Mauro Amaya
Ral Amaya
Hctor Castao
Eduardo Lozano
Carlos Fernando Rueda
Ecopetrol SA
Bogot, Colombia
At some point in the operational life of an oil field, natural drive dwindles and
Jon Elphick
Cambridge, England
25
125
Water
Oil
10
15
75
50
2010
2008
2006
2004
2002
2000
1998
1996
1994
1992
1990
1988
1986
1984
1982
1980
25
1978
100
20
1976
lithology, structural complexity and water channeling caused hardware to fail and
1974
flooding has been used to enhance oil recovery. However, a combination of sensitive
Walter Gambaretto
Leonardo Mrquez
Diana Paola Olarte Caro
Juan Peralta-Vargas
Arvalo Jos Velsquez Marn
Bogot
additional energy is needed to sustain production rates. In the Casabe field water-
Operational year
> Casabe oil production and water injection. Waterflood pilot projects took place in the late 1970s, but it
was not until 1985 that the first of two major waterflood programs began. During the first three years of
each program, high injection rates were possible; however, water soon found ways through the most
permeable sands. Early breakthrough and well collapse forced the operator to choke back injection.
The steady decline in injection was accompanied by a decline in production, and attempts to reverse
this trend were unsuccessful. In 2004, when the Casabe alliance was formed, production rates were
5,200 bbl/d. By early February 2010, these rates had increased to more than 16,000 bbl/d.
Oilfield Review
During the secondary-recovery period, structural complexities, sensitive shales, heterogeneous sands and viscous oils all conspired to
undermine the effectiveness of the waterflood.
And although initially successful at increasing
production, injected water broke through prematurely at the production wells, an indicator of
bypassed oil (previous page). Sand production
occurred in a high percentage of wells, contributing to borehole collapse and causing failure of
downhole equipment. Water-injection rates were
gradually decreased in an attempt to overcome
these issues, and waterflooding became less
effective at enhancing oil recovery; from 1996
onward the production rates declined between
7% and 8% per year.
Spring 2010
Barrancabermeja
Central
Cordillera
150 m
500 ft
Cretaceous
C sands
Oligocene
Lower sands
B0, B1, B2 and B3
NE
ain
M
5,000 ft
Eocene
str
i
-S
W
C
al
nt
ie
100 km
50 mi
Upper sands
A1 and A2
fau
lt z
ra
50
25
La Cira shale
on
e
Miocene
Or
0
m
0
15,000
10,000
10 mi
ke
-sl
ip
le
Rio Suarez
anticline
5,000
20 km
Ce
il
Peroles
field
Real
Formation
Nuevo Mu
ndo sy
nclin
e
Rio Sua
rez an
ticlin
e
fault
illera
Palestine
Peroles
ntr
al C
ord
Casabe
Peas La Cira
Blancas Infantas
10
La CiraInfantas
field
lt
Galn
u
eja fa
caberm
B a rran
Barrancabermeja
Casabe
field
> Casabe structural setting. The Casabe field lies to the west of La CiraInfantas field in the middle Magdalena River Valley basin (left). The principal
MMVB structures and producing fields are shown in the generalized structural cross section A to A (top right). The basin is limited on the east by a thrust
belt, uplifting the oldest rocks. Cretaceous and Paleocene (green), Oligocene (orange) and Miocene (yellow) rocks are shown in the central part of the basin
cross section. The preMiddle Eocene uplift and erosion have exposed the Central Cordillera on the west (gray). The Casabe field is highly layered, as shown in
the detailed structural cross section (bottom right). (Figure adapted from Barrero et al, reference 3, and Morales et al, reference 6.)
The Colorado, Mugrosa and La Paz formations that make up the Casabe field were deposited during the Paleogene Period. These are
found at depths of 670 to 1,700 m [2,200 to
5,600 ft]. The reservoir sands in the field are
classified in three main groups: A, B and C,
which are subdivided into operational units
(above). Sands are typically isolated by impermeable claystone seals and have grain sizes that
vary from silty to sandy to pebbly.
Structurally the Casabe field is an 8-km
[5-mi] long anticline with a three-way closure,
well-defined eastern flank and a southern plunge.
