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Distributedgeneration
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Distributedenergy,alsodistrictordecentralizedenergy
isgeneratedorstoredbyavarietyofsmall,gridconnected
devicesreferredtoasdistributedenergyresources
(DER)ordistributedenergyresourcesystems.
Conventionalpowerstations,suchascoalfired,gasand
nuclearpoweredplants,aswellashydroelectricdamsand
largescalesolarpowerstations,arecentralizedandoften
requireelectricitytobetransmittedoverlongdistances.By
contrast,DERsystemsaredecentralized,modularand
moreflexibletechnologies,thatarelocatedclosetothe
loadtheyserve,albeithavingcapacitiesofonly10
megawatts(MW)orless.
DERsystemstypicallyuserenewableenergysources,
including,butnotlimitedto,smallhydro,biomass,biogas,
solarpower,windpower,geothermalpowerand
increasinglyplayanimportantrolefortheelectricpower
distributionsystem.Agridconnecteddeviceforelectricity
storagecanalsobeclassifiedasaDERsystem,andis
Localwindgenerator,Spain,2010
oftencalledadistributedenergystoragesystem(DESS).
Bymeansofaninterface,DERsystemscanbemanaged
andcoordinatedwithinasmartgrid.Distributedgenerationandstorageenablescollectionofenergy
frommanysourcesandmaylowerenvironmentalimpactsandimprovesecurityofsupply.

Contents
1Economiesofscale
1.1Gridparity
2TypesofDERsystems
2.1Cogeneration
2.2Solarpower
2.3Windpower
2.4Hydropower
2.5Wastetoenergy
2.6Energystorage
3Integrationwiththegrid
4Costfactors
5Microgrid
6Modesofpowergeneration
7CommunicationinDERsystems
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8Legalrequirementsfordistributedgeneration
9Seealso
10References
11Furtherreading
12Externallinks

Economiesofscale
Historically,centralplantshavebeenanintegralpartoftheelectricgrid,inwhichlargegenerating
facilitiesarespecificallylocatedeitherclosetoresourcesorotherwiselocatedfarfrompopulatedload
centers.These,inturn,supplythetraditionaltransmissionanddistribution(T&D)gridthatdistributes
bulkpowertoloadcentersandfromtheretoconsumers.Theseweredevelopedwhenthecostsof
transportingfuelandintegratinggeneratingtechnologiesintopopulatedareasfarexceededthecostof
developingT&Dfacilitiesandtariffs.Centralplantsareusuallydesignedtotakeadvantageofavailable
economiesofscaleinasitespecificmanner,andarebuiltas"oneoff,"customprojects.
Theseeconomiesofscalebegantofailinthelate1960sand,bythestartofthe21stcentury,Central
Plantscouldarguablynolongerdelivercompetitivelycheapandreliableelectricitytomoreremote
customersthroughthegrid,becausetheplantshadcometocostlessthanthegridandhadbecomeso
reliablethatnearlyallpowerfailuresoriginatedinthegrid.Thus,thegridhadbecomethemaindriverof
remotecustomerspowercostsandpowerqualityproblems,whichbecamemoreacuteasdigital
equipmentrequiredextremelyreliableelectricity.[1][2]Efficiencygainsnolongercomefromincreasing
generatingcapacity,butfromsmallerunitslocatedclosertositesofdemand.[3][4]
Forexample,coalpowerplantsarebuiltawayfromcitiestopreventtheirheavyairpollutionfrom
affectingthepopulace.Inaddition,suchplantsareoftenbuiltnearcollieriestominimizethecostof
transportingcoal.Hydroelectricplantsarebytheirnaturelimitedtooperatingatsiteswithsufficient
waterflow.
Lowpollutionisacrucialadvantageofcombinedcycleplantsthatburnnaturalgas.Thelowpollution
permitstheplantstobenearenoughtoacitytoprovidedistrictheatingandcooling.
Distributedenergyresourcesaremassproduced,small,andlesssitespecific.Theirdevelopmentarose
outof:
1. concernsoverperceivedexternalizedcostsofcentralplantgeneration,particularlyenvironmental
concerns,
2. theincreasingage,deterioration,andcapacityconstraintsuponT&Dforbulkpower
3. theincreasingrelativeeconomyofmassproductionofsmallerappliancesoverheavy
manufacturingoflargerunitsandonsiteconstruction
4. Alongwithhigherrelativepricesforenergy,higheroverallcomplexityandtotalcostsfor
regulatoryoversight,tariffadministration,andmeteringandbilling.
Capitalmarketshavecometorealizethatrightsizedresources,forindividualcustomers,distribution
substations,ormicrogrids,areabletoofferimportantbutlittleknowneconomicadvantagesovercentral
plants.Smallerunitsofferedgreatereconomiesfrommassproductionthanbigonescouldgainthrough
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unitsize.Theseincreasedvalueduetoimprovementsinfinancialrisk,engineeringflexibility,security,
andenvironmentalqualityoftheseresourcescanoftenmorethanoffsettheirapparentcost
disadvantages.[5]DG,visviscentralplants,mustbejustifiedonalifecyclebasis.[6]Unfortunately,
manyofthedirect,andvirtuallyalloftheindirect,benefitsofDGarenotcapturedwithintraditional
utilitycashflowaccounting.[1]
Whilethelevelizedgenerationcostofdistributedgeneration(DG)ismoreexpensivethanconventional
sourcesonakWhbasis,thisdoesnotconsidernegativeaspectsofconventionalfuels.Theadditional
premiumforDGisrapidlydecliningasdemandincreasesandtechnologyprogresses,andsufficientand
reliabledemandmaybringeconomiesofscale,innovation,competition,andmoreflexiblefinancing,
thatcouldmakeDGcleanenergypartofamorediversifiedfuture.
Distributedgenerationreducestheamountofenergylostintransmittingelectricitybecausethe
electricityisgeneratedverynearwhereitisused,perhapseveninthesamebuilding.Thisalsoreduces
thesizeandnumberofpowerlinesthatmustbeconstructed.
TypicalDERsystemsinafeedintariff(FIT)schemehavelowmaintenance,lowpollutionandhigh
efficiencies.Inthepast,thesetraitsrequireddedicatedoperatingengineersandlargecomplexplantsto
reducepollution.However,modernembeddedsystemscanprovidethesetraitswithautomatedoperation
andrenewables,suchassunlight,windandgeothermal.Thisreducesthesizeofpowerplantthatcan
showaprofit.

