A Tentative Syntax of Modern Indo-European

Fernando Lpez-Menchero Dez
pitj eurp iosjo kntij kmtagtis
A tentative syntax of Modern Indoeuropean
Version 1. March 2013
nduktis
Sindhueuropjs tidemtis dn ghws mgns iwesi bhbhowe wighowos. Kputlom wenghos
ghi egsmn dhn ghews skribht tristimnjosjo wseti, ttom telom stdjosjo dhugtr dn ghwm
wr dhomeni keitoi. Bheustjos paukom ad wr tnm esti n ad kmtagtijoi wqqejmenos wilowoi.
Pol s swrist aw esti werijosei dn ghuwidji ptwiji.
Tosjo enskroibh meinom n new sindhueuropjosjo kmtagtjos pl nowr gn
aposkroibhodeiktim esti, ghina spekjm pljest n gnt dite n teni wseti. Ati kiwonim
dmomos itijom aw mghnijom protimonom bhocis cjistois kowsmn bhos sm bhodhm.
Protimonos so oqoskrd krts rtujd esti, qos penqe sm ghesla tnm pri bhstor.
Bhod lterom sesgesmn sindhueuropji ambhi kmtagte ghoretum chlomos, jota kniwos
enskroibhos so bhrougis sjti newm jkmonom ordhsmenei awti eti priloghom proti
gnnom dikmenei, enpronkt newa dhbhjosawe kslegmona atidemtipropodi n seri.
Prwelutijom jekmn stnom dektwijom esti slwotos bhtrodeqste .
Pelwijes pr ksks wropropd dew n lts, mnsonti, dikmn tos kem pttis prmms regonts
sjtra. Esti weteljjm dn ghwm prmom pritijom, jqodhei ntitjom sedleinom preismd
smlibhos gnesjom bhr gjetoi dmtibhos; komsqr teinom awti st nejom awti gnesjom;
ghdheinom, loudhweinom senoprekonjokloweinomqe dtiwom. Nper dsqoristom
kmmoinim rektum tosmei dkltm , ud edqom an bht.
Jotna bholetum wlmes toqe peluwom loism, qoi kbotos peros kosmi stighmenei
mnmenjoi onnr. Tdem bhrtjolom epidhdhntes, epi ggantom skndomos omsons.
Introduction
The reconstruction of Indoeuropean language has always been a big challenge. The main
difficulty is the lack of direct written testimony, so that the base for study lies mainly on the
vocabulary of its daughther languages. Little attention has been paid until now to its syntactic
grammar analysis. This approach is however very important to attain a wider knowledge of the
language.
The aim of this document is not to present a fully fledged description of the new Indoeuropean
syntax, since most of its aspects remain unknown at the present time. We just reconstruct a
partial but possible pattern squaring with the current understanding of Late Indoeuropean in
accordance with prevailing theories. This pattern is obviously different from the original one
which was spoken some five millennia ago.
We definitely wish to encourage further research on indoeuropean syntax, so that this
temptative document may be useful to raise further issues or even counter the available
information, bringing in new or more solid items into our reconstruction process. An evolutive
state of the issue has to be accepted in the presentation of the model as whole.
Many questions will probably long remain unsolved, as for instance the case governing the
absolute clauses. Italic languages have an absolute ablative, whereas Ancient Greek uses
mainly the genitive for similar constructions; Sanskrit either the locative or the genitive;
Gothic, Lithuanian and Old Church Slavonic the dative. It is for the moment very difficult to
determine a common denominator for this, if it ever existed.
We would also like to highlight the efforts of many scholars who have successfully contributed
to step further in this monumental domain. By just laying a little brick, we ride on giants
shoulders.
A Tentative Syntax of Modern Indoeuropean
Udbholowdheta
Pronunciation guide
c
/gu /
ch
/gu h/
dh
/dh/
bh
/bh/
gh
/gh/
j, w
/i /, /u /
djo, tjo, kje, bhje
/di o/, /ti o/, /ki e/, /bhi e/
dwo, two, kwe, bhwe
/du o/, /tu o/, /ku e/, /bhu e/
qa, qe, qi, qo, qu
/ku a/, /ku e/, /ku i/, /ku o/, /kwu/
gt, ght, kt
/kt/
bt, bht, pt
/pt/
ss
/ss/ /s/
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Endiks
Index
A.-Bhniqestjes
Parts of the sentence

The substantive and cases
1.-Sentmn pttjesqe
Nominative
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive
Dative
Locative
Instrumental
Ablative
Kluwiw
Kliw
Loktiw
Gnesj
Dtiw
Stnej
Dhtlej
Pritij
The adjective
2-Epikeimn
20
Gender
Number
Case variation
Grades
Positive/ natural
Equative
Comparative
Absolute superlative
Relative superlative
Genos
Sreidhmos
Pttimojos
Gwmona
Bhwtijom
Smostiwom/eksptijom
Smodhiwom
Permm uperdhiwom
Sqijom uperdhiwom
3.-Ridhms
Numerals
24
4.-Antinmona (prorok uporokqe)
Pronouns and determinants
39
Personal
Demonstrative
Possessive
Interrogative
Numeral
Relative
nonmija
Widktija
iktija
Prktija
Ridhmeja
Anabhrtija
5.-Doljs
Particles
49
6.-nawrmn
The adverb
58
The verb
7.-Wrmn
69
nonms
Prwos
Dwteros
Tritjos
Persons
First
Second
Third
Woqes
Voices
Active
Middle
Passive
Impersonal
Qqerj
Medhj
Ptjomn
ksonmis
Ambhtow spekjs wrtjm
modesomqe
General outlook of tenses and moods
Wrtja
Tenses
Present
Aorist
Perfect
Future
Enstnt
Nroki
Kmsqrtom
Bhewsont
Moods
Mdesa
Indicative
Precative
Subjunctive
Optative
Imperative
Diktijom
Prknejom
Upotgtijom
ptijom
ntagtijom
Usages/ valency
Natural
Stative/ essive
Inceptive/ fientive
Progressive
Intensive
Frequentative
Causative
Desiderative
Bhrgtjes/ wlntjom
Bhutij
Stiw
Kntij
Propdej
ntonw
Mnghij
Wistij
Wnskiw
Chapter A1: The substantive and the cases
B.-Bhnis
The sentence
1.-Bhniprptus
Form of the sentence
106
The simple sentence