The northern plunge is found outside the area of
ORSPR10Michael MoodyFigure 02
Jones SH, Barker MHS, ODonoghue J, Mohler CE,
Dubois EP, Jacobs C and Goss CR: General Geology and
Oil Occurrences of Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia,
in Weeks LG (ed): Habitat of Oil. Tulsa: The American
Association of Petroleum Geologists, AAPG Special
Publication 18 (1958): 641695.
7. For more on undeveloped areas in the Casabe field:
Gambaretto W, Peralta J, Cortes G, Suter A, Dederle M
and Lozano Guarnizo E: A 3D Seismic Cube: What For?,
Oilfield Review
main strike-slip fault. The lack of a more accurate structural model caused two main problems:
Reservoir engineers underestimated OOIP and
waterflood planners found it difficult to locate
injector-producer pairs within the same reservoir
and, to a lesser extent, within the same fault
block.5 These uncertainties led the managers and
experts of the 2004 Casaba alliance to build a
multicomponent redevelopment plan.
Ecopetrol SA has long-standing experience in
and knowledge of the field and the measures
undertaken to keep it producing decade after
decade. Schlumberger provides new oilfield technologies to the operator, including seismic surveying, downhole measurements, data analysis
and specialized drilling, as well as domain expertise to decipher the challenges faced. With these
capabilities the alliance was confident it could
obtain results within a year.
The key goals of the redevelopment plan were
to increase reserves, manage the waterflood programs more efficiently and address drillingrelated problems such as reactive lithology,
tripping problems, low ROP, borehole collapse
Formation Tops
Seismic Data
Depth, ft
3,300
Structural Sketch
with Well Locations
0
1,000
3,000
Depth, ft
3,300
2,000 m
4,050
4,900
4,800
6,500
6,000 ft
N
Area not
drained
or drilled
Well location
0
0
1,000
2,000 m
6,000 ft
> Casabe structural maps and model. Structural maps of the field were
generated using formation tops from well logs (Formation Tops). But
operators avoided drilling along the main strike-slip fault for fear of exiting
the trap; hence, tops were unavailable (Structural Sketch, red-shaded area).
This poorly defined and undeveloped area represented significant potential
reserves. High-resolution 3D seismic data were used to create a refined set
Spring 2010
0
0
1,000
2,000 m
6,000 ft
Bright spots
Offset
AVO anomaly
Offset
Uncorrected common
midpoint gather
AVO-corrected
amplitude map
Amplitude anomaly
Offset
Undeveloped area
Hydrocarbons
> Minimizing uncertainty of amplitude anomalies. Bright spots (top left) are high-amplitude features on
seismic data. These features can indicate oil accumulations, although they are no guarantee. One
technique for understanding bright spots begins with modeling the amplitudes of reflections from
reservoirs containing various fluids (top right). The amplitude at the top of a sand reservoir filled with
water decreases with offset. The amplitude at the top of a similar reservoir containing gas can
increase with offset. The results are compared with actual seismic traces containing reflections from a
sand reservoir (bottom left) to more accurately characterize reservoir fluid. Combined with other
information such as seismic inversion data, AVO-corrected amplitude maps (bottom right) can be a
useful tool to confirm the presence of oil (light-blue areas). (Figure adapted from Gambaretto et al,
reference 7.)
Several conditions can create misleading faults is uncertain. Interpretation of the Casabe
amplitude anomalies, but careful processing and 3D seismic data clarified field corridors where
interpretation can distinguish them. Analysis of wells had not been planned because of the unceramplitude variation with offset (AVO) corrects tainty surrounding the main fault position. Wells
data during the common midpoint gathering have since been drilled along these corridors
process (above).9 Using AVO-corrected amplitude with successful results (next page, top).
ORSPR10Michael
04
A detailed geologic
model provided a better
maps as an additional verification
tool, interpret- MoodyFigure
ers were able to confirm both undeveloped and understanding of the subsurface conditions,
which helped during the waterflood planning and
attic oil accumulations.
Attic oil is an old concept. Operators know drilling processes. Prestack inversion of the 3D
there can be oil in these higher zones, but identi- survey data yielded fieldwide estimates of rock
fying them is difficult if the exact location of
properties.10 Geophysicists calibrated these estimates using data acquired by a suite of newgeneration logging tools (see New Wells and
Results, page 15) in approximately 150 wells.
Using these calibrated rock types, geologists
created a facies distribution map, which they
combined with the structural model to create a
model of reservoir architecture.
