SEL - 2

LISNA HIDAYATI, M.Biotech.

OUTLINE
1. Pembelahan sel: amitosis, mitosis, dan
meiosis
2. Pengertian tentang sitoskeleton

Key Role: Pembelahan Sel

The continuity of life
Is based upon the reproduction of cells, or cell
division

Key Role: Pembelahan Sel

Unicellular organisms
Reproduce by cell division
100 m

Figure 12.2 A

(a) Reproduction. An amoeba,

a single-celled eukaryote, is
dividing into two cells. Each
new cell will be an individual
organism (LM).

Key Role: Pembelahan Sel

Unicellular organisms
Reproduce by cell division
100 m

Figure 12.2 A

(a) Reproduction. An amoeba,

a single-celled eukaryote, is
dividing into two cells. Each
new cell will be an individual
organism (LM).

Key Role: Pembelahan Sel

Multicellular organisms depend on cell
division for
Development from a fertilized cell
Growth
Repair
200 m
20 m

(b) Growth and development.

(c) Tissue renewal. These dividing
This micrograph shows a
bone marrow cells (arrow) will
sand dollar embryo shortly
give rise to new blood cells (LM).
after the fertilized egg divided,
Figure 12.2 B, C forming two cells (LM).

Concept : Cell division results in

genetically identical daughter cells
Cells duplicate their genetic material
Before they divide, ensuring that each daughter
cell receives an exact copy of the genetic
material, DNA

A cells endowment of DNA, its genetic

information
Is called its genome

The DNA molecules in a cell

Are packaged into chromosomes

Figure 12.3
50 m

The Chromosomes
Eukaryotic chromosomes
Consist of chromatin, a complex of DNA and
protein that condenses during cell division

In animals
Somatic cells have two sets of chromosomes
Gametes have one set of chromosomes

Each duplicated chromosome

Has two sister chromatids, which separate
during cell division
0.5 m
A eukaryotic cell has multiple
chromosomes, one of which is
represented here. Before
duplication, each chromosome
has a single DNA molecule.

Once duplicated, a chromosome

consists of two sister chromatids
connected at the centromere. Each
chromatid contains a copy of the
DNA molecule.

Mechanical processes separate

the sister chromatids into two
chromosomes and distribute
them to two daughter cells.

Figure 12.4

Chromosome
duplication
(including DNA
synthesis)
Centromere

Separation
of sister
chromatids

Centromeres

Sister
chromatids

Sister chromatids

Cell Division
Eukaryotic cell division consists of
Mitosis, the division of the nucleus
Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm

In meiosis
Sex cells are produced after a reduction in
chromosome number

Cell Cycle
The cell cycle consists of
The mitotic phase
Interphase
INTERPHASE

G1

S
(DNA synthesis)

G2

Figure 12.5

INTERPHASE
can be divided into subphases
G1 phase
S phase
G2 phase

THE MITOTIC PHASE

Is made up of mitosis and cytokinesis
Mitosis consists of five distinct phases
Prophase
Prometaphase

G2 OF
PROMETAPHASE
PROPHASE
INTERPHASE
Centrosomes
Fragments
Early mitoticAster
Kinetochore
(with centriole pairs) Chromatin
of nuclear
Centromere
spindle
(duplicated)
Nonkinetochore
envelope
microtubules

Figure 12.6

Nucleolus Nuclear Plasma

envelope membrane

Chromosome, consisting
of two sister chromatids

Kinetochore
microtubule

THE MITOTIC PHASE

Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

METAPHASE

ANAPHASE

Metaphase
plate

Figure 12.6

Spindle

Centrosome at Daughter
one spindle pole chromosomes

TELOPHASE AND CYTOKINESIS

Cleavage
furrow

Nuclear
envelope
forming

Nucleolus
forming

The Mitotic Spindle:

A Closer Look
The mitotic spindle
Is an apparatus of microtubules that controls
chromosome movement during mitosis

Some spindle microtubules

Aster

Attach to the
kinetochores of
chromosomes and move
the chromosomes to the
metaphase plate