The negative sentence
The interrogative sentence
The exclamative sentence
The emphatic sentence
Uses of the infinitive
Uses of the participles
Agent/ patient noun
The absolute clauses
Agreement
Sm plobhnis
Apgnuj bhnis
Pr ktij bhnis
Skrgtij bhnis
nbhtij bhnis
Ndhigsnimobhrgtjes
Atikpjobhrgtjes
Qrtr nmn /Ptjomnonmn
Perm kmtagmona
Sm bhondhos
Sentence combination
2.-Bhnismbhendhmn
136
Coordination
Komjougos
Copulative clauses
Disyuntive clauses
Distributive clauses
Illative clauses
Causal clauses
Adversative clauses
Explicative clauses
Wedhmosjtra
Delmosjtra
Winomosjtra
Enbhorosjtra
Praiqinasjtra
Protiwrtnosjtra
Ekswqosjtra
Subordination
Upojougos
Kmplsjtra
Anbhrsjtra
Ambhistnosjtra
Completive clauses
Relative clauses
Circumstancial clauses
Soikowdos
Snowdos
Mlowdos
Antimlowdos
Smitiwdos
Posmlowdos
Updhtiwdos
Smosttwdos
Wismn wdos
Sqrmn wdos
Protistoupowdos
Koituwdos
The expression of finality

The expression of place
The expression of temporality
The expression of anteriority
The expression of simultaneity
The expression of posteriority
The expression of condition
The expression of comparison
The expression of cause
The expression of effect/ consecution
The expression of concession
The expression of manner
3.-Ambhtowos wistolos mdesom,

wr tjm esomqe kmseqmenos
General pattern of moods, tenses and their

sequence
227
4.-Kmseqtis mdesom
Sequence of moods
231
References
nbhors
232
A.-Bhniqestjes
Parts of the sentence
1.-Sentmn pttjesqe
The substantive and the cases
Kluwiw
Qis, qid?
Nominative
Who, what?
Upolghej
Subject
Marij sncheti
Petros bhdhmeni swpeti
N smeustrom crjeti
Mary is singing
Peter sleeps on the floor
The computer is loading now
Anadkej
Attribute
Swesr mene mmj esti

Domos mgn
Dlk tod
West ghortei bhewti
Kluwj Markos
My sister is nurse
The house is big
This is sweet
The party is in the garden
My name is Markos
Pridoikw
Predicative
Smaurs kideti dnus

Ksr mrei bhebhowe westis
Rdos molt kwn
Gern clns propt
Komnopraiseds nmnjeto
Glkis s kljetor / krjetr
Glkis s kn sjeti / kn sjetor
The river goes down turbid

The clothes appeared dry in the morning
The dog appeared joyful
The old man look tired
He was appointed chairman of the board
She is reputed (to be) intelligent
She is considered (to be) intelligent
Maq kom wr st esti cen
The girl became a woman
Maq cen gent
The girl became a woman
Kliw
Vocative
Anagruj
Appellative
Susanna, cmje kom-ke
Susana, come here
O, qoleu, sntrprija
Oh distaff, friend of them who spin
Gheuse, Kaison, mrsomns twoi

koiluwrjonti
Hail, Cesar, those who are going to die

salute you
Qote wlneswnt (=wlneswents)

bhgjesi?
Whither are you fleeing, full of wounds?

(pro nominative)
Skrgtij
Exclamative
Nwidl!
You, ignorant!
Wr paukreddhs (=pau kreddhnt

wr)
You, man of little faith (=little trusting man)
Loktiw
Qim, qid?
Accusative
Whom, what?
Dhnghuqermenj
Of direct object
Nwns drk
Ekwom ikesi
I see some ships

Youve got a horse
Pridoikw
Predicative
Tewom adwsontm modnei chel
I want you present at the meeting
Komnoprisedm em nmnjnt
They appointed him chairman of the board
Ins n kputins werjont/nmnjont
They name(d) them the headless
Dhwolnom te kn sej
I think you are a fool
Glkim tewom qeis
I consider you (to be) intelligent
Regm tewom dhs/ wortes
Ill make you a king
Wtnstij
Of extension
Apo kmtom stwt liteses metrm

awonjom
The hotel was separated one hundred

meters from the beach
Dhochu stighomes
We walked during two days
Upolghosoikej
Of destination of the subject
Rmm eiti
He goes to Rome
Lugttjm nknunti
They arrive to Paris
Nebhos skandt
It went up to the sky
Dljakmoqesardij
Of point of view relating a particle
Platnm qelnt ambh
They circulated around the square
Gnesj
Qejos/ qesjo?
Genitive
Whose, of what?
Swljonej: genesbhenstij
Of kinship: Family relation
Gorlos, Marijs sns, twe koiljeti
Charles, the son of Mary says hello to you
Dghterm lubhj d mosjo-two
I am in love with your mates daughter
Potiw
Possessive
Ptros domus
The fathers house
Deiwm weqtjes
The things of the gods
renom nmtom (=orn nmtom)
The sanctuary of the eagles
Cows Martinosjo esti
The cow is Martins
Augtros
Author
Swnats Mzartjos
Mozarts sonates
Aitis slwosjo
Part of a whole
Doms dhworis ptjeti
The door of the house is open
Apo louksm werjom n mogh

peqnjosjo
I cannot open the window of the kitchen

Peculiar qualiy
Swgonis qljot
Stebhanj, uruwijs widjs cen
Stephania, a woman who has wide

knowledge
Ortus
Origin
Dhls prom (dhlaprom)
The danger of the storm
itij
Partitive
Kms lchosjo
Miwijest dhghmenom
Pau wdjosjo / snstewos
Magjs (msmos) bhrtrom
Tritjos rgom
Qis maqm
Edqid prsmosjo mnenos
Aw: Edqod mmsm
A lot of money
The minority of the people
Little wisdom / sense
The elder of the brothers
The third king /the third of the kings
One of the boys
Something of (from) the original idea
However: Some meat
10
Upolghej
Subjective
Pwerm dktewi mendhos
The childrens interest in learning
Swolj dhghmenom
The peoples goodwill
Qrmenj
Objective
Nmetom bhejos
Fear towards the enemies (possibly

subjective too: the enemies fear)
djom kwonom
Hatred towards dogs
Stimenos
Of material
Westim webhe kosjo snmonos
Weave a cloth of this thread
Aw swedns aqs
A source of fresh water
Mtij
Of measure
Roupjom penkwe eurm