The architectural model highlighted more
than 15 reservoirs with an average thickness of
3 m [10 ft] each. Reservoir engineers analyzed
10 of these reservoirs and discovered an additional 5 million bbl [800,000 m3] of estimated
reserves.11 The geologic model was then used during the waterflood redevelopment process to help
improve both areal and vertical sweep efficiency.
Effective Waterflooding
When the Casabe field was switched from natural
drive to waterflood in the late 1970s, the operator
chose to use a typical five-spot pattern with
approximately 500 injector and producer pairs.
To sweep the upper and lower sections of Sands A
and B, up to four wells were drilled per injection
location (next page, bottom). During the initial
waterflood period, injection rates peaked in 1986
and 1991. These dates correspond to the first and
second year after the beginning of the two waterflood programs for the northern and southern
areas of the Casabe field.
Two to three years after each peak there was
a noticeable drop in the water-injection rates.
This was due mainly to the restrictions imposed
on the rates to avoid casing collapse. However,
the reduction in water-injection rates was also
influenced by several other factors. These issues
were identified in the alliances redevelopment
plan and became a large part of the requirements
for reworking the Casabe waterflood programs.
9. For more on AVO analysis: Chiburis E, Franck C,
Leaney S, McHugo S and Skidmore C: Hydrocarbon
Detection with AVO, Oilfield Review 5, no. 1
(January 1993): 4250.
10. For more on inversion: Barclay F, Bruun A,
Rasmussen KB, Camara Alfaro J, Cooke A,
Cooke D, Salter D, Godfrey R, Lowden D, McHugo S,
zdemir H, Pickering S, Gonzalez Pineda F, Herwanger J,
Volterrani S, Murineddu A, Rasmussen A and Roberts R:
Seismic Inversion: Reading Between the Lines,
Oilfield Review 20, no. 1 (Spring 2008): 4263.
11. Amaya R, Nunez G, Hernandez J, Gambaretto W and
Rubiano R: 3D Seismic Application in Remodeling
Brownfield Waterflooding Pattern, paper SPE 122932,
presented at the SPE Latin American and Caribbean
Petroleum Engineering Conference, Cartagena de
Indias, Colombia, May 31June 3, 2009.
12. For more on understanding high-mobility ratios:
Elphick JJ, Marquez LJ and Amaya M: IPI Method:
A Subsurface Approach to Understand and Manage
Unfavorable Mobility Waterfloods, paper SPE 123087,
presented at the SPE Latin American and Caribbean
Petroleum Engineering Conference, Cartagena,
Colombia, May 31June 3, 2009.
Oilfield Review
1,000
Block VIII
2,000 m
6,000 ft
Block VII
400
New well
600
Block VI
Depth, m
800
Undeveloped
1,000
Block V
N
Block IV
Block III
Blocks I and II
Attic oil
B sands
1,200
Attic oil
C sands
Drilled wells
Approved locations
Proposed locations
Undeveloped areas
1,400
1,600
> Attic well. Experts had long predicted a field corridor along the main
strike-slip fault, but the lack of accurate seismic data made the risk of
drilling these zones too high. Interpretation of the 2007 3D seismic survey
enabled geophysicists to identify undeveloped drilling locations (red
ellipses, left) close to the major fault. A new offset well, approved for Block
VIII, was very close to the main strike-slip fault (dashed-green box, left). 3D
seismic data and structural maps (middle) visualized using Petrel software
helped well planners position the well. The trajectory avoided major faults
and targeted a large undeveloped zone and two attic oil zones in the B and
C sands (right). The wells constructed during the first and second drilling
campaigns were vertical; in the third campaign, especially from late 2008
onward, most of the wells drilled were offset wells in target pay zones close
to faults. (Figure adapted from Amaya et al, reference 11.)
Spontaneous
Potential
Formation
80
mV
A1
Injection
A2
B1
B2
Production
B
CBA
20 Sand 0 ohm.m 20
La Cira
Shale
Upper sands
Colorado
2,500
3,000
A1
3,500
A2
Oligocene
The operator had recorded early water breakthrough in the fields producers during both
waterflood programs. This was a result of injection water channeling inside high-permeability
layers. Also, a poor mobility ratio was present
throughout the field: Viscous oils (14.8 to 23.3API
gravity in the upper sands and 15.4 to 24.8 API
gravity in the lower sands) were pushed aside by
the more freely flowing water, and once breakthrough occurred the water influx increased.12
These conditions caused a poor vertical sweep
efficiency average of only 20%.
