first letter of the first word of each
column heading is capitalized. The abbreviations for "weight" and "average" (wt and avg, respectively)
should be used only in tables. Present data in a simple, straightforward manner. Do not present the same
data in both tabular and graphic form. When presenting data in graphic form, be sure that each mean and
some index of variation is provided in the figures, the figure legend, or the text. Avoid graphs presenting
less than five means. Present such values in the text. If data are discussed in the text but are not included
in the tables or figures, specify "(data not shown)" in the text.
Omit the zero to the left of the decimal point. Use only meaningful digits. If there is no datum for a
particular entry, insert a dash. If an explanation is necessary, use an abbreviation in the body of the table
(e.g., ND) and explain clearly in footnotes what ND stands for (not determined, not detectable, not discernible, etc.).
References to footnotes in a table are specified by superscript lowercase letters independently for each
table. The final letters of the alphabet may be used to designate significance of differences to avoid
overlap with other footnotes. The preferred order of superscripts is as follows: 1) title, 2) column
headings, 3) row headings, and 4 ) body of table. The dagger symbol () and asterisks (*, **, ***) are
used only to designate a significance level between two means in a given row or column. By convention,
these are understood to imply the following: designates P<10; * designates P < .05; ** designates P<
.01 and *'** designates P<.001. Do not use vertical lines in tables.
Presentation of pooled standard errors, the general basis for statistical comparison of means, is recommended when variance is homogeneous. These are provided in a separate column or row. Standard
errors can be attached to each mean by + signs when variance or SE are heterogeneous (e.g., unbalanced
experiments or unequal numbers of observations in treatment means). When variances are heterogeneous
and are mathematically transformed before statistical analysis, specify the transformation method by a
tabular footnote but back-transform the data before presenting them in tables. When means separation
procedures are used, the preferred statement in the footnotes is "Within a row (or column), means
lacking a common superscript letter differ (P<.05) other P-values may be specified. Alternative wording
may be misinterpreted or erroneous. Specifying treatments in the statistics footnote can simplify
comprehension.
Figures
For assistance with production of figures, refer to Scientific Style and Format and to Steps Toward Better
Scientific Illustrations (Alien Press, Lawrence, KS). Figures should be prepared with bold lines and
should be lettered in India ink or by other means so that the original, a glossy photograph, or the
computer output will reproduce clearly when reduced to fit in either one or two columns. Scale of
lettering and intensity of lines should remain readable when reduced in size for publication. When
preparing figures, use clearly defined symbols and the following types of lines: ...,.. . Be sure that
the reader will be able to distinguish which line is which. In the case of bar graphs, maximize the
contrast between fillers. For example, shaded fillers and close-lined or checked fillers will all appear
shaded when a figure is reduced for publication. Symbols and abbreviations used in the figure must be
defined in the figure legend or within the figure itself.
All lettering and abbreviations must conform to the JCS Style and Form. Zeros should not appear to the
left of decimal points. Units in axes should not be placed in parentheses; when units follow a term or
124
125
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14-
15.
16.
adjectives (e.g., 7-kg camels, d-32 measurements, 100-ml flask) are treated like any other
hyphenated adjective. If a word intervenes between the numeral and its unit, the unit is
spelled out, not abbreviated (e.g., 14 consecutive hours: three consecutive days).
c)
0mit the zero to the left of the decimal point.
d)
Use words for numbers one through nine when they precede nouns other than units of measure but use numerals for numbers larger than nine (e.g., four animals, two times, 14 lots, 28
camels). When a series includes numbers both above and below 10, use numerals for all.
e)
Ordinal numbers up to ninth should be spelled out in the text; they may be abbreviated in
tables. Abbreviate higher ordinal numbers (e.g., 12th, 32nd).
f)
The terms "twofold" up to "ninefold" are written as one word. Use numerals for 10 and
higher (e.g., 10-fold, 300-fold) as well as for all decimal numerals (e.g., 8.5-fold). Exercise
care when using "-fold" to designate a response. If a treatment causes a twofold increase, the
second treatment mean must be three times that of the first.
g)
Avoid the use of multiplying factors (e.g., x 106; x 10-6) in table columns or rows because
of uncertainty whether the data are to be, or have already been, multiplied by these factors.
Avoid ambiguity by stating units (e.g., numbers of bacteria, millions /ml).
h)
Dates are written with the name of the month followed by the numeral of the day (e.g.,
October 4, not October fourth or 4th of October). Months of the year are spelled out.
i)
Do not use a slant line for "per" when more than a single slant line occurs in the expression
(e.g., use 5 mg/(g/d) or 5 5mg.g-1.d-1 instead of 5 mg/g/d, but g/d is acceptable).
Mathematically, "per" usually implies division. When two "per" occur consecutively, it is
unclear precisely what is being divided by what.
j)
Do not use a hyphen to indicate inclusiveness (e.g., use 12 to 14 mg or wk 3 and 4, not 12-14
mg or wk 3-4).
k ) Report time on the 24-h system and omit the h (e.g., 1410 rather than 2:10 p.m. or 1410 h).
1) Use commas in all numerals in both text and tables for values with four or more digits
except for numerals designating time of day. m convert "mg %" to other units, such as mg/l
or mg/ml; use "mol/100 mol" rather than "molar percent."
l)
When tabulating values for growth or intake, express values for a standard time period for a
single animal such as weight gain/day, not weight gain/period or weight gain/pen; use mean
feed intake/day, not feed intake/(pen-day).
Do not capitalize seasons of the year.