Sister
chromatids

Centrosome
Metaphase
Plate
Kinetochores

Overlapping
nonkinetochore
microtubules
Kinetochores
microtubules
Microtubules

0.5 m

Figure 12.7 Centrosome

1 m

Chromosomes

Cytokinesis: A Closer Look

In animal cells
Cytokinesis occurs by a process known as
cleavage, forming a cleavage furrow

Cleavage furrow

Contractile ring of
microfilaments

Figure 12.9 A

100 m

Daughter cells

(a) Cleavage of an animal cell (SEM)

Cytokinesis: A Closer Look

In plant cells, during cytokinesis
A cell plate forms

Vesicles Wall of
1 m
forming patent cell Cell plate
New cell wall
cell plate

Daughter cells
Figure 12.9 B(b) Cell plate formation in a plant cell (SEM)

Mitosis in a plant cell

Chromatine
Nucleus
Nucleolus condensing

Chromosome

Metaphase. The
2 Prometaphase.
3
1 Prophase.
spindle is complete, 4
The chromatin
We now see discrete
and the chromosomes,
is condensing.
chromosomes; each
attached to microtubules
The nucleolus is
consists of two
at their kinetochores,
beginning to
identical sister
are all at the metaphase
disappear.
chromatids. Later
plate.
Although not
in prometaphase, the
yet visible
nuclear envelop will
in the micrograph,
fragment.
the mitotic spindle is
staring to from.

Figure 12.10

Anaphase. The
5
chromatids of each
chromosome have
separated, and the
daughter chromosomes
are moving to the ends
of cell as their
kinetochore
microtubles shorten.

Telophase. Daughter
nuclei are forming.
Meanwhile, cytokinesis
has started: The cell
plate, which will
divided the cytoplasm
in two, is growing
toward the perimeter
of the parent cell.

The cell cycle is regulated by a

molecular control system
The frequency of cell division
Varies with the type of cell

These cell cycle differences

Result from regulation at the molecular level

The Cell Cycle Control System

The sequential events of the cell cycle
Are directed by a distinct cell cycle control
system, which is similar to a clock
G1 checkpoint

Control
system
G1
M

G2

M checkpoint
Figure 12.14

G2 checkpoint

The clock has specific

checkpoints
Where the cell cycle stops until a go-ahead signal is
received

G0
G1 checkpoint

G1

Figure 12.15 A, B

(a) If a cell receives a go-ahead signal at

the G1 checkpoint, the cell continues
on in the cell cycle.

G1
(b) If a cell does not receive a go-ahead
signal at the G1checkpoint, the cell
exits the cell cycle and goes into G0, a
nondividing state.

The Cell Cycle Clock: Cyclins and

Cyclin-Dependent Kinases
Two types of regulatory proteins are
involved in cell cycle control
Cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases
(Cdks) MPF

Cancer cells
Exhibit neither density-dependent inhibition
nor anchorage dependence
Cancer cells do not exhibit
anchorage dependence or
density-dependent inhibition.
(b) Cancer cells. Cancer cells usually
continue to divide well beyond a
single layer, forming a clump of
overlapping cells.

Figure 12.18 B
25 m

Loss of Cell Cycle Controls in

Cancer Cells
Cancer cells
Do not respond normally to the bodys control
mechanisms
Form tumors

Malignant tumors invade surrounding

tissues and can metastasize
Exporting cancer cells to other parts of the body
where they may form secondary tumors

Lymph
vessel

Tumor

Blood
vessel

Glandular
tissue

1 A tumor grows from a

single cancer cell.

Figure 12.19

Cancer cell
2 Cancer cells invade
neighboring tissue.

3 Cancer cells spread

through lymph and
blood vessels to
other parts of the body.

Metastatic
Tumor
4 A small percentage of
cancer cells may survive
and establish a new tumor
in another part of the body.

