Electrode identification:
E XX(X) X X
Electrode:
Solid metal core wire covered with a layer of granular flux or covered metal core electrode. No external
filler metal is added.
Shielding:
Shielding is provided by electrode coating, when gets heated & decomposes. This shielding gas assists the
flux in shielding of molten metal in the arc region.
Power supply:
Constant current power supply with Drooping Characteristics. Polarity may be DCEP, DCEN or AC.
Drooping Character: A decrease in arc voltage will result in corresponding increase in arc current. In
other way, arc voltage is directly related to the arc length (distance from electrode to work piece).
Advantages:
It is used for most materials except for some of the more exotic (unusual) alloys.
The equipment is relatively simple and inexpensive.
The process is considered quite versatile, due to the availability of numerous types of electrodes.
Disadvantages:
Inherent problems:
Porosity
Reason: i) Presence of moisture or contamination in the weld region (i.e.) in the electrode coating,
on the surface of the material or from the atmosphere surrounding the welding operation.
ii) Long arc length (Long arcing) when using low hydrogen electrodes.
iii) Due to arc blow.
Slag inclusion
Reason: The molten slag is not flow freely to the surface of the solidifying weld metal.
Incomplete fusion
Incomplete penetration
Cracking
Undercut
Overlap
Incorrect weld size
Improper weld profile
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ER XX S - X
Electrode:
Solid wire which does not contains flux coating.
Shielding:
Shielding is provided by protective atmosphere which is emitted from the welding gun from external
sources. Both inert and reactive gases are used for shielding. No external filler metal is added.
Power supply:
Self regulating constant potential or voltage system. Polarity is normally DCEP.
Metal transfer:
Spray
Globular
Pulsed arc
Short circuiting
These are differing from each other by the amount of heat provided to the work piece.
Metal transfer depends upon several factors. Those are,
Shielding gas
Current and voltage levels
Power supply characteristics
Advantages:
The use of gas shielding can reduce the possibility of introducing hydrogen into the weld zone.
Due to the non-availability slag, it is well suited for automatic and robotic welding or other high
production situations.
Efficiency is further increased by the continuous spool of wire, which does not require changing as
often as the individual electrodes.
Metal deposition is based upon lbs/hr, which reduces labour costs.
It is relatively clean process because no flux coated electrode is used.
It has more visibility during welding. Since no slag is present, the weld region can more easily be
observed the action of the arc and molten puddle to improve control.
Disadvantages:
It is not well suited for field welding due to sensitive to drafts or winds, which tend to blow the
shielding gas away and leave the weld metal unprotected.
Increased flow rates of shielding gas may draw atmospheric gases into the weld zone will tend to
increase the possibility of porosity.
Equipment is more complex.
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Gun liners and contact rube must be checked frequently. Otherwise altered electrode feeding and
electrical characteristics will result in defective welds. This is also known as Arc Instability.
Since no flux is used, it is an open arc process tends to result in incomplete fusion.
Inherent problems:
Porosity
Reason: Due to contamination or loss of shielding.
Incomplete fusion
Reason: Due to the use of short circuiting transfer on heavy sections.
Arc instability
Reason: Caused by worn liners and contact tips known as wire feed problem.
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EXXT-X
Electrodes:
Shielding:
FCAW can be performed with or without an external shielding gas.
Power supply:
Constant voltage DC power supply. Depends upon the electrode, polarity may be DCEP or DCEN.
Suffix with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 & 8 are normally used with DCEP.
Suffix with 7 is normally used with DCEN.
Advantages:
It has increased deposition rate (productivity), due to the continuous feeding of electrode reel
which increases the arc time.
Presence of fusion type discontinuities are less due to aggressive and deeply penetrating arc.
It has relatively good performance on contaminated surfaces due to the presence of flux.
Comparing with other manual process, it requires less operator skill.
Can be used for field welding purpose.
Disadvantages:
Since there is a presence of flux, slag will appear. It has to be removed before depositing additional
layer or for visual inspection.
Due to the presence of flux, significant amount of smoke will be generated. Prolonged exposure
could cause health problems.
Since the smoke extractor system is heavy, it will increase the gun weight and decrease the
visibility. They also may disturb the shielding if an auxiliary gas is being used.
The equipment more complex than that of SMAW.