Gridparity
Gridparityoccurswhenanalternativeenergysourcecangenerateelectricityatalevelizedcost(LCOE)
thatislessthanorequaltotheendconsumer'sretailprice.Reachinggridparityisconsideredtobethe
pointatwhichanenergysourcebecomesacontenderforwidespreaddevelopmentwithoutsubsidiesor
governmentsupport.Sincethe2010s,gridparityforsolarandwindhasbecomearealityinagrowing
numberofmarkets,includingAustralia,severalEuropeancountries,andsomestatesintheU.S.[7]

TypesofDERsystems
Distributedenergyresource(DER)systemsaresmallscalepowergenerationorstoragetechnologies
(typicallyintherangeof1kWto10,000kW)[8]usedtoprovideanalternativetooranenhancementof
thetraditionalelectricpowersystem.DERsystemstypicallyarecharacterizedbyhighinitialcapital
costsperkilowatt.[9]DERsystemsalsoserveasstoragedeviceandareoftencalledDistributedenergy
storagesystems(DESS).[10]

Cogeneration
Distributedcogenerationsourcesusesteamturbines,naturalgasfiredfuelcells,microturbinesor
reciprocatingengines[11]toturngenerators.Thehotexhaustisthenusedforspaceorwaterheating,orto
driveanabsorptivechiller[12][13]forcoolingsuchasairconditioning.Inadditiontonaturalgasbased
schemes,distributedenergyprojectscanalsoincludeotherrenewableorlowcarbonfuelsincluding
biofuels,biogas,landfillgas,sewagegas,coalbedmethane,syngasandassociatedpetroleumgas.[14]
Deltaeeconsultantsstatedin2013thatwith64%ofglobalsalesthefuelcellmicrocombinedheatand
powerpassedtheconventionalsystemsinsalesin2012.[15]20.000unitswheresoldinJapanin2012
overallwithintheEneFarmproject.WithaLifetimeofaround60,000hours.ForPEMfuelcellunits,
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whichshutdownatnight,thisequatestoanestimatedlifetimeofbetweentenandfifteenyears.[16]Fora
priceof$22,600beforeinstallation.[17]For2013astatesubsidyfor50,000unitsisinplace.[16]
Inaddition,moltencarbonatefuelcellandsolidoxidefuelcellsusingnaturalgas,suchastheonesfrom
FuelCellEnergyandtheBloomenergyserver,orwastetoenergyprocessessuchastheGate5Energy
Systemareusedasadistributedenergyresource.