Pembelahan Sel
1. Amitosis or direct cell division
2. Mitosis
3. Meiosis

AMITOSIS
Is the means of asexual reproduction
It happens in unicellular organisms like
bacteria, yeast etc.
In this type the splitting of nucleus is
followed by cytoplasmic constriction

Binary Fission
Prokaryotes (bacteria)
Reproduce by a type of cell division called binary fission

Mitosis
Some haploid & diploid cells divide by mitosis.
Each new cell receives one copy of every
chromosome that was present in the original cell.
Produces 2 new cells that are both genetically
identical to the original cell.
DNA duplication
during interphase

Mitosis

Diploid Cell

Mitotic Division of an Animal Cell

G2 OF INTERPHASE

Centrosomes
(with centriole pairs)

Nucleolus

Chromatin
(duplicated)

Nuclear
Plasma
envelope membrane

PROPHASE

Early mitotic
spindle

Aster
Centromere

Chromosome, consisting
of two sister chromatids

PROMETAPHASE

Fragments
of nuclear
envelope

Kinetochore
Nonkinetochore
microtubules

Kinetochore
microtubule

Mitotic Division of an Animal Cell

METAPHASE

ANAPHASE

Metaphase
plate

Spindle

Centrosome at Daughter
one spindle pole chromosomes

TELOPHASE AND CYTOKINESIS

Cleavage
furrow

Nuclear
envelope
forming

Nucleolus
forming

Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles

Living organisms are distinguished by their ability to
reproduce their own kind
Heredity
Is the transmission of traits from one generation to the
next
Variation
Shows that offspring differ somewhat in appearance
from parents and siblings

Inheritance of Genes
Genes are segments of DNA, units
of heredity
Offspring acquire genes from
parents by inheriting
chromosomes
Genetics is the scientific study of
heredity and hereditary variation

Inheritance of Genes
Each gene in an organisms DNA has a
specific locus on a certain chromosome
We inherit one set of chromosomes from our
mother and one set from our father
Two parents give rise to offspring that have
unique combinations of genes inherited
from the two parents - sexual reproduction

Asexual Reproduction
In asexual reproduction, one parent
produces genetically identical offspring by
mitosis

Parent
Bud

Figure 13.2

0.5 mm

Sexual Reproduction
Fertilization and meiosis alternate in sexual life cycles
A life cycle is the generation-to-generation sequence of
stages in the reproductive history of an organism
Key
Haploid
Diploid
n

Gametes
n

MEIOSIS

FERTILIZATION

Zygote
2n
Diploid
multicellular
organism

2n

Mitosis
(a) Animals

Sex Cells - Gametes

Unlike somatic cells, sperm and egg cells are
haploid cells, containing only one set of
chromosomes
At sexual maturity the ovaries and testes
produce haploid gametes by meiosis

Sexual Reproduction - The

Human Life Cycle
Haploid gametes (n = 23)
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)

During
fertilization, sperm
and ovum fuse
forming a diploid
zygote
The zygote
develops into an
adult organism

Ovum (n)

Sperm
Cell (n)
FERTILIZATION

MEIOSIS

Ovary

Testis

Mitosis and
development

Multicellular diploid
adults (2n = 46)

Diploid
zygote
(2n = 46)

Meiosis
Reduces the chromosome number such
that each daughter
Cell has a haploid set of chromosomes
Ensures that the next generation will have:
Diploid number of chromosome
Exchange of genetic information (combination
of traits
that differs from that of either parent)

Meiosis
Only diploid cells can divide by meiosis.
Prior to meiosis I, DNA replication occurs.
During meiosis, there will be two nuclear divisions, and the result will be
four haploid nuclei.
No replication of DNA occurs between meiosis I and meiosis II.