Leave spaces around all mathematical operation signs in text and in equations (e.g., n = 8, P < .05,
a + b). For negative numbers, leave no space between the negative sign and the number.
Use chemical symbols for elements if they appear more than once in the manuscript. Formulas for
simple compounds (e.g., NaCl, HNO3, NH4OH) are acceptable.
Commas and periods generally should be placed inside final quotation marks.
"Live weight," "body weight," "birth weight," and "litter weight" are written as two words.
Although "wt" may be used in tables it should not be used in the text.
Use "longissimus muscle" instead of "longissimus dorsi."
Use "and(or)" not. "and/or."
Mass number precedes chemical symbols (e.g., 14C or 13II). unless spelled out (e.g., carbon-14,
iodine-131). In an isotopically labelled compound (the isotope prefix in brackets precedes and is
attached directly to the part of the name to which it refers (e.g., sodium [14C] format, [3H]
estradiol).
Refer to simple-stomached animals as non-ruminants.
Use generic terms and names where possible. Include in parentheses within the text the brand
name, the company name, and the company location for all substances and equipment mentioned.
126
17.
18.
19-
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
2728.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
127
38.
39.
40.
Avoid the use of the term "symptom(s)" in describing evidence of disease or a condition in
animals. Use the term ''sign(s)''. Symptom implies a subjective perception by the (human) patient.
Use "toxic" or " toxicity" as appropriate, to refer to the quality of being poisonous. Use "toxicosis,"
to refer to any disease condition resulting from poisoning.
Avoid the use of the general terms "higher" and "lower" if more functional descriptive terms can
be used.
Word Abbreviations
The use of author-defined abbreviations and acronyms is discouraged. unless included in the list of
abbreviations in each JCS issue or in these guidelines, each alleviation must be defined the first time it is
used in the abstract and again in the body of the manuscript. There is no need to define symbols for
elements or simple compounds. Abbreviations in the titles of papers and tables and in text headings
should be avoided. Do not begin a sentence with an abbreviation, acronym, or symbol. Use of
abbreviations and acronyms in the abstract should he limited. Abbreviate units of measure immediately
adjacent to numerals. Units of measure are not abbreviated when they follow a spelled-out number at the
beginning of a sentence. All abbreviations are written as singular even though they may be plural (e.g.,
yr; not yrs: VFA, not VFAs); number is indicated by verb choice.
List of Abbreviations
The following is a partial list of acceptable abbreviations. For a more extensive list, refer to Scientific
Style and Format. Use of three letter abbreviations for amino acids (e.g., Ala) is acceptable in JCS.
Physical units
Item
C
cal
Ci
Da
dpm
Eq
g
ha
Hz
IU
J
L
lx
m
M
mol
N
Pa
ppb
ppm
t
V
W
Unit
degree Celsius
calorie
curie
dalton
disintegrations/minute
equivalent
gram
hectare
hertz
international unit
joule
liter
lux
meter
molar (concentration)
mole
normal (concentration)
pascal
parts/billion parts
parts/million parts
metric ton (1,000 kg)
volt
watt
128
Units of time
Item
s
min
h
d
wk
mo
yr
Unit
second
minute
hour
day
week
month
year
mean (population)
129
Multiplying prefixes
Item
G
M
K
Da
Ca
m
n
p
f
a Avoid when possible.
Others
Item
ACTH
ADF
ADFI
ADG
ADIN
ADL
ADP
AI
AIA
ANOVA
ARS
Assoc.
ATP
avg
BLUP
bp
BSA
Bull.
BW
CARDN
Circ.
cfu
CoA
Co-EDTA
Coll.
Conf.
Congr.
CP
DE
Prefix
gigamegakilodecicentimillimicronanopicofemto-
Factor
(x 109)
(x 106)
(x 103)
(x 10-1)
(x 10-2)
(x 10-3)
(x 10-6)
(x 10-9)
(x 10-12)
(x 10-15)
Term
adrenocorticotropic hormone
acid detergent fiber (assumed sequential
unless designated otherwise)
average daily feed intake (not to be confused with DMI)
average daily gain
acid detergent insoluble nitrogen
acid detergent lignin
adenosine diphoapbate
artificial insemination
acid insoluble ash
analysis of variance
Agricultural Research Service
Association
adenosine triphosphate
average (use only in tables, not in the text)
best linear unbiased prediction
base pair
bovine serum albumin
Bulletin
body weight (not fasted unless designated otherwise)
The Camel Applied Research and Development Network
Circular
colony-forming unit
co-enzyme A
cobalt ethylenediaminetctraacetate
College
Conference
Congress
crude protein (N x 6.25)
digestible energy
130
DEAE
DFD
DM
DMI
DNA
EBV
Ed.
EDTA
EFA
e.g.,
ELISA
EPD
ET
et al.
etc.
Exp.
Ext.
FSH
g
GE
GLC
GLM
GnRH
GH
GHRH
hCG
HEPES
HPLC
i.d.
i.e.
IGF
i.m.
Inst.
i.p.
i.v.
IDMD
LD50
LH
LHRH
ME
Misc.
Mongor.
NAD
Natl.
NDF
NE
NEg
NEL
131
Nem
NEFA
No.
o.d.
PAGE
PBS
PCR
PG
PMSG
PSE
Publ.
REML
Rep.
RFLP
RIA
RNA
rpm
s.c.
SDS
ST
sp., spp.
Sta.
Suppl.
Symp.
TDN
Tech.
TLC
Tris
univ.
USDA
UV
VFA
vol
vol/vol
vs
wt
wt/vol
wt/wt
x
132
133
134
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