Depth,
ft
Resistivity
A3
4,000
ORSPR10Michael MoodyFigure
05
B1 SUP
Spring 2010
B2 SUP
Lower sands
Mugrosa
B1 INF
4,500
5,000
B2 INF
B3
5,500
La Paz
1986
3,000
2,400
North, ft
1,800
1,200
600
0
0
750
1,500
2,250
3,000
3,750
East, ft
Fault traces
Top of A sands
Producers
Top of B sands
Injectors
Top of C sands
2003
3,000
2,400
North, ft
1,800
1,200
600
0
0
750
2,250
1,500
3,000
3,750
East, ft
> Comparison of 1986 and 2003 waterflood patterns. By 1986 the operator had
established an evenly distributed network of five-spot injection patterns throughout
the Casabe field (top). Well collapses had occurred in nearly 70% of the wells in
Block VI, and a significant number of collapses had been recorded in all other
blocks in the field. In 2003 (bottom) many of the collapsed wells remained abandoned
or inactive and numerous injectors had been converted to producers. Experts
suggested a new drilling campaign to reestablish fieldwide five-spot patterns.
ORSPR10Michael
MoodyFigure
07
(Figure adapted from
Elphick et al, reference
12.)
10
Oilfield Review
fluids within that zone of the wellbore from invading another zone. An injection nozzle is located
within this section and is controlled from the surface. The new selective-string designs have
improved the vertical sweep efficiency by enabling
the operator to maintain higher injection rates
into layers less affected by waterflood-induced
problems. Conversely, the new designs have mitigated issues related to channeling by allowing a
reduction of rates in problematic layers.
Use of a single well designed with packed-off
flow control was also much more cost-effective
than the previous design of up to four wells per
injection location. Up to 16 water-flow regulators
have now been installed in injectors in the
Casabe field. This solution also addressed the
possibility that drilling several injectors in close
proximity to one another was one of the likely
causes of casing collapse.
Gamma Ray
0
gAPI
150
Spontaneous
Potential
Sand
80
mV
20
Resistivity
ohm.m
15
A1H
Packer
A2
WFR
A21
Spring 2010
Perforations
A3
> Selective injection design. New injection strings in the Casabe field have up
to 16 waterflood-flow regulators (WFRs). WFRs and check valves prevent
backflow and sand production in case of well shutdown. The zone-isolated
injection devices are placed in the highly layered stratigraphic profiles of the
most-prolific producers that commingle fluids from A, B and C sands.
Production logs are unavailable because of rod pumps, but injection logs are
available: Track 1 describes a typical lithology of A sands (yellow shaded
areas); spontaneous potential logs (blue curves) are more accurate than
gamma ray logs (red curve) in the presence of radiation from feldspar, which
occurs naturally in the field. Track 2 shows resistivity response of the formation
at two measurement depths (red and blue curves) and water-injection zones
(green shaded area). (Figure adapted from Elphick et al, reference 12.)
operation. In the second campaign this figure the production engineers to display both models
was slightly less, at 68%. This period, however, in the same 3D window. Using modeling tools,
corresponded to the waterflood programs; hence they could then tag and clearly see the wellbore
many more wells had been drilled. During the depths and the locations along the Casabe strucstudy period there were no recorded collapse ture where collapses had been recorded.
The engineers discovered that casing collapse
events in Block VI for wells constructed in the
third drilling campaign. This change was consid- had occurred in all stratigraphic levels. However,
ered to be a result of improved drilling practices, collapse distribution did highlight a strong correlation
to the overburden
and to the waterwhich are discussed later in this
section.
ORSPR10Michael
MoodyFigure
08
To determine a link between casing collapse flooded formations. The analysis of well location
and subsurface conditions, the investigators con- 13. Olarte P, Marquez L, Landinez G and Amaya R: Casing
sidered the updated stratigraphic and structural
Collapse Study on Block VI Wells: Casabe Field, paper
SPE 122956, presented at the SPE Latin American
models built from the new 3D seismic data.
and Caribbean Petroleum Engineering Conference,
Petrel seismic-to-simulation software enabled
Cartagena, Colombia, May 31June 3, 2009.