Solarpower
Photovoltaics,byfarthemostimportantsolartechnologyfordistributedgenerationofsolarpower,uses
solarcellsassembledintosolarpanelstoconvertsunlightintoelectricity.Itisafastgrowingtechnology
doublingitsworldwideinstalledcapacityeverycoupleofyears.PVsystemsrangefromdistributed,
residentialandcommercialrooftoporbuildingintegratedinstallations,tolarge,centralizedutilityscale
photovoltaicpowerstations.
ThepredominantPVtechnologyiscrystallinesilicon,whilethinfilmsolarcelltechnologyaccountsfor
about10percentofglobalphotovoltaicdeployment.[18]:18,19Inrecentyears,PVtechnologyhas
improveditssunlighttoelectricityconversionefficiency,reducedtheinstallationcostperwattaswellas
itsenergypaybacktime(EPBT)andlevelisedcostofelectricity(LCOE),andhasreachedgridparityin
atleast19differentmarketsin2014.[19]
Asmostrenewableenergysourcesandunlikecoalandnuclear,solarPVisvariableandnon
dispatchable,buthasnofuelcosts,operatingpollution,miningsafetyoroperatingsafetyissues.It
producespeakpoweraroundlocalnooneachdayanditscapacityfactorisaround20percent.[20]

Windpower
Anothersourceissmallwindturbines.Thesehavelowmaintenance,andlowpollution,howeveraswith
solar,windenergyisvariableandnondispatchable.Constructioncostsarehigher($0.80/W,2007)per
wattthanlargepowerplants,exceptinverywindyareas.Windtowersandgeneratorshavesubstantial
insurableliabilitiescausedbyhighwinds,butgoodoperatingsafety.InsomeareasoftheUStheremay
alsobePropertyTaxcostsinvolvedwithwindturbinesthatarenotoffsetbyincentivesoraccelerated
depreciation.[21]Windalsotendstocomplementsolar.Dayswithoutsuntendtobewindy,andvice
versa.ManydistributedgenerationsitescombinewindpowerandsolarpowersuchasSlipperyRock
University,whichcanbemonitoredonline
(http://view2.fatspaniel.net/FST/Portal/NorthCoastEnergySys/macoskey/HostedAdminView.html).

Hydropower
Hydroelectricityisthemostwidelyusedformofrenewableenergyanditspotentialhasalreadybeen
exploredtoalargeextendoriscompromisedduetoissuessuchasenvironmentalimpactsonfisheries,
andincreaseddemandforrecreationalaccess.However,usingmodern21stcenturytechnology,suchas
wavepower,canmakelargeamountsofnewhydropowercapacityavailable,withminorenvironmental
impact.
ModularandscalableNextgenerationkineticenergyturbinescanbedeployedinarraystoservethe
needsonaresidential,commercial,industrial,municipalorevenregionalscale.Microhydrokinetic
generatorsneitherrequiredamsnorimpoundments,astheyutilizethekineticenergyofwatermotion,
eitherwavesorflow.Noconstructionisneededontheshorelineorseabed,whichminimizes
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environmentalimpactstohabitatsandsimplifiesthepermittingprocess.Suchpowergenerationalsohas
minimalenvironmentalimpactandnontraditionalmicrohydroapplicationscanbetetheredtoexisting
constructionsuchasdocks,piers,bridgeabutments,orsimilarstructures.[22]

Wastetoenergy
Municipalsolidwaste(MSW)andnaturalwaste,suchassewagesludge,foodwasteandanimalmanure
willdecomposeanddischargemethanecontaininggasthatcanbecollectedandusedasfuelingas
turbinesormicroturbinestoproduceelectricityasadistributedenergyresource.Additionally,a
Californiabasedcompany,Gate5EnergyPartners,Inc.hasdevelopedaprocessthattransformsnatural
wastematerials,suchassewagesludge,intobiofuelthatcanbecombustedtopowerasteamturbinethat
producespower.Thispowercanbeusedinlieuofgridpoweratthewastesource(suchasatreatment
plant,farmordairy).

