Revision 002
Prepared by:
Reviewed by:
Reviewed by:
Authors
Date
Place
Raghuvir Tomar
24th
January
2006
LNMIIT
Jaipur,
India
Revision History
Revision Date
Description
001
Initial draft
002
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Table of Contents
1
1.1
1.2
Force....................................................................................................................... 1
1.3
Energy .................................................................................................................... 1
1.4
Power...................................................................................................................... 1
1.5
Frequency .............................................................................................................. 2
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
Electrical Conductance......................................................................................... 3
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
1.15
1.16
1.17
Capacitance........................................................................................................ 4
1.18
Inductance .......................................................................................................... 4
1.19
1.20
1.21
Permeability........................................................................................................ 5
1.22
Permittivity ......................................................................................................... 5
1.23
Network parameters ............................................................................................. 6
1.23.1 Two-port networks ............................................................................................ 6
1.23.1.1 Admittance (Y) parameters........................................................................ 6
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ii
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iii
The objective of this chapter is to re-capitulate the fundamental knowledge that would
serve as the background for this course.
1.1
A typical modern communication system is shown, in its most basic form, in Fig 1.1. It
consists of the transmitter, the propagation medium, and the receiver.
There are two different approaches to analyzing a communication system:
1. Circuit analysis (also referred to as the circuit theory)
2. Field analysis (also referred to as the electromagnetic theory)
Circuit analysis is based on concepts like voltage (V) and current (I) and uses well-known
relationships like Ohms law and Kirchhoffs law. This method is sufficiently accurate
for DC and low frequencies.
Electromagnetic theory (also abbreviated as EM theory) is based on concepts like electric
field (vector E) and magnetic field (vector H). This approach is suited for higher
frequencies as well as for understanding radiation effects.
Now we shall briefly review some terminology that will be frequently used in this
course.
1.2
Force
Force, F, is a measure of the effort put into doing a job or in causing a physical change.
One common unit used for force is newton. One newton is defined as the force required
to accelerate an object of 1Kg. mass at the rate of 1m/sec2.
Another unit used for force is dyne. One dyne is defined as the force required to
accelerate an object of 1 gram mass at the rate of 1cm/sec2.
1.3
Energy
Energy, E, can be defined as force multiplied by distance. One common unit of energy is
joule. One joule is defined as the energy spent when a force of 1 newton is exerted
through a distance of 1meter.
Energy can also be measured in erg. One erg is equal to the energy spent when a force
of 1 dyne is exerted through a distance of 1 cm.
1.4
Power
(1.1)
For electrical engineering purposes, the following definitions are more relevant.
1W = (1 Volt) X( 1 Ampere)
(1.2)
dB=10log10(P/Pref)
(1.3)
where P is the unknown power and Pref is a reference power against which P is measured.
When Pref=1mW, we define
dBm=10log10(P/1mW)
(1.4)
(1.5)
(1.6)
The term average power is the most popularly used one, in specifying radio frequency
(RF) and microwave components. The terms pulse power, peak power, and peak
envelope power (PEP) are more specific to radar applications, and to systems using
complex modulation schemes like Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) Quadrature
Phase Shift Keying (QPSK), etc.
1.5
Frequency
(1.7)
where N is the number of cycles of that repetitive signal, over a period of T seconds.
1.6
Electrical Current
Electrical current, I or A, is the result of net flow or movement of electric charges from
one point to another, or across a boundary. Current is usually measured in Amperes. An
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Ampere is defined as the constant current which, if maintained in two straight electrical
conductors of infinite length and negligible cross-section, and placed 1 meter apart in
vacuum, shall produce a force of 2x10-7 newton/meter between these two conductors.
1.7
Electrical Charge
Electrical Resistance
Electrical Conductance
Electrical conductance, G, is the reciprocal of the resistance, R. The unit of G is mho (or
siemens).
1.10 Electrical Resistivity
(1.8)
Where R is the electrical resistance of a uniform specimen of the material (in ohm), L is
the length of the specimen (in meter), and A is the cross-sectional area of the specimen
(in m2).