Meiosis
Interphase

Meiosis reduces the

number of chromosome
sets from diploid to
haploid
Meiosis takes place in two
sets of divisions
Meiosis I reduces the
number of chromosomes
from diploid to haploid
Meiosis II produces four
haploid daughter cells
Figure 13.7

Homologous pair
of chromosomes
in diploid parent cell

Chromosomes
replicate

Homologous pair of replicated chromosomes

Sister
chromatids

Diploid cell with

replicated
chromosomes

Meiosis I

1 Homologous
chromosomes
separate

Haploid cells with

replicated chromosomes
Meiosis II
2 Sister chromatids
separate

Haploid cells with unreplicated chromosomes

Meiosis Phases
Meiosis involves the same four phases seen in
mitosis
prophase
metaphase
anaphase
telophase
They are repeated during both meiosis I and
meiosis II.
The period of time between meiosis I and meiosis
II is called interkinesis.
No replication of DNA occurs during interkinesis
because the DNA is already duplicated.

Prophase I
Prophase I occupies more than 90% of the time required for
meiosis
Chromosomes begin to condense
In synapsis, the 2 members of each homologous pair of
chromosomes line up side-by-side, aligned gene by gene, to
form a tetrad consisting of 4 chromatids
During synapsis, sometimes there is an exchange of
homologous parts between non-sister chromatids. This
exchange is called crossing over
Each tetrad usually has one or more chiasmata, X-shaped
regions where crossing over occurred
Prophase I
of meiosis

Nonsister
chromatids

Tetrad
Chiasma,
site of
crossing
over

Metaphase I

At metaphase I, tetrads line up at the metaphase plate, with one

chromosome facing each pole
Microtubules from one pole are attached to the kinetochore of one
chromosome of each tetrad
Microtubules from the other pole are attached to the kinetochore of the
other chromosome
PROPHASE I
Sister
chromatids

METAPHASE I

Chiasmata

Sister chromatids
remain attached

Centromere
(with kinetochore)

Spindle

ANAPHASE I

Metaphase
plate

Microtubule
Homologous
attached to
chromosomes
kinetochore
separate
Tetrads line up
Homologous chromosomes
Pairs of homologous
chromosomes split up
(red and blue) pair and
exchange segments; 2n = 6
Tetrad

Anaphase I
In anaphase I, pairs of homologous chromosomes separate
One chromosome moves toward each pole, guided by the spindle apparatus
Sister chromatids remain attached at the centromere and move as one unit
toward the pole
PROPHASE I
Sister
chromatids

Tetrad

METAPHASE I

ANAPHASE I
Sister chromatids
remain attached

Centromere
(with kinetochore)

Chiasmata

Metaphase
plate

Spindle

Microtubule
attached to
kinetochore

Homologous chromosomes
(red and blue) pair and
exchange segments; 2n = 6

Homologous
chromosomes
separate

Tetrads line up

Pairs of homologous
chromosomes split up

Telophase I and Cytokinesis

In the beginning of telophase I, each half of the cell
has a haploid set of chromosomes; each
chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids
Cytokinesis usually occurs simultaneously,
forming two haploid daughter cells
In animal cells, a cleavage furrow forms; in plant
cells, a cell plate forms
No chromosome replication occurs between the
end of meiosis I and the beginning of meiosis II
because the chromosomes are already replicated

Prophase II
Meiosis II is very similar to mitosis
In prophase II, a spindle apparatus forms
In late prophase II, chromosomes (each still composed of
two chromatids) move toward the metaphase plate
TELOPHASE I AND
CYTOKINESIS

PROPHASE II

Cleavage
furrow

METAPHASE II

ANAPHASE II

Sister chromatids
separate

TELOPHASE II AND
CYTOKINESIS

Haploid daughter cells

forming

Metaphase II
At metaphase II, the sister chromatids are at the metaphase plate
Because of crossing over in meiosis I, the two sister chromatids of
each chromosome are no longer genetically identical
The kinetochores of sister chromatids attach to microtubules
extending from opposite poles
TELOPHASE I AND
CYTOKINESIS

PROPHASE II

Cleavage
furrow

METAPHASE II

ANAPHASE II

TELOPHASE II AND
CYTOKINESIS

Haploid daughter cells

Sister chromatids forming
separate

Anaphase II
At anaphase II, the sister chromatids separate
The sister chromatids of each chromosome now move as
two newly individual chromosomes toward opposite poles
TELOPHASE I AND
CYTOKINESIS