Energystorage
Adistributedenergyresourceisnotlimitedtothegenerationofelectricitybutmayalsoincludeadevice
tostoredistributedenergy(DE).[10]Distributedenergystoragesystems(DESS)applicationsinclude
severaltypesofbattery,pumpedhydro,compressedair,andthermalenergystorage.[23]:42
Flywheels
Anadvancedflywheelenergystorage(FES)storestheelectricitygeneratedfromdistributedressources
intheformofangularkineticenergybyacceleratingarotor(flywheel)toaveryhighspeedofabout
20,000toover50,000rpminavacuumenclosure.Flywheelscanrespondquicklyastheystoreandfeed
backelectricityintothegridinamatterofminutes.[24][25]
Vehicletogrid
Futuregenerationsofelectricvehiclesmayhavetheabilitytodeliverpowerfromthebatteryina
vehicletogridintothegridwhenneeded.[26]Anelectricvehiclenetworkhasthepotentialtoserveasa
DESS.[23]:44
PVstorage
Commonbatterytechnologiesusedintoday'sPVsystemsinclude,thevalveregulatedleadacidbattery
(leadacidbattery),nickelcadmiumandlithiumionbatteries.Comparedtotheothertypes,leadacid
batterieshaveashorterlifetimeandlowerenergydensity.However,duetotheirhighreliability,low
selfdischarge(46%peryear)aswellaslowinvestmentandmaintenancecosts,theyarecurrentlythe
predominanttechnologyusedinsmallscale,residentialPVsystems,aslithiumionbatteriesarestill
beingdevelopedandabout3.5timesasexpensiveasleadacidbatteries.Furthermore,asstoragedevices
forPVsystemsareusedstationary,thelowerenergyandpowerdensityandthereforehigherweightof
leadacidbatteriesarenotascriticalasforelectricvehicles.[27]:4,9
OtherrechargeablebatteriesthatareconsideredfordistributedPVsystemsinclude,sodiumsulfurand
vanadiumredoxbatteries,twoprominenttypesofamoltensaltandaflowbattery,respectively.[27]:4

Integrationwiththegrid
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Forreasonsofreliability,distributedgenerationresourceswouldbeinterconnectedtothesame
transmissiongridascentralstations.Varioustechnicalandeconomicissuesoccurintheintegrationof
theseresourcesintoagrid.Technicalproblemsariseintheareasofpowerquality,voltagestability,
harmonics,reliability,protection,andcontrol.[28]Behaviorofprotectivedevicesonthegridmustbe
examinedforallcombinationsofdistributedandcentralstationgeneration.[29]Alargescaledeployment
ofdistributedgenerationmayaffectgridwidefunctionssuchasfrequencycontrolandallocationof
reserves.[30]Asaresultsmartgridfunctions,virtualpowerplantsandgridenergystoragesuchaspower
togasstationsareaddedtothegrid.

Costfactors
Cogeneratorsarealsomoreexpensiveperwattthancentralgenerators.Theyfindfavorbecausemost
buildingsalreadyburnfuels,andthecogenerationcanextractmorevaluefromthefuel.Local
productionhasnoelectricitytransportationlossesonlongdistancepowerlinesorenergylossesfromthe
Jouleeffectintransformerswhereingeneral815%oftheenergyislost[31](seealsocostofelectricity
bysource).
Somelargerinstallationsutilizecombinedcyclegeneration.Usuallythisconsistsofagasturbinewhose
exhaustboilswaterforasteamturbineinaRankinecycle.Thecondenserofthesteamcycleprovides
theheatforspaceheatingoranabsorptivechiller.Combinedcycleplantswithcogenerationhavethe
highestknownthermalefficiencies,oftenexceeding85%.
Incountrieswithhighpressuregasdistribution,smallturbinescanbeusedtobringthegaspressureto
domesticlevelswhilstextractingusefulenergy.IftheUKweretoimplementthiscountrywidean
additional24GWewouldbecomeavailable.(Notethattheenergyisalreadybeinggeneratedelsewhere
toprovidethehighinitialgaspressurethismethodsimplydistributestheenergyviaadifferentroute.)