(penkwurojom roupjom)
A five-euro coin
Plmn smghslosjo pstrm

(=smghslopstri plmn)
A book of 1000 pages
Wismenj, woinj ghaln ntijwe
Of cause, fault or mourning
Glagh upostosjo dusdrwmenos
A complaint for alleged ill-treatment
Kmplmn epikimenom
Complement of adjectives
Kmwids lawtlm
Conscious of the benefits
Ghoilos sghosjo
Happy about his victory
Plns winosjo (=Plns/plns woin)
Full of wine
Bhwijm qronom
Likely behaviour
Bheugtum bhluwm
Fleeing is common among cowards
Wrmns
With verbs
Kelutjos tosjo mmona (=klutim

mmona, =klutibhi mmona)
I remember that trip
Colnm bhibhjai (=bhbheimi colna)
I am afraid of airplanes
11
Dtiw
Qismi?
Dative
To whom, for whom?
ndhnghuqrmenj
Of indirect object
Dmni dsdhi (ddhi) klwm ati
Give the key back to the landlord
Tmtoprmn toibhos d 18 atnons

wetnm
It is forbidden to sell alcohol to minors

under the age of 18
Solwa epiwori wedt wra
He told the policeman all the truth
Mndhesj
Of interest - benefactive
lnsi wosjom adjr tod
They have prepared this room for her
Newm snewi spondjt dwrotlm
He promised a new bicycle to his son
Tebhei (prd) strouda
Ive been struggling for you
Lwtlej lutijwe
Of benefit or damage
Wobhj jweti me d peqtewei
Fibre helps me make digestion
Swr tmlos dusjeti koiluttei

(=swr tmlos lwti kiluttm)
Tobacco seriously damages your health
Sikmenos
Of purpose
Bher ta eks tewe (tebhei) gnni
I explain this for your information
grnos eiti
He goes for fruits
Wismrtewei pbeti
He drinks to forget
Leistjos
Of permission
Trkn tebhei kantum
I allow you to sing
Potiw
Possessive
Meghei trija sonti mrogaldhra
Ive got three mobile telephones
Epikeimnkmplmn
Complement of adjectives
Skous ek meghei ssttis
These trousers are comfortable to me
Leubhtwijom esti tebhei wergom

(qrtr)
You have to love your work (agent)
12
Qermn sikej
Of destination of the object
Westra mdlonji nijm
I took the garments to the laundry
Sontom noji sesentt
He sent the letter to his director
Swordiwoidi supjt apdsmonom
He threw the deodorant to the dustbin
Amikonemestous
Of friendship and enmity
Nmotes sonti Barkeinolwi
They are enemies of the Barcelona team
miks mikbhos
Friend of his friends
Epikimns
With adjectives
Smeustrom tebhei priloghom
The computer is available to you
Smoldom bhustejei s esti
Coffee is good to wake up
Tltis kmmoinis widubhos (esti)
Patience is common to wise people
Dhtlom tod ttknbhos bhrgi (esti)
This instrument is useful to carpenters
Smlis ptrei esti
He looks after his father (he is similar to)
Ja dhdhsi susnstewei prtija senti
What you are doing is contrary to good

sense
Wrmns
With verbs
Krdts esmi prostti
I got angry with my boss
Doljs
With particles
Wai n wdrobhos wikobhos!
Woe to the villages without water!
Wai wiknobhos!
Woe to the losers!
13
St nej
Qismi?
Locative
In what, where?
Stnom qodhei qertis ggistoi
Place where action happens
Permona, bhodis domei
Experiments...better at home
Lugttji trebh
I live in Paris
Pstrei septmi molos esti
There is a mistake on page seven
Ndjotjosjo
Of proximity
Dmudhwore sedbhwt
He was sitting at the door of his house
Ambhibhwosjo
Of environment
Anawoidos ljoisi strt uponmoisi

uponojoisiqe
The report spread among all the students

and teachers
Daitis qom qertis ggistoi
Time when action happens
Mloi tosmi n menm qota s kluwjt
At that moment I couldnt remember what

her name was.
nteronej
Of interval
Ati tritjei ststwe diw
He rose again on the third day
Jektrom tod kswekstoi q qosmi

emtwijom loudei
This medicine has to be taken every six

hours (every sixth hour)
Ambhstnej
Of circumstance
Wipodoi amikn s gnses
In adversity you will know your friends
Prmom kmtagmn
Absolute clause
Anatepli, eks sodt
By a mild weather, he went out
Cdhsmenj
Of immersion
M egne supje apdsmonom
Dont throw the deodorant into the fire
Ctakrsokos-two en swordikorbhe
dhghomst
Your cv landed in the dustbin
14
Mntij- menesqrmenj
Cogitative of mental activity
Tosmi prokstms ejes
They are vey demanding about this
Dlmoisi-swo wistrns cnnokom n

prtet
Distracted with (on) his calculations, he

did not notice his wifes arrival.
Wrom bht monjom praiwodei tosmi

(=tom ambh praiwodom)
The report was right on that prediction

(=about that prediction)
Dhabhrotagntij
Of ability and knowledge
Bhtiwidjei suwids
Expert in physics
Tjmn plokjoi esti bhlogs
He is a genius in origami
(=Tjmn plkjosjo esti bhlogs,

tjmn plkjejos esti bhlogs,
tjmn plokobhlogs so)
(=He is a genius of origami, he is an

origamic genius, he is an origamigenius)
Qlitjej
Of quality
Ismi widj pelu strgosjo
I see a lot of love in him
Dokosjo
Of recipient
Ghesr s-two, potei, tmonm bhistuj

mene
Into your hands, Lord, I commend my

spirit.
Regs regnpowoqnostins swoji

minsterei mn dst
The king entrusted the responsibilities of the

kingdom to his minister
Wrmn s
With verbs
Lndhomom mkesji glnmi
I stick the map on the wall
15
Dhtley
Instrumental
Q?
With what, through what?
Mghtrosjo
Of means
Thoms peds sprkons klawdt
Tom closed the drawers with his feet
Oms nijt kwonm atqe putlom ghesn
He bore the dog on his shoulder taking the

child by the hand
Dol pe wergopedom Hannibalis
Hannibal got his job by fraud
Solwa per leudherot luk plewet
Liberty penetrates everything with its light
Kmopjom/septis
Equipment/arrangment
Opej ghortom rstis
I equip the garden with plants
Wismenj
Of cause
Wrst w spordh remetor
The match was cancelled because of the

rain
Mgn prst (=mgnd prstjes)

mrijeto edn
Of big satiation the glutton dies
Qrtros
Of agent
Dhonghos Guttenbhergh werts esti
Press was invented by Guttenberg
Atiloiqs mormeikis crontor
The remnants were devoured by ants
Jtlej
Of transit place
Douknom bolk trt
The train passed through the tunnel
Rksmenj
Of content
Wod dsdhi moi ptlom
Give me a glass of water
Stnom mghmoni
A place with energy
Sm sqej
Comitative
Dhochei aljai qqei ptr
I go for a walk every day with my father
Katt robhjeti
He is playing with the cat (and the cat is