PROPHASE II

Cleavage
furrow

METAPHASE II

ANAPHASE II

Sister chromatids
separate

TELOPHASE II AND
CYTOKINESIS

Haploid daughter cells

forming

Telophase II and Cytokinesis

In telophase II, the chromosomes arrive at opposite poles

Nuclei form, and the chromosomes begin decondensing
Cytokinesis separates the cytoplasm
At the end of meiosis, there are four daughter cells, each with a
haploid set of unreplicated chromosomes
Each daughter cell is genetically distinct from the others and from the
parent cell
TELOPHASE I AND
CYTOKINESIS

PROPHASE II

Cleavage
furrow

METAPHASE II

ANAPHASE II

TELOPHASE II AND
CYTOKINESIS

Haploid daughter cells

Sister chromatids forming
separate

A Comparison Of Mitosis And Meiosis

MITOSIS

MEIOSIS
Chiasma (site of
crossing over)

Parent cell
(before chromosome replication)

MEIOSIS I

Prophase I

Prophase

Chromosome
replication

Duplicated chromosome
(two sister chromatids)

Chromosome
replication

Tetrad formed by
synapsis of homologous
chromosomes

2n = 6

Chromosomes
positioned at the
metaphase plate

Metaphase

Sister chromatids
separate during
anaphase

Anaphase
Telophase

2n

Tetrads
positioned at the
metaphase plate

Homologues
separate
during
anaphase I;
sister
chromatids
remain together

Metaphase I

Anaphase I
Telophase I
Haploid
n=3

Daughter
cells of
meiosis I

2n

MEIOSIS II

Daughter cells
of mitosis
n

Daughter cells of meiosis II

Sister chromatids separate during anaphase II

A Comparison Of Mitosis And

Meiosis
Mitosis

Meiosis

Tujuan: memperbanyak sel pada proses Tujuan: mengurangi jumlah kromosom,

pertumbuhan, mengganti sel rusak dan agar generasi berikutnya mempunyai
reproduksi pada organisme bersel satu sel dengan jumlah kromosom tetap.
Tidak terjadi pertukaran genetik antara
kromosom-kromosom yang homolog

terjadi pertukaran genetik (pindah

silang) antara kromosom-kromosom
yang homolog

Terjadi pada sel tubuh, yaitu pada

proses pertumbuhan

Terjadi pada proses gametogenesis

(pembentukan sel gamet)

Sel yang melakukan pembelahan:

a.
Sel haploid ( nn)
b.
Sel diplodi (2n 2n)

Sel yang melakukan pembelahan:

Sel diploid 4 sel haploid
2n 2n n, n, n, n

Kandungan genetik sel-sel anakan

identik dengan sel induk

Kandungan genetik sel-sel anakan

berbeda satu sama lain dan berbeda
dengan sel induk

Comparison
Meiosis
DNA
duplication
followed by 2
cell divisions
Sysnapsis
Crossing-over
One diploid cell
produces 4
haploid cells
Each new cell
has a unique
combination of
genes

Mitosis

Homologous
chromosomes do not
pair up

No genetic exchange
between homologous
chromosomes

One diploid cell

produces 2 diploid
cells or one haploid
cell produces 2
haploid cells

New cells are

genetically identical to
original cell (except for
mutation)

Sexual Reproduction - The

Human Life Cycle
During fertilization,
sperm and ovum fuse
forming a diploid
zygote
The zygote develops
into an adult organism

Haploid gametes (n = 23)

Haploid (n)
Ovum (n)
Diploid (2n)

Sperm
Cell (n)
FERTILIZATION

MEIOSIS

Ovary

Testis

Mitosis and
development
Multicellular diploid
adults (2n = 46)

Diploid
zygote
(2n = 46)

Spermatogenesis

Figure 27.8b, c

Oogenesis