11
80
70
Production wells
Injection wells
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
A1
Overburden
A2
Colorado
A3
B1
B2
Mugrosa
B3
C
La Paz
Faults
Stratigraphic formation
> Areal and stratigraphic localization of casing collapse in Block VI. Statistical analysis of casing-collapse events within each stratigraphic section (left)
showed collapses in every formation. However, event frequency in the overburden and in the waterflooded zones (mainly Sands A1, A2, B1 and B2) was
several times higher than in other zones, indicating these intervals are more likely to cause collapse. Using Petrel modeling tools, engineers included Block
VI casing collapses in the structural model. A structural map of one reservoir (right) indicates collapses occurred throughout the block and not in any
specific area. (Figure adapted from Olarte et al, reference 13.)
Casing
0
7-in. H40
20 lbm/ft
7-in. J55
20 lbm/ft
Liners
7-in. K55
23 lbm/ft
7-in. N80
23 lbm/ft
65/8-in. H40
20 lbm/ft
65/8-in. J55
20 lbm/ft
500
1,000
Fluid level, ft
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
ORSPR10Michael MoodyFigure 09
3,500
4,000
4,500
0% wall loss
5,000
> Critical fluid levels for production casing and liners of the first drilling campaign. Testing using
TDAS software determined the critical load condition for fluid evacuation in Block VI wells from the first
drilling campaign. Casing (green box, left) and liners (red box, right) were tested first to obtain critical
fluid-evacuation levels based on original design specifications and again after calculations of 10%, 20%
and 30% wall loss. All wells for the simulation were at depths of 5,000 ft; depending on the amount of wall
loss, a collapse was probable as borehole fluid levels fell. For example, 7-in., 20-lbm/ft API Grade H40
casing strings could collapse even at their installed condition when the fluid was evacuated past 3,200 ft.
Wells that passed the first simulated test failed when wall loss was increased. This result indicated
that corrosion or general wear-and-tear (causing wall loss) would have weakened casing or liners
to the limit of collapse when the fluid level dropped to values that had been recorded in the field.
(Figure adapted from Olarte et al, reference 13.)
12
Oilfield Review
Spring 2010
30
Second drilling
campaign
25
20
15
1947
1949
1951
1953
1955
1957
1959
1961
1963
1965
1967
1969
1971
1973
1975
1977
1979
1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
0
Operational year
105
Water injected
104
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
1993
1992
1991
1990
1989
1988
1987
103
1986
Oil produced
1985
Operational year
13
Schematic of First Four Sections of the Original BHA with a Concentric Bit
81/2-in. bit
61/2-in. collar
81/2-in. OD stabilizer
Pilot bit
Reamer
Pilot bit
Reamer
28 cutters
5 nozzles
5 blades
13.4-mm cutter
33 cutters
2 nozzles
4 blades
13.4-mm cutter
26 cutters
6 nozzles
4 blades
19-mm cutter
27 cutters
2 nozzles
4 blades
19-mm cutter
Modification: Stabilization
pad and guardian bearing
to drill out
Washout log
Before
After
> New versus old drilling design. Original drilling designs included a traditional polycrystalline diamond
compact bit (top), but swelling clays caused problems during tripping. Engineers designed a reamingwhile-drilling (RWD) BHA that incorporated a smaller pilot bit and a reamer (tan box). RWD enabled
oversized boreholes, which helped compensate for swelling and achieve target diameters for casing.
Further optimizations included larger cutters and a backup set of cutters to improve ROP (blue box). A
change in the number of nozzles and in the nozzle diameter dramatically reduced the washouts that
were causing cementing problems (bottom). The decision to redesign the bit was made partly to cope
with clay reactions. A new mud system has successfully inhibited the clay, and engineers are now
reconsidering a concentric bit to improve drilling efficiency.
ORSPR10Michael MoodyFigure 14
14
Oilfield Review
18
Spring 2010
Number of days
15
12
Optimized wells in 2009, average depth 5,400 ft
2010
CB 1137D
CB 1184D
CB 1147D
CB 1110D
CB 1251
CB 1129D
CB 1140D
CB 1271D
CB 1126D
CB 1127D
CB 1125D
2009
2008
2007
2004 to 2006
Well
> Drilling results. The new RWD and bicenter bit drilling technologies have
had18
a considerable impact, improving hole quality, reducing total trip times,
increasing ROP, minimizing stuck-pipe risk, reducing backreaming operations,
and improving the quality of primary cementing jobs. Average drilling-job times
have15been cut15.3
from 15.3 days to 6.8 days.