Inherent problems:
Porosity
Reason: Due to the loss of shielding when used with external shielding gas.
Slag inclusion
Reason: Due to flux and less travel speed.
Arc instability
Reason: Due to wire feed problem
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Power supply:
Constant current type with flat characteristics. Polarity may be DCEP, DCEN or AC.
DCEP More heating of the electrode
DCEN More heating of the base metal
AC Alternatively heats the electrode and the base metal
AC is normally used for aluminium because of the increased cleaning action.
DCEN is most commonly used for the welding of steels.
Advantages:
It has the ability to produce welds of high quality and excellent visual appearance.
Since no flux is used, no slag to remove after welding.
It can be used for almost all materials, because the electrode is not melted during the welding.
Its ability to weld at low currents makes it suitable for use on the thinner materials up to 0.005
inch.
Its typically clean and controllable operation which leads to extremely critical operations.
Numerous types of filler metals exist for wide range of metals.
Disadvantages:
Inherent problems:
Power supply:
Constant voltage power supply or constant current type. Polarity may be DCEP, DCEN or AC. Polarity
will affect both penetration and weld bead contour.
Advantages:
Due to high rate of metal deposition, it is quite effective for overlaying or building up material
surface.
Less smoke is generated.
It has the ability to penetrate deeply.
Disadvantages:
It can only be done in the position where the flux can be supported in the weld joint.
Need for extensive fixtures and positioning equipment.
Slag need to be removed.
If welding parameters are improper, slag removal will be difficult.
If the arc is not properly directed, incomplete fusion will result.
Inherent problems:
If the flux becomes wet, porosity and under bead cracking will occur.
If the weld bead having very high width to depth ratio, solidification cracking will occur. (i.e.)
centerline shrinkage cracking.
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Process:
A high velocity plasma gas is forced through the copper orifice and past, the welding arc resulting in the
constriction of the arc. This process makes the arc more intense.
Plasma arc is classified into two types.
Transferred Arc is created between tungsten electrode and the work piece.
Non-transferred - Arc is created between tungsten electrode and the copper orifice.
Transferred arc is used for cutting & welding of conductive materials
Non-transferred arc is used for cutting of non-conductive materials and welding of materials where less
amount of heating is required for welding.
PAW
Torch will have copper orifice
Plasma control console & source of plasma gas
is needed
Two separate gases are used. One is shielding
and the other one is orifice or plasma gas
GTAW
It will not have
Not needed
Only shielding gas is used
PAW uses more localized heat source. It is used for full penetration by the technique key hole welding.
Advantages:
It provides more localized heat, which increases the welding speed and therefore less distortion.
The welder has better visibility.
Since the tungsten electrode recessed within the torch, a chance of tungsten inclusion is less.
Since plasma arc is less sensitive to changes in arc length, complete penetration and weld
uniformity are possible.
Disadvantages:
Inherent problems:
Tungsten inclusion
Tunneling: occurs when the key hole is not completely filled at the end of the weld, leaving a
cylindrical void which may extend entirely through the throat of the weld.
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Process:
It is not considered as an arc welding process. It works heating from the electrical resistance of the molten
flux to melt the base metal and the filler metals. During welding, the molten metal is supported on two
sides by water cooled shoes.
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Inherent problems:
Gross porosity can occur due to wet flux or the presence of leak in one of the water cooled shoes.
Centerline cracks due to weld metal shrinkage.
Grain growth may occur due to high amount of heat.
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Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Less heat energy comparing with an arc.
Suitable for thin steel sheet and small diameter piping
For groove welds, joint preparation should have a thin feather edge for complete penetration.
Slow process due to less heat concentration.
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Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Inherent problems:
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Process:
Its a non contact fusion joining process. Produces coalescence of material with the heat obtained from a
concentrated beam of coherent (all the light waves are in phase), monochromatic light impinging on the
joint to be welded. Laser beam is directed by flat optical elements, and then focused to a small spot at the
workplace using either reflecting focusing elements or lenses. Key hole technique is utilized for welding.
Inert gas shielding is generally employed. Filler metal may or may not be added.
Most commonly used laser beams are, 1.06m wavelength YAG (Yttrium Aluminium Garnet) & the 10.6
m wavelength CO2 laser.