delighted)
16
Pl mns eiti s donsonjom
She goes to school with her books
Koits
Manner
Kttbhi robhjeti
He is playing with the cat (the cat is

however quite embarrassed)
Ougt nkt mel s
She arrived with a strong cold
Lubhnij bhewt
Lovely by nature
Swont bhrneti (=swonte bhrneti)
He excels in music
Londhoswdh (=lndhosjo swdhum

ad)
According to the custom of the country
Welt prponti kom
They ressemble in their looks
Daitispmn pmenei/ nkiw daitis

dhabhrotpte
Of time or space for accomplishement/ Time

necessary for acquiring an ability
Penqe ddoka poleinom mnsbhs
I learnt Polish in five months
Ddoke angleinom seks mnss
He learnt English in six months
W tribhs pstros (tris pstros)

wergom wijt
He developed his work in three pages
Anabhondhos
Relation
Oq kaikos
Blind in one eye
Pretjom
Price
Q wnt klsomom solta?
For how much have you bought the scarf?
Epikimns
With adjectives
Stornotepst kmopn domus
A house equipped with central heating
Potl woin pln (=pln /pln

winosjo)
A bottle full of wine
Ghlt opnis dheghoms
A land abundant in gold
Wrmns
With verbs
Jewesj deiwos mene
I swear by my gods
Sprigj skwnobhis
Im fed up with the exams
17
Pritij
Qejes?
Ablative
From what?
Proitistnom
Place of departure
Douknom Lndhond sptmi

ighetoi
The train departs from London at seven
Weteljd bhewmi
I am from Italy.
Apsttis mgn rsmenes
A great distance from the starting point
Peritjes-two ddksketi
He is learning from your experience
Awr/probhowos/ortus
Source/origin
Plmenes send menr aimm tod
I copied this idea from an old book
Primlos qertjos
Initial moment of an action
Dntikormos meghei esti amrd

kosmd (ap)
Ive got a toothache since this morning
Drksmostnom
Place of perspective
Cowns cerjes ghnghntins

prd spokjnt
They watched the cows advancing from the

mountain
Deltis
Separation
Dele grnm plowd
Separate the grain from the chaff
Smodhtis
Comparison
Senjs esti woghnos tewe tosmd
Your car is older than this one
Wrdhom nsjes meghmonjs

(meghmnterom)
A word is mightier than a sword
Krit esti swsrjos
She is different from her sisters
Steimn
Material
Leimd qeqrntai dmewes ti
These houses are made of mud
Egsmn
Lack
Wrs eke slwosnstews egjet
This man lacks common sense
18
Epikimns anawrmnsqe
With adjectives and adverds
Siktopedom newm dhmm

komjugnosttwes swebhodhjom
The destination of new employees is

independent of their marital status
Ptrjd porstenos
(That which is) far from the homeland
Ptrjd porsd/dew/qeli
Far from the homeland
Weismn
Cause
Mgnd prstjes (=mgn prst)

mrijeto edn
Of big satiation dies the glutton
Wrmns
With verbs
Apo dhersoi smeughtwes
Refrain from smoking
Apo Markd stsoi
Steer clear of Mark
W Alasklistjes ghimeni stsi
Desist from going to Alaska in winter
Cmons eme n ghrippd wrtewei
Take vitamins to ward off flue
Mtrs kudheti
He hides himself from his mother
Domm alkseti wr std
He will protect the house from rain
19
Chapter A2: The adjective
2.-Epikeimn
The adjective
Genos
Gender
Paulos ekwos (mas.)

Paul owis (fem.)
Paul domus/domos (fem.)
Paulom stdhlom (neu.)
Small horse
Small sheep
Small house
Small stall
Akris donts
Akris secris (fem)
Akris bhmn (neu)
Akri chr (neu.)
Sharp tooth
Sharp axe
Sharp speech
Sharp drink
Swdus bhreugs (mas.)

Swdus (swdw) woqs (fem.)
Swdu bharsjom (neu.)
Sweet fruit
Sweet voice
Sweet bread
Juwn wrs (mas.)

Jn (jnks) cen (fem.)
Juwon weidm (neu.)
Young man
Young woman
Young science
Piwn wrs (mas.)

Pwer (pwerj/a) cen (fem.)
Pwer ed
Piwon ednom (neu.)
Fat man
Fat woman
Fat food
Fat meal
Sreidhms
Numbers
Paulos ekwos (sing.)

Pauls ekws (plur.)
Pauls wejes (plur.)
Paula stdhla (plur.)
krejes dontes (plur.)
krija bhmona/chona (plur.)
Sw dewes bhreuges/woqes (plur.)
Sw duwa bharsja
Jwenes/pwones wrs
J nijes/pwerjs cens
Jwona widmona
Pwerijes eds
Pwona edna
Small horse
Small horses
Small sheep
Small stalls
Sharp teeth
Sharp speeches/drinks
Sweet fruits/voices
Sweet breads
Young men
Young women
Young sciences
Fat foods
Fat meals
Pttimojos
Case variation
Juwn wrs jnm spkjeti akr

cenm sekr paulei ekwoi
The young man sees a young woman with a

sharp axe on a small horse
Pri pwenos wrosjo bhronti krejes

dontes pwona edna swdews bhrcs
The fat mans sharp teeth prefer fat meal

than sweet fruit
20
Gw mona
Grades
Bhwtijom/dhmenjom
Natural/Positive
Albhos ekwos
Paul domus
Akris donts
Swdus bhreugs
Jn cen
Piwon ednom
White horse
Small house
Sharp tooth
Sweet fruit
Young woman
Fat meal
Smostiwom/Eksptijom
Equative /Elective
Albhteros ekwos
Paulter domus
Akrteros donts
Swdteros bhreugs
Jewsteros bhrtr
A so white horse / The whiter horse

Such a small house / The smaller house
Such a sharp tooth / The sharper tooth
Such a sweet fruit / The sweeter fruit
Such a young brother / The younger
brother
Smodhiwom
Comparative
Albhjs ekwos owejes

Bhrwd mwij domus
Bhrw mwij dom
Akrijs sekris dentes
Swdterom melit bhrugs kosmd
Jwijs cen k wrd isosmd
Piwijs ednom kod bhrugs
The horse is whiter than the sheep

The house is smaller than the bridge
The bridge is smaller than the house
The axe is sharper than a tooth
Honey is sweeter than this fruit
This woman is younger than that man
This meal is fatter than the fruit
Permm uperdhiwom
Absolute superlative
Albhos albhos ekwos

lbhistos ekwos
Mnwist domus esti
kristos donts
Swdtmom melit
Jwistos wrs
Pwistom ednom
A very white horse