The unit of resistivity is ohm-m.
1.11 Electrical Conductivity
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Electrical potential difference (also called voltage), V, between two points is the energy
that would be required to move a positive unit electrical charge from one point to another.
Potential difference is normally measured in volts.
1 volt=1 joule/1 coulomb
1.14 Magnetomotive Force (MMF)
Electric field strength, vector E, also called electric field intensity, at any point in a
medium is the force experienced by a unit positive charge at that point. The unit of E is
newton/coulomb.
1.16 Electric Flux Density
Electric flux density, vector D, at any point in a medium is the total electric charge
passing through a surface of area equal to one square meter at that point. The unit of D is
coulomb/m2.
Electric flux density is also called displacement density.
1.17 Capacitance
The voltage between the terminals of a loop of wire depends on the rate of change of
magnetic flux, phi, through any surface enclosed by the loop.
The unit of phi is Weber. ! Weber is equal to 1Volt-Second.
The magnetic flux density, vector B, essentially speaking, is the response of a medium or
material to the presence of a magnetic field. Mathematically, we can write,
B=F/(I*L)
(1.9)
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Where B is the magnitude of the flux density, and F is the force experienced by a wire of
length L carrying a current I.
1.20 Magnetic Field Strength
Magnetic field strength, also referred to as the magnetic field intensity, is abbreviated by
the symbol vector H.
Magnetic field strength between two parallel plane sheets carrying equal and oppositely
directed currents is equal to the current per meter width flowing in the sheets. The unit of
H is Amperes/meter.
1.21 Permeability
Permeability, , relates the magnetic flux density vector B, and the magnetic field
intensity vector H, by means of the following equation.
B= *H
(1.10)
= 0 r
(1.11)
Where r is the relative permeability of the medium and 0 is the permeability of freespace.
0=4*10-7
Henry/m
(1.12)
1.22 Permittivity
Permittivity, , relates the electrical flux density vector D, and the electric field intensity
vector E, by means of the following equation.
D=*E
(1.13)
(1.14)
Where r is the relative permittivity of the medium and epsilon0 is the permittivity of freespace.
0=(1/(36*))*10
-9
Farad/m
(1.15)
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The electronic networks are broadly divided into the following five categories:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Two-port networks.
One-port networks.
Multiple-port networks.
Multi-stage networks.
Non-linear networks.
We shall discuss only linear two-port and single-port networks since others are not too
relevant in this course.
1.23.1 Two-port networks
A two-port network is shown in Fig 1.2, with the definitions of various quantities shown
therein. The input-output behavior of such a two-port network can be defined by any of
the following five parameters: Y, Z, H, ABCD, and S. The definitions and brief
discussions of these parameters follow.
1.23.1.1 Admittance (Y) parameters
The admittance or Y parameters relate the input and output currents I1 and I2 to the input
and output voltages V1 and V2. Mathematically speaking,
I 1 = Y 11V 1 + Y 12V 2
I 2 = Y 21V 1 + Y 22V 2
(1.16)
(1.17)
Eqs. 1.16 and 1.17 lead to the following definitions for Y11,Y12,Y21,and Y22:
Y 11 =
Y 12 =
Y 21 =
Y 22 =
I1
V1
V2=0
(1.18)
I1
V2
V1=0
(1.19)
I2
V1
V2=0
(1.20)
I2
V2
V1=0
(1.21)
Y parameters, as is clear in the above definitions, can be measured by creating shortcircuits at input and output ports (V1=0 or V2=0). The preferred use of Y parameters is
below 1MHz where the definitions of voltage, current, and short-circuits are quite
unambiguous. An additional factor that discourages the use of Y parameters above
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1MHz is the possibility that, for active devices, unwanted oscillations may occur when
the circuit is terminated in a short-circuit.