Microgrid
Amicrogridisalocalizedgrouping
ofelectricitygeneration,energy
storage,andloadsthatnormally
operatesconnectedtoatraditional
centralizedgrid(macrogrid).This
singlepointofcommoncoupling
withthemacrogridcanbe
disconnected.Themicrogridcan
thenfunctionautonomously.[32]
Generationandloadsinamicrogrid
areusuallyinterconnectedatlow
voltage.Fromthepointofviewof
thegridoperator,aconnected
microgridcanbecontrolledasifit
wereoneentity.
Microgridgenerationresourcescan
includefuelcells,wind,solar,or
otherenergysources.Themultiple
dispersedgenerationsourcesand
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Pictureofalocalmicrogrid,theSendaiMicrogrid,locatedonthe
campusofTohokuFukushiUniversityinSendaiCityintheTohoku
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abilitytoisolatethemicrogridfromalargernetworkwouldprovidehighlyreliableelectricpower.
Producedheatfromgenerationsourcessuchasmicroturbinescouldbeusedforlocalprocessheatingor
spaceheating,allowingflexibletradeoffbetweentheneedsforheatandelectricpower.
MicrogridswereproposedinthewakeoftheJuly2012Indiablackout:[33]
Smallmicrogridscovering3050kmradius[33]
Smallpowerstationsof510MWtoservethemicrogrids
Generatepowerlocallytoreducedependenceonlongdistancetransmissionlinesandcut
transmissionlosses.
GTMResearchforecastsmicrogridcapacityintheUnitedStateswillexceed1.8gigawattsby2018.[34]

Modesofpowergeneration
DERsystemsmayincludethefollowingdevices/technologies:
Combinedheatpower(CHP)
Fuelcells
Microcombinedheatandpower(MicroCHP)
Microturbines
PhotovoltaicSystems
Reciprocatingengines
SmallWindpowersystems
Stirlingengines
Trigeneration

CommunicationinDERsystems
IEC618507420isunderdevelopmentasapartofIEC61850standards,whichdealswiththe
completeobjectmodelsasrequiredforDERsystems.Itusescommunicationservicesmappedto
MMSasperIEC6185081standard.
OPCisalsousedforthecommunicationbetweendifferententitiesofDERsystem.

Legalrequirementsfordistributedgeneration
In2010Coloradoenactedalawrequiringthatby2020that3%ofthepowergeneratedinColorado
utilizedistributedgenerationofsomesort.[35][36]

Seealso
Autonomousbuilding
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Demandresponse
Energyharvesting
Electricpowertransmission
Electricitygeneration
Electricitymarket
Electricityretailing
Energydemandmanagement
Futureenergydevelopment
Greenpowersuperhighway
Gridtiedelectricalsystem
Hydrogenstation
IEEE1547StandardforInterconnectingDistributedResourceswithElectricPowerSystems
Islanding
Microgeneration
Netmetering
Relativecostofelectricitygeneratedbydifferentsources
Renewableenergydevelopment
Smartmeter
Smartpowergrid
SolarGuerrilla
Standalonepowersystem
Sustainablecommunityenergysystem
Trigeneration
WorldAllianceforDecentralizedEnergy

References
1. DOEThePotentialBenefitsofDistributedGenerationandRateRelatedIssuesthatMayImpedeTheir
Expansion2007.
2. LovinsSmallIsProfitable:TheHiddenEconomicBenefitsofMakingElectricalResourcestheRightSize
RockyMountainInstitute,2002.
3. Takahashi,etalPolicyOptionstoSupportDistributedResourcesU.ofDel.,Ctr.forEnergy&Env.Policy
2005.
4. Hirsch1989citedinDOE,2007.
5. LovinsSmallIsProfitable:TheHiddenEconomicBenefitsofMakingElectricalResourcestheRightSize
RockyMountainInstitute2002
6. Michigan(Citationpending)