A very white horse
The house is very small
A very sharp tooth
Very sweet honey
A very young man / the very young man
Very fat meal
Sqijom uperdhiwom
Relative superlative
Albhsmos ekwos ljoism

Minwm domus oissm
Akrsmos donts sos
Swdsmos bhreugs dhghmos
Piwsmos nsterm
The whitest horse of all

The smallest house of these
The sharpest tooth of the mouth
The sweetest fruit of the earth
The fattest one of us
21
Chapter A2: The adjective
Bheungtjes
Functions
dnomwos
Attributive
Mtr mene mmj esti

Pter-so wetws esti
Wld ghortei (=ghrtej) esti
My mother is nurse / a nurse / the nurse

His father is old
The party is in the garden (=gardenly)
Pridoikwos
Predicative
ndoikw bheungtis
Especificative function
Reudhei keljonti woghnei

Anglom ikonti meikm
Wetwesns powojt stolons, n newons
aw
They travel in a red car

Theyve got an English friend
He cleaned the old tables, but not the new
ones
Witrej bheunctis
Explicative function
Wetwesns powojt stolons (oljons

powojt stolons, qoi wtweses).
He cleaned the old tables (he cleaned all the

tables, which were old).
Nmnkmplmn
Noun complement
Stornjs agronjom
Stornjgronjom
Strnjom agronjom
A/the hospital of the centre

A/the central hospital
A/the central hospital
Ekwm kr stus
Ekwokr stus
kwejos kr stus
A/the race of horses

A/the horse race
A/the horse race
Kr stuwom ekwos
Kr stwekwos
Kr stujs ekwos
A horse of races
A/the race horse
A/the race horse
Teuts wistoqojos
Teutm wistoqojos
Teutawistoqojos
Tutjos wistoqojos
A/the history of the people

A/the history of the peoples
A/the history of the people(s)
A/the popular history
Nwom katus
Nawkatus
Nwiks katus
A/the fight of ships

A/the naumachia
A naval fight
22
Deiwosjo nterloukjom
Deiwm nterloukjom
Deiwnterloukjom
Diwjm nterloukjom
The Gods twilight

The Gods twilight
The twilight of the God(s)
The divine twilight
Rmi pori uponejr

Rmoporauponejr
Rmoporjm uponejr
A/the lesson in open air

An/the open air lesson
An/the open air lesson
Bhrw uper D naprim

Uperdnapribhrw
Uperd naprij bhrw
A/the bridge over the Dnieper

Mrejes wentos
Mariwentos
Mrijos wentos
The wind from the sea

The seawind
The sea wind
Sjewtewei/sjewtejei bhoungjom
Sjbhoungjom
Sjwtujom/sjwtijom bhoungjom
A/the machine to sew

A/the sew machine
A/the sewing machine
Bhmn awis
*Bhmnwis
A talking bird
A talking bird
Petonts awis
*Petontawis
A flying bird
A flying bird
Pljosa dikmona
More examples
Ghoilos, -, -om esmi

Rdos, -, -om eg
Lubhts, - , -m essi
Prts, - , -m t
Smidhs, - , -m esti
Endhms so/ is (id)
Tr pn s/ s/ is
Kupru/ jru, - i, -i swos(i)
Dhabhnu/ - i, -i weje
Komseghnu, - i, -i stas
Wistrnu, - i, -i juwe
Amghesnu, - i, -i stes
Wiqr nu, - i, -i tu/ ti/ toi/ eje
Bhluwes/ dwoisuwes, (-uwijes,) uwa
smos(i)
Creughs, -s, -a/ wejes/ n sme
Ghisls, ghisns, - s, -/ - ste
Kighrs, spudrs, - s, -/ - juwes/
jusm
Kr dts, kr dmns, -s, -/ - sonti/senti
Rusts, - s, -/ - toi/ ti/ ta/ t/ ejes/ ija
I am happy
I am joyful
You are in love, fascinated
You are pleased, satisfied
He/she/ it is cheerful
He (it) is enthusiastic
She is amused
We both are eager
We both are surprised
You both are concentrated
You both are distracted
They both are overwhelmed
They both are disappointed
We are afraid
We are sad
You are indignated
You are stressed
They are angry
They are furious
23
Chapter A3: Numerals
3.-Ridhms
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1 000
10 000
CARDINAL
qotjoi, qotji?
sems, smj, sem
dwu, dwu, dwu
trejes trija tisres
qetwores, qtesres, qetwr
penqe
(k)s(w)eks
septm
oktu
newn
dekm
smdekm
dwdekm
trjesdekm
qtwordekm
pnqedekm
(k)s(w)ksdekm
septmdekm
ktdekm
nwndekm
dwdkm t
sems dwdkm tqe
trdkm ta
qtwrdkm
ta
penqdkm ta
(k)s(w)ksdkta
sptm dkta
oktdkm ta
nwndkm
ta
km tom
dwikm ts /dwoi km toi
trikm ts / trija km t
qetwrkm
ts /qetwr km t
penqekm ts /penqe km t
(k)s(w)ekskm ts /
(k)s(w)eks km t
septmkm
ts /septm km t
octkm ts /oktu km t
newnkm
ts /newn km t
sm gheslom
teusmn
Numerals
ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS
COLLECTIVE
ORDINAL
qotis?
qomos, qom, qomod?
semtis
prwos
dwoitjom, dwoinom
dwteros
troinom
tritjos
qtwr tis
qtwr tos
penqtis
penqtos
(k)s(w)ekstis
(k)s(w)ekstos
sptm tis
sptmos
ktotis
oktows
nwn tis
nwn mos
dkm tis
dekms
smdekm tis
semdekms
dwdekm
dwdekmos
tis
trjesdekm tis
trjesdekmos
qtwordekm tis
qtwordekmos
pnqedekm tis
pnqedekmos
(k)s(w)ksdekm tis
(k)s(w)ksdekmos
sptrmdekm
septrm dekmos
tis
ktdekm tis
ktdekmos
nwndekm
nwn dekmos
tis
dwdkm totis
dwdkm tmos
smdwidkm totis
prwos dwdkm tmos
trdkm totis
trdkm tmos
qtwrdkm
qtwrdkm
totis
tmos
pnqedkm totis
penqdkm tmos
(k)s(w)ksdkm totis
(k)s(w)ksdkm tos
sptmdkm
sptmdkm
totis
tmos
ktdkm totis
oktdkm tos
nwndkm
nwndkm
totis
tmos
km temtis
km tmtmos
dwkm temtis
dwikm tmtmos
trkm temtis
trikm tmtmos
qtwrkm
qetwrkm
temtis
tmtm os
pnqekm temtis
penqekm tmtmos
(k)s(w)kskm temtis
(k)s(w)ekskm tmtmos
PARTITIVE
qows, qow s, qow?
preiws
dwsws
trsws
qtwr sws
penqsws
(k)s(w)eksws
septm sws
oktosws
newn sws
dekm sws
semdekm sws
dwdekm sws
trejesdekm sws
qetwordekm sws
penqedekm sws
(k)s(w)eksdekm sws
septm dekm sws
oktdekm sws
newndekm
sws
dwidkm tsws
semdwdkm tsws
tridkm tsws
qetwrdkm
tsws
penqedkm tsws
(k)s(w)eksdktsws
septm dktsws
oktdkm tsws
newndkm
tsws
km temsws
dwikm temsws
trikm temsws
qetwrkm
temsws
penqekm temsws
(k)s(w)ekskm temsws
sptmkm
temtis
septmkm
tmtmos
septmkm
temsws
ctkm temtis
nwnkm
temtis
sm ghslotis
tusmn tis
octkm tmtmos
newnkm
tmtmos
sm ghslotmos
tusmn tos
octkm temsws
newnkm
temsws
sm gheslosws
teusmn sws
24