Average drilling time, days
12
13.5
11.4
9
6
3
0
10.5
6.8
15
Data from this new well included chromatography performed on mud from the B sands,
which revealed well-defined oil shows, and log
interpretation confirmed the oil presence. This
oil is due to a lack of drainage from the updip
wells. New data acquired with the PressureXpress
Resistivity
Invaded Zone
0.1
ohm.m
1,000
ohm.m
1,000
ohm.m
1,000
AIT 30-in. Array
ohm.m
1,000
New well
ohm.m
1,000
ohm.m
1.65
Permeability
0.1
mD
1,000
Schlumberger-Doll Research
0.1
mD
2.65 0
g/cm
Neutron Porosity
Timur-Coates
Depth,
ft
Lithology
Bulk Density
1,000
1,000
60
T2 Distribution
0 0.3
Small-Pore Porosity
Capillary-Bound Fluid
29
T2 Log Mean
ms
3,000
ms
Oil
Sandstone
Bound Water
T2 Cutoff
0.3
Water
3,000
Clay 1
4,850
4,883 to 4,892 ft
MD
A sands
B sands
4,904 to 4,922 ft
MD
4,900
4,950
2,000
PressureXpress data
Hydrostatic
Normal gradient
2,500
5,000
Depth, ft
3,000
Fault 120
Hydrostatic
3,500
Depleted
sands
4,000
Fault 130
4,500
5,000
Original pressure
5,500
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
Pressure, psi
2,500
3,000
3,500
> Discovering the unexpected in Well CSBE 1069. A new well drilled to reach Sand B in Block V (right) reflected a change in previous practices; in this area
the B sands were considered depleted and invaded by water. After interpretation of mud logs indicated oil shows in two locations, Schlumberger acquired
pressure and nuclear magnetic resonance logs in the low-resistivity intervals. Interpretation of the CMR-Plus log (left) confirmed the presence of oil
(green-shaded areas Track 4). Pressure data (inset middle) indicated the bypassed oil zones were at original reservoir pressure (blue box) along the
normal gradient.
16
ORSPR10Michael MoodyFigure 12
Oilfield Review
Density Porosity
40
Resistivity
Invaded Zone
0.1
ohm.m 1,000
40
%
0
Free-Fluid Taper
%
Free Fluid
Density Porosity
30
40
%
0
30
%
0
Resistivity
T2 Distribution
CMR-Plus Bulk Fluid
Spontaneous Potential
Invaded Zone
ohm.m 1,000 CMR-Plus 3-ms Porosity
40
%
0 0
29 30
AIT 30-in. Array
%
0 60
mV
40 0.2
ohm.m
T2 Log Mean
Computed Gamma Ray
AIT 60-in. Array
0.1 ohm.m 1,000 Total CMR-Plus Porosity
Bound Water
40
%
0 0.3
ms 3,000
0
gAPI
140 0.2
ohm.m
Permeability
Moved Water
Small-Pore Porosity
Timur-Coates
T2 Cutoff
AIT 30-in. Array
Caliper
Oil
0.1
mD 1,000 Capillary-Bound Fluid 0.3
ms 3,000
ohm.m
6
in.
16 0.2
AIT 60-in. Array
0.1
Depth,
ft
20
Bulk Density
20 1.65
g/cm3
2.65
Neutron Porosity
20 60
5,200
Free water
5,250
5,300
Free oil
5,350
> Log confirmation of low-resistivity pay. Well CSBE 1060 log interpretation indicated shaly sand zones with
salinities exceeding 50,000 ppm NaCl. Identifying oil in the presence of high-salinity formation water may be difficult
because resistivity measurements cannot be used to distinguish the two (red-shaded area in Resistivity track).
Shaly sands have higher water content than sand alone, and an alternative to resistivity measurements is needed.
The CMR-Plus tool, which measures relaxation time of hydrogen molecules to identify oil and water, uncovered the
presence of oil (Free oil, red-shaded area). Based on these results the interval was tested and returned clean oil,
confirming low-resistivity pay in the Casabe field.
Spring 2010
17