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7. McFarland,Matt(25March2014)."Gridparity:Whyelectricutilitiesshouldstruggletosleepatnight"
(http://www.webcitation.org/6SaEzv1eJ).http://www.washingtonpost.com/.Washingtonpost.com.Archived
fromtheoriginal(http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/innovations/wp/2014/03/25/gridparitywhyelectric
utilitiesshouldstruggletosleepatnight/)on14September2014.Retrieved14September2014.
8. "UsingDistributedEnergyResources"(http://www.webcitation.org/6SQK0RpAc).http://www.nrel.gov.
NREL.2002.p.1.Archivedfromtheoriginal(http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy02osti/31570.pdf)on8September
2014.Retrieved8September2014.
9. www.NREL.govDistributedEnergyResourcesInterconnectionSystems:TechnologyReviewandResearch
Needs(http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy02osti/32459.pdf),2002
10. www.smartgrid.govLexiconDistributedEnergyResource(https://www.smartgrid.gov/lexicon/6/letter_d)
11. Gasenginecogeneration(http://www.clarkeenergy.com/chpcogeneration/),www.clarkeenergy.com,
retrieved9.12.2013
12. Cogenerationwithabsorptivechiller
(http://www.buderus.de/Ueber_uns/Presse/Fachpresse/Anlagen_zur_Kraft_Waerme_Kopplung/Heiss_auf_kalt
2119341.html)
13. Trigenerationwithgasengines(http://www.clarkeenergy.com/gasengines/trigeneration/),www.clarke
energy.com,retrieved9.12.2013
14. Gasengineapplications(http://www.clarkeenergy.com/gasengines/),www.clarkeenergy.com,retrieved9th
December2013
15. Thefuelcellindustryreview2013(http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/media/1889744/fct_review_2013.pdf)
16. LatestdevelopmentsintheEneFarmscheme(http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/analysis/analystviews/2013/13
0227latestdevelopmentsintheenefarmscheme)
17. Launchofnew'EneFarm'homefuelcellproductmoreaffordableandeasiertoinstall
(http://panasonic.co.jp/corp/news/official.data/data.dir/2013/01/en1301175/en1301175.html)
18. "PhotovoltaicsReport"(http://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/en/downloadsenglisch/pdffilesenglisch/photovoltaics
reportslides.pdf).FraunhoferISE.28July2014.Archived(http://www.webcitation.org/6SFRTUaBS)from
theoriginalon31August2014.Retrieved31August2014.
19. Parkinson,Giles(7January2014)."DeutscheBankpredictssecondsolargoldrush"
(http://www.webcitation.org/6SaAGOqkz).http://reneweconomy.com.au/.REnewEconomy.Archivedfrom
theoriginal(http://reneweconomy.com.au/2014/deutschebankpredictssecondsolargoldrush40084)on14
September2014.Retrieved14September2014.
20. www.academia.edu,JanetMarsdonDistributedGenerationSystems:ANewParadigmforSustainableEnergy
(http://www.academia.edu/446324/Distributed_Generation_Systems_A_New_Paradigm_for_Sustainable_Ener
gy)
21. [1](http://www.nrel.gov/docs/legosti/fy97/6980.pdf)Retrievedon20October2010
22. www.academia.edu,JanetMarsdonDistributedGenerationSystems:ANewParadigmforSustainableEnergy
(http://www.academia.edu/446324/Distributed_Generation_Systems_A_New_Paradigm_for_Sustainable_Ener
gy),pp.8,9
23. www.NREL.govTheRoleofEnergyStoragewithRenewableElectricityGeneration
(http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy10osti/47187.pdf)
24. Castelvecchi,Davide(May19,2007)."Spinningintocontrol:Hightechreincarnationsofanancientwayof
storingenergy"(http://sciencewriter.org/flywheelsspinningintocontrol/).ScienceNews171(20):312313.
doi:10.1002/scin.2007.5591712010(https://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fscin.2007.5591712010).