Advantages:
Heat input is only to the required amount to melt the metal. Thus,
metallurgical effects in HAZ are less.
Up to 1 thickness can be welded in a single pass without a filler metal.
Since no electrodes are used, electrode contamination will not occur.
Since optical elements or lenses are used, welding in areas not easily
accessible also is possible by focusing the beam.
The joining of small, closely spaced components with tiny welds are possible.
Wide variety of materials in combinations can be welded.
Used as an automatic and high speed welding.
Thin metals and small diameter wires can be welded.
Not like arc & electron beam welding, LBW can not be affected by magnetic
field.
Depth to width ratio 10:1 can be attainable by forming a cavity in the metal
such as keyhole technique.
No vaccum or X-ray shielding is required.
Beam can be transmitted to more than one work station by sharing.
Electrically resistance materials can also be welded.
Disadvantages:
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Advantages:
This process is extremely efficient because EBW directly converts electrical energy into beam
output energy.
Single pass welding of thick joints are possible due to high width-to-depth ratio.
The heat input per unit length for a given depth of penetration is much lower than the arc. So less
distortion & narrow heat affected zone.
Vaccum environment for welding minimizes contamination of the metal by oxygen or nitrogen.
The beam can be projected from a distance allows it to weld inaccessible location.
Increased travel speed due to high melting rate.
Square butt joints of thick & thinner plates can be welded without filler metal in single pass.
Hermetic closures can be welded with high or medium vaccum.
It can be magnetically deflected to produce various shaped welds 7 magnetically oscillated to
improve penetration.
Dissimilar metals & metals with high thermal conductivity can be welded.
Disadvantages:
Equipment is expensive.
Rapid solidification rate may cause solidification crack in highly constrainded & low ferrite
stainless steel.
For high & medium vaccum welding, work chamber size must be large. The time needed to
evacuate the chamber will influence production cost.
Partial penetration welds with high depth to- width ratios are susceptible to root voids and
porosity.
Radiation shielding must be maintained.
Ventilation is required with non-vaccum to remove ozone and other noxious gases.
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Process:
First, the joint surface to be thoroughly cleaned. Once the parts are cleaned and fitted together, heat is
applied in some manner. When the parts have been heated to a temperature above the melting point of the
braze filler metal, it will be drawn into the joint when placed in contact with the parts as a result of
capillary action. To maintain the cleanliness of the joint during the application of heat, brazing fluxes are
often used.
Brazing methods:
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Inherent problems:
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Cutting Process
Oxy-Fuel Gas Cutting (OFC):
The equipment used for OFC is slightly different from OAW (Oxy-acetylene welding). Instead of welding
tip, a cutting attachment is added with an additional valve or lever to turn on cutting oxygen.
Process:
It is a chemical cutting process. Cutting is done by heating the part using a preheat flame which is an oxy
fuel mixture. When the metal reaches its kindling temperature, the cutting oxygen is turned on to
oxidize the hot metal. This exothermic reaction provides necessary heat to rapidly melt the metal.
Kindling temperature is, the temperature needed to oxidize or burn the metal by an oxy fuel flame.
Fuel gases may be acetylene, methane (natural gas), propane, gasoline & methyl acetylene proadine
(MPS).
Kerf: Width of the cut made by the flame
Drag: The amount of offset between the cut entry and exit points measured along the cut edge.
For effective oxy fuel cutting, the material must comply with the following criteria.
It must have the capability of burning in a stream of oxygen
Its ignition temperature for burning must be lower than its melting point
Its heat conductivity should be relatively low
The metal oxides produced must melt at some temperature below the melting point of the metal
The formed slag must be of low viscosity
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
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Process:
The carbon electrode is brought close to the work to create an arc. Once the arc melts the metal, a stream
of compressed air blows away the molten metal to produce a gauge or cut. Constant current power supply
is used for this process.
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
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Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Kerf is generally quite large and the cut edge may not be square
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Mechanical Cutting:
Shearing
Sawing
Grinding
Milling
Turning
Shaping
Drilling
Planing
Chipping
Advantages:
Used for
Joint preparation
Weld contouring
Parts preparation
Surface cleaning
Removal of defective welds
Disadvantages:
Porosity and cracking may occur if the cutting fluids are not fully removed
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