12 354
teusmn dwoi sm ghesla trija

kmt qetwores
penqdkm taqe
100 000
km tom sm ghesla
1 000 000
weltjom
1 000 000 000 prweltjom
tusmn tis dwsk sqe

sm ghslotjes trsk s
km temtjes
pnqedkm totis
qtwr tisqe
km temtis
sm gheslotjom/
km temsk s
sm ghslotjes
dwdekm
qis tusmn tos trs dwdekm
qis tusmn sws
km tmtmos qtwr tos

trs km temsws
penqdkm tmos
penqekm temsws
qtwr sws
km tom sm ghesltmos
kmtemn
qis sm gheslosws/
km temsws sm gheslm
wltjonom
wltjomos
weltjosws
prweltjonom
prweltjomos
proweltjosws
25
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1 000
10 000
DISTRIBUTIVE
(I)
qons, - s, -a?
preiws
dwsns
trsns
qtwr sns
penqsns
(k)s(w)eksns
septm sns
oktosns
newn sns
dekm sns
semdekm sns
dwdekm sns
trejesdekm sns
qetwordekm sns
penqedekm sns
(k)s(w)eksdekm sns
septmdekm
sns
oktdekm sns
newndekm
sns
dwidkm tsns
semdwdkm tsns
tridkm tsns
qetwrdkm
tsns
penqedkm tsns
(k)s(w)eksdktsns
DISTRIBUTIVE
(II)
qoks, - s, -?
preiws
dwsks
trsKs
qtwr sks
penqsks
(k)s(w)eksks
septm sks
oktosks
newn sks
dekm sks
semdekm sks
dwdekm sks
trejesdekm sks
qetwordekm sks
penqedekm sks
(k)s(w)eksdekm sks
septmdekm
sks
oktdekm sks
newndekm
sks
dwidkm tsks
semdwdkm tsks
tridkm tsks
qetwrdkm
tsks
penqedkm tsks
(k)s(w)eksdktsks
septm dktsns
oktdkm tsns
newndkm
tsns
km temsns
dwikm temsns
trikm temsns
qetwrkm
temsns
penqekm temsns
(k)s(w)ekskm temsn
s
septmkm
temsns
octkm temsns
newnkm
temsns
sm gheslosns
teusmn sns
septm dktsks
oktdkm tsks
newndkm
tsks
km temsks
dwikm temsks
trikm temsks
qetwrkm
temsks
penqekm temsks
(k)s(w)ekskm temsk
s
septmkm
temsks
octkm temsks
newnkm
temsks
sm gheslosks
teusmn sks
ADJECTIVES
MULTIPLICATIVE
qopls, - , -m?
sm plos
dwopls /dwojs
tripls /trojs
qtwr pls
penqepls
(k)s(w)ekspls
septm pls
oktopls
newn pls
dekm pls
semdekm pls
dwdekm pls
trejesdekm pls
qetwordekm pls
penqedekm pls
(k)s(w)eksdekm pls
septrmdekm
pls
oktdekm pls
newndekm
pls
dwidkm topls
semdwidkm topls
tridkm topls
qetwrdkm
topls
penqedkm topls
(k)s(w)eksdkm topls
septmdkm
topls
oktdkm topls
newndkm
topls
km templs
dwikm templs
trikm templs
qetwrkm
templs
penqekm templs
(k)s(w)ekskm templs
septmkm
templs
octkm templs
newnkm
templs
sm gheslopls
teusmn pls
26
CLASSIFICATIVE
(I)
qogens, - , -m?
sm gens
dwogens
trigens /trojs
qtwr gens
penqegens
(k)s(w)eksgens
septm gens
oktogens
newn gens
dekm gens
semdekm gens
dwdekm gens
trejesdekm gens
qetwordekm gens
penqedekm gens
(k)s(w)eksdekm gens
septrmdekm
gens
oktdekm gens
newndekm
gens
dwidkm togens
semdwidkm togens
tridkm togens
qetwrdkm
togens
penqedkm togens
(k)s(w)eksdkm togens
CLASSIFICATIVE
(III)
qobhujs, - , -m?
sm bhujs
dwobhujs
tribhujs /trojs
qtwr bhujs
penqebhujs
(k)s(w)eksbhujs
septm bhujs
oktobhujs
newn bhujs
dekm bhujs
semdekm bhujs
dwdekm bhujs
trejesdekm bhujs
qetwordekm bhujs
penqedekm bhujs
(k)s(w)eksdekm bhujs
septrmdekm
bhujs
oktdekm bhujs
newndekm
bhujs
dwidkm tobhujs
semdwidkm tobhujs
tridkm tobhujs
qetwrdkm
tobhujs
penqedkm tobhujs
(k)s(w)eksdkm tobhuj
s
septm dkm togens
septmdkm
tobhujs
oktdkm togens
oktdkm tobhujs
newndkm
newndkm
togens
tobhujs
km temgens
km tembhujs
dwikm temgens
dwikm tembhujs
trikm temgens
trikm tembhujs
qetwrkm
qetwrkm
temgens
tembhujs
penqekm temgens
penqekm tembhujs
(k)s(w)ekskm temgen (k)s(w)ekskm tembhuj
s
s
septmkm
septmkm
temgens
tembhujs
octkm temgens
octkm tembhujs
newnkm
newnkm
temgens
tembhujs
sm gheslogens
sm gheslobhujs
teusmn gens
teusmn bhujs