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25. Willis,Ben(23July2014)."CanadasfirstgridstoragesystemlaunchesinOntario"
(http://www.webcitation.org/6SXSRGh4S).http://storage.pvtech.org/.pvtech.org.Archivedfromthe
original(http://storage.pvtech.org/news/canadasfirstgridstoragesystemlaunchesinontario)on12
September2014.Retrieved12September2014.
26. Howelectricvehiclesareapartofdistributedgeneration(http://www.energydsm.com/distributedgeneration)
27. ETHZrich,HarvardUniversityTheEconomicViabilityofBatteryStorageforResidentialSolar
PhotovoltaicSystemsAReviewandaSimulationModel
(http://www.sustec.ethz.ch/people/jhoppmann/Hoppmann_et_al__The_Economic_Viability_of_Battery_Storag
e_for_Residential_Solar_Photovoltaic_Systems__A_Review_and_a_Simulation_Model.pdf)Joern
Hoppmann,JonasVolland,TobiasS.Schmidt,VolkerH.Hoffmann,July2014
28. Tomoiag,B.Chindri,M.Sumper,A.SudriaAndreu,A.VillafafilaRobles,R.ParetoOptimal
ReconfigurationofPowerDistributionSystemsUsingaGeneticAlgorithmBasedonNSGAII.
(http://www.mdpi.com/19961073/6/3/1439/pdf)Energies2013,6,14391455.
29. P.Mazidi,G.N.SreenivasReliabilityAssessmentofADistributedGenerationConnectedDistribution
SystemInternationalJournalofPowerSystemOperationandEnergyManagement(IJPSOEM),Nov.2011
30. MathH.Bollen,FainanHassanIntegrationofDistributedGenerationinthePowerSystem,JohnWiley&
Sons,2011ISBN1118029011,pagesvx
31. HowbigarePowerlinelosses?(http://blog.schneiderelectric.com/energymanagementenergy
efficiency/2013/03/25/howbigarepowerlinelosses/)
32. StanMarkKaplan,FredSissine,(ed.)Smartgrid:modernizingelectricpowertransmissionand
distribution...TheCapitolNetInc,2009,ISBN1587331624,page217
33. [2](http://www.moneycontrol.com/smementor/mentorade/startingup/powercrisisgridcollapseisittimeto
think739976.html)
34. http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/USMicrogridCapacityWillExceed1.8GWby2018
35. "GoingSolarIsHarderThanItLooks,aValleyFinds"
(http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/04/us/04electricity.html)articlebyKirkJohnsoninTheNewYorkTimes
June3,2010
36. "ColoradoIncreasesRenewablesRequirements"(http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/03/22/coloradoto
boostrenewablesrequirements/)blogbyKateGalbraithonNYTimes.ComMarch22,2010

Furtherreading
Brass,J.N.Carley,S.MacLean,L.M.Baldwin,E.(2012)."PowerforDevelopment:AReview
ofDistributedGenerationProjectsintheDevelopingWorld".AnnualReviewofEnvironmentand
Resources37:107.doi:10.1146/annurevenviron051112111930
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurevenviron051112111930).
Gies,Erica.MakingtheConsumeranActiveParticipantintheGrid
(http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/29/business/energyenvironment/29ihtrbogferc.html?
pagewanted=all&_r=0&gwh=402884C2E19C695EA255CCF207D8BB22),TheNewYorkTimes,
November29,2010.DiscussesdistributedgenerationandtheU.S.FederalEnergyRegulatory
Commission.
Pahl,Greg(2012).Powerfromthepeople:howtoorganize,finance,andlaunchlocalenergy
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projects.SantaRosa,Calif:PostCarbonInstitute.ISBN9781603584098.

Externallinks
TheUKDistrictEnergyAssociationadvocatingtheconstructionoflocallydistributedenergy
networks(http://www.ukdea.org.uk/)
DecentralizedPowerasPartofLocalandRegionalPlans
(http://www.newrules.org/electricity/planningfordg.html)
IEEEP1547DraftStandardforInterconnectingDistributedResourceswithElectricPower
Systems(http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/scc21/1547/1547_index.html)
WorldAllianceforDecentralizedEnergy(http://www.localpower.org)
TheiDEaSprojectbyUniversityofSouthamptononDecentralisedEnergy
(http://www.ideasproject.info)
Biofuelsandgaspressureenergyrecovery
(http://www.abc.net.au/rn/scienceshow/stories/2007/2010598.htm)
MicrogridsprojectsandDEROptimizationModelatBerkeleyLab(http://building
microgrid.lbl.gov/)
DERlab(http://www.derlab.net)
CenterforEnergyandinnovativeTechnologies(http://www.cet.or.at)
DecentralizedPowerSystem(DPS)inPakistan(http://ezine.pk/?DecentralizedPowerSystem
DPSinPakistan&id=381)
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