1.23.1.2 Impedance (Z) parameters
The impedance or Z parameters are meant to relate the input and output voltages V1 and
V2 to the input and output currents I1 and I2 and, like Y parameters, are preferred for
frequencies below 1MHz. Mathematically, the Z parameters are defined by the following
two equations.
V 1 = Z 11I 1 + Z 12 I 2
V 2 = Z 21I 1 + Z 22 I 2
(1.22)
(1.23)
Eqs. 1.22 and 1.23 lead to the following definitions for Z11,Z12,Z21,and Z22:
V1
I2=0
I1
V1
Z 12 =
I1=0
I2
V2
Z 21 =
I 1 I2=0
Z 11 =
Z 22 =
V2
I2
(1.24)
(1.25)
(1.26)
(1.27)
I1=0
Z parameters can be measured by creating open-circuits at input and output ports (I1=0 or
I2=0) as is evident in the above definitions. The preferred use of Z parameters is below
1MHz where the definitions of voltage, current, and open-circuits are quite unambiguous.
An additional factor that discourages the use of Z parameters above 1MHz is the
possibility that, for active devicess, unwanted oscillations may occur when the circuit is
terminated in an open-circuit.
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(1.28)
(1.29)
h11 =
h12 =
h 21 =
h 22 =
V1
I1
I2=0
(1.30)
V1
V2
I1=0
(1.31)
I1
I1
V2=0
(1.32)
I1=0
(1.33)
I2
V2
(1.34)
(1.35)
Eqs. (1.34) and (1.35) easily lead to the following definitions for ABCD parameters.
A=
V1
V2
(1.36)
I2=0
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B=
C=
V1
I2
I1
V2
D=
(1.37)
V2=0
(1.38)
I2=0
I1
V2
(1.39)
I2=0
ABCD parameters, like h parameters, are hybrid in nature. Their biggest advantage is
their easy algebraic manipulation for multi-stage networks, since the ABCD matrix is
directly multiplicable for cascaded networks.
ABCD parameters can be measured by creating open-circuit (I2=0 ) and short-circuit
(V2=0) at the output port. The preferred use of ABCD parameters is below 1MHz where
the definitions of voltage, current, open-circuits, and short-circuits are quite
unambiguous. An additional factor that discourages the use of ABCD parameters above
1MHz is the possibility that, for active circuits, unwanted oscillations may occur when
the circuit is terminated in an open-circuit or in a short-circuit.
1.23.1.5 Scattering (S) parameters
Scattering or S-parameters are based on incident and reflected powers and are the most
unambigiously-defined parameters for RF and microwave frequencies. These parameters
are defined by means of the following two equations.
b =S a +S a
b =S a +S a
1
11
21
12
22
(1.40)
(1.41)
where a1 and a2 are quantities representing the two incident signals and b1 and b2 are
quantities representing the two reflected signals.
The definitions of S parameters, derived from eqs. (1.40) and (1.41), follow.
S =
11
S =
12
b
a
(1.42)
1 a2=0
b
a
(1.43)
2 a1=0
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S =
21
S =
22
b
a
(1.44)
1 a2=0
b
a
(1.45)
2 a1=0
Of notable importance are the conditions under which these parameters are defined,
namely, a1=0 or a2=0. These conditions are un-ambiguously realizable in the
RF/microwave frequency bands, thereby making S parameters the most commonly used
network parameters for microwave and RF work.
1.23.1.6 Inter-relationship among network parameters
Of particular interest to the RF/microwave engineer are the formulas for converting S
parameters into other parameters and vice-versa. For easy reference, these formulas are
available in TBD.
1.23.2 Single-port networks
The Z,Y,h,ABCD, and S parameter definitions presented in the above section can be
simplified for single-port networks, simply by omitting all references to the output port
(port 2). For example, eqs. (1.42) to (1.43) would degenerate into a single equation
b1 = S 11a1
(1.46)
where S11 is still given by eq. (1.42), after ignoring reference to a2.
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10
Transmitte Propagation
Medium
r (TX)
Receiver
(RX)
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