12 354
100 000
1 000 000
1 000 000 000
dwdekm
qis
tusmn sns trs

km temsns
penqekm temsns
qtwr sns
kmtemn
qis
sm gheslosns/
km temsns
sm gheslm
weltjosns
proweltjosns
dwdekm
qis
tusmn sks trs

km temsks
penqekm temsks
qtwr sks
kmtemn
qis
sm gheslosks/
km temsks
sm gheslm
weltjosks
proweltjosks
dwdekm
qis
tusmn pls trs

km templs
penqekm templs
qtwr pls
kmtemn
qis
sm gheslopls
dwdekm
qis
tusmn gens trs

km temgens
penqekm temgens
qtwr gens
kmtemn
qis
sm gheslogens
dwdekm
qis
tusmn bhujs trs

km tembhujs
penqekm tembhujs
qtwr bhujs
kmtemn
qis
sm gheslobhujs
weltjopls
proweltjopls
weltjogens
proweltjogens
weltjobhujs
proweltjobhujs
27
ITERATIVE (I)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1 000
10 000
qoqis?
semli
dws
trs
qturs
pnqenqis
(k)s(w)ksn qis
sptm qis
ktonqis
nwn qis
dkm qis
smdekm qis
dwdekm
qis
trjesdekm qis
qtwordekm qis
pnqedekm qis
(k)s(w)ksdekm qis
sptrmdekm
qis
ktdekm qis
nwndekm
qis
dwdkm tonqis
smdwidkmton
qis
trdkmton
qis
qtwrdkm
tonqis
pnqedkmton
qis
(k)s(w)ksdkmton
qis
sptmdkm
tonqis
ktdkm tonqis
nwndkm
tonqis
kmtemn
qis
dwkmtemn
qis
trkmtemn
qis
qtwrkmtemn

qis
pnqekm temn qis
(k)s(w)kskmtemn
qis
sptmkmtemn

qis
ctkmtemn
qis
nwnkmtemn

qis
sm ghslonqis
tusmn qis
ADVERBS
ITERATIVE (II)
ITERATIVE (III)
CONTINGENTIAL
qoqr t?
qonim? qotim?
semqr t
prwnim
dwiqr t
dwonim
triqr t
trinim
qturqr t
qtwr nim
penqqr t
penqnim
(k)s(w)eksqr t
(k)s(w)eksnim
sptmqr
sptm nim
t
ktoqr t
ktonim
nwnqr
nwn nim
t
dkmqr
dkm nim
t
smdekmqr
smdekm nim
t
dwdekmqr
dwdekm
t
nim
trjesdekmqr
trjesdekm nim
t
qtwordekmqr
qtwordekm nim
t
pnqedekmqr
pnqedekm nim
t
(k)s(w)ksdekmqr
t (k)s(w)ksdekm nim
sptrmdekmqr
sptrmdekm
nim
ktdekmqr
ktdekm nim
t
nwndekmqr
nwndekm
nim
dwdkmtoqr
dwdkm tonim
t
smdwidkmtoqr
smdwidkm tonim
t
trdkmtoqr
trdkm tonim
t
qtwrdkmtoqr
qtwrdkm
tonim
pnqedkmtoqr
pnqedkm tonim
t
(k)s(w)ksdkmtoqr
t (k)s(w)ksdkm tonim
sptmdkmtoqr
sptmdkm
tonim
ktdkmtoqr
ktdkm tonim
t
nwndkmtoqr
nwndkm
tonim
kmtemqr
km temnim
t
dwkmtemqr
dwkm temnim
t
trkmtemqr
trkm temnim
t
qtwrkmtemqr
qtwrkm

t
temnim
pnqekmtemqr
pnqekm temnim
t
(k)s(w)kskmtemqr
t (k)s(w)kskm temnim
sptmkmtemqr
sptmkm

t
temnim
ctkmtemqr
ctkm temnim
t
nwnkmtemqr
nwnkm

t
temnim
sm ghsloqr t
sm ghslonim
tusmnqr
tusmn nim
t
28
ITERATIVE (IV)
ITERATIVE (V)
DISTRIBUTIVE
qowr tis?
qoqr pis?
semwr tis
semqr pis
dwiwr tis
dwiqr pis
triwr tis
triqr pis
qturwr tis
qturqr pis
penqwr tis
penqqr pis
(k)s(w)ekswr tis
(k)s(w)eksqr pis
sptmwr
sptmqr
tis
pis
ktowr tis
ktoqr pis
nwnwr
nwnqr
tis
pis
dkmwr
dkmqr
tis
pis
smdekmwr
smdekmqr
tis
pis
dwdekmwr
dwdekmqr
tis
pis
trjesdekmwr
trjesdekmqr
tis
pis
qtwordekmwr
qtwordekmqr
tis
pis
pnqedekmwr
pnqedekmqr
tis
pis
(k)s(w)ksdekmwr
tis (k)s(w)ksdekmqr
pis
sptrmdekmwr
sptrmdekmqr
tis
pis
ktdekm wr tis
ktdekmqr
pis
nwndekmwr
nwndekmqr
tis
pis
dwdkmtowr
dwdkmtoqr
tis
pis
smdwidkm towr tis
smdwidkmtoqr
pis
trdkmtowr
trdkmtoqr
tis
pis
qtwrdkmtowr
qtwrdkmtoqr
tis
pis
pnqedkmtowr
pnqedkmtoqr
tis
pis
(k)s(w)ksdkmtowr
tis (k)s(w)ksdkmtoqr
pis
sptmdkmtowr
sptmdkmtoqr
tis
pis
ktdkmtowr
ktdkmtoqr
tis
pis
nwndkmtowr
nwndkmtoqr
tis
pis
kmtemwr
kmtemqr
tis
pis
dwkmtemwr
dwkmtemqr
tis
pis
trkmtemwr
trkmtemqr
tis
pis
qtwrkmtemwr
qtwrkmtemqr

tis

pis
pnqekmtemwr
pnqekmtemqr
tis
pis
(k)s(w)kskmtemwr
tis (k)s(w)kskmtemqr
pis
sptmkmtemwr
sptmkmtemqr

tis

pis
ctkmtemwr
ctkmtemqr
tis
pis
nwnkmtemwr
nwnkmtemqr

tis

pis
sm ghslowr tis
sm ghsloqr pis
tusmnwr
tusmnqr
tis
pis

12 354
tusmn qis dwsqe

sm ghslonqis trs
kmtemn
qis
pnqedkm tonqis
qtursqe
tusmnqr
t dwsqe
sm ghsloqr t trs
kmtemqr
t
pnqedkmtoqr
t
qtwrqr
tqe
tusmn nim dwsqe

sm ghslonim trs
km temnim
pnqedkm tonim
qtwr nimqe
tusmnwr
tis dwsqe
sm ghslowr tis trs
kmtemwr
tis
pnqedkmtowr
tis
qtwrwr
tisqe
tusmnqr
pis dwsqe
sm ghsloqr pis trs
kmtemqr
pis
pnqedkm toqr pis
qtwrqr
pisqe
100 000
kmtemn
qis
sm ghslonqis
1 000 000
1 000 000 000
wltjoqis
prweltjoqis
kmtemqr
t
sm ghslon qis/
kmtemn
qis
sm ghsloqr t
wltjoqr t
prweltjoqr t
km temnim
sm ghslon qis/
kmtemn
qis
sm ghslonim
wltjonim
prweltjonim
kmtemwr
tis
sm ghslon qis/
kmtemn
qis
sm ghslowr tis
wltjowr tis
prweltjowr tis
kmtemqr
pis
sm ghslon qis/
kmtemn
qis
sm ghsloqr pis
wltjoqr pis
prweltjoqr pis
29
ADVERBS
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1 000
10 000
12 354
MULTIPLICATIVE
qodh?
semdh
dwidh
tridh
qturdh
penqdh
(k)s(w)eksdh
sptm dh
ktodh
nwn dh
dkm dh
smdekm dh
dwdekm
dh
trjesdekm dh
qtwordekm dh
pnqedekm dh
(k)s(w)ksdekm dh
sptrmdekm
dh
ktdekm dh
nwndekm
dh
dwdkm todh
smdwidkm todh
trdkm todh
qtwrdkm
todh
pnqedkm todh
(k)s(w)ksdkm todh
sptmdkm
todh
ktdkm todh
nwndkm
todh
km temdh
dwkm temdh
trkm temdh
qtwrkm
temdh
pnqekm temdh
(k)s(w)kskm temdh
sptmkm
temdh
ctkm temdh
nwnkm
temdh
sm ghslodh
tusmn dh
tusmn dh dwsqe sm ghslodh trs
km temdh pnqedkm todh
qtwr dhqe
PARTITIVE
qogha?
semgha
dwigha
trigha
qturgha
penqgha
(k)s(w)eksgha
sptm gha
ktogha
nwn gha
dkm gha
smdekm gha
dwdekm
gha
trjesdekm gha
qtwordekm gha
pnqedekm gha
(k)s(w)ksdekm gha
sptrmdekm
gha
ktdekm gha
nwndekm
gha
dwdkm togha
smdwidkm togha
trdkm togha
qtwrdkm
togha
pnqedkm togha
(k)s(w)ksdkm togha
sptmdkm
togha
ktdkm togha
nwndkm
togha
km temgha
dwkm temgha
trkm temgha
qtwrkm
temgha
pnqekm temgha
(k)s(w)kskm temgha
sptmkm
temgha
ctkm temgha
nwnkm
temgha
SEQUENTIAL
qokn s?
semkn s
dwikn s
trikn s
qturkn s
penqkn s
(k)s(w)ekskn s
sptmkn
s
ktokn s
nwnkn
s
dkmkn
s
smdekmkn
s
dwdekmkn
s
trjesdekmkn
s
qtwordekmkn
s
pnqedekmkn
s
(k)s(w)ksdekmkn
s
sptrmdekmkn
s
ktdekmkn
s
nwndekmkn
s
dwdkmtokn
s
smdwidkmtokn
s
trdkmtokn
s
qtwrdkmtokn
s
pnqedkmtokn
s
(k)s(w)ksdkmtokn
s
sptmdkmtokn
s
ktdkmtokn
s
nwndkmtokn
s
kmtemkn
s
dwkmtemkn
s
trkmtemkn
s
qtwrkmtemkn

s
pnqekmtemkn
s
(k)s(w)kskmtemkn
s
sptmkmtemkn

s
ctkmtemkn
s
nwnkmtemkn

s
sm ghslogha
sm ghslokn s
tusmn gha
tusmnkn
s
tusmn gha dwsqe sm ghslogha trs tusmnkn
s dwsqe sm ghslokn s
km temgha pnqedkm togha
trs kmtemkn
s pnqedkmtokn
s
qtwr ghaqe
qtwrkn
sqe
30

100 000
1 000 000
1 000 000 000
km temdh sm ghslon qis/ kmtemn
qis km temgha sm ghslon qis/ kmtemn
qis kmtemkn
s sm ghslon qis/
sm ghslodh
sm ghslogha
kmtemn
qis sm ghslokn s
wltjodh
prweltjodh
wltjogha
prweltjogha
31
wltjokn s
prweltjokn s
Cardinal numbers
Grbhtijs ridhms
Typeofconstruction
Orderofelements
'1'to'4'
'5'to'19'
Concordantnumeric Juxtaposednumeric
phrase
phrase
Cardinalnumber+
Indiferent
quantifiednoun
Yes
No
'5'to'19'
Genitivalnumeric
phrase
Quantifiednoun+
cardinalnumber
No
from'20'onwards
Genitivalnumeric
phrase
Indiferent
b
Thenumeralisinflected
Optionallya10
Caseforthecardinalnumberin
Nom./(voc.)/acc.
Indeclinable
Indeclinable
Indeclinable
subject/objectclauses
Caseforthequantifiednouninsubject/
Nom./(voc.)/acc.
Nom./(voc.)/acc.
Genitive
Genitive
objectclauses
Caseforthecardinalnumberinoblique Gen./dat./loc./abl./
Indeclinable
Indeclinable
Indeclinable
clauses
instr.
Caseforthequantifiednouninoblique Gen./dat./loc./abl./ Gen./dat./loc./abl./ Gen./dat./loc./abl./ Gen./dat./loc./abl./
instr.
instr.
instr.
clauses
instr.
Bht sems wrs welpowosjoi
There was one man in the waiting-room
Kmopjom smei dhghmenei kod
This is the equipment for one person
Dwi wejes nisdoi snchonti
Two birds are singing in their nest
Dwi weje nisdoi snchetes
Two birds are singing in their nest
Trins eik prokns
I have three suitors
En penqe wnti bhrwns olnom
The project involves five bridges
En bhodesmn wnti penqe bhrwm

olnom
The project involves the upgrading of five

bridges
Kom porseti oktu kr kerns
He will contribute with eight chickens
Kom porseti kr kerm oktu
He will contribute with eight chickens
Cwqolos newn steighet gwewbhis
The cowboy walked with nine cows
Dekm eik bhrtern s
I have ten brothers
Bhrtrom dekm eik
I have ten brothers
Pnqedekm eik swsorn s
I have fifteen sisters
Swserom pnqedekm eik
I have fifteen sisters
32
Ud dwdkm t dhij lomnm tewe
I admire your twenty pupils
Ud dwdkm totim dhij lomnm tewe
I admire twenty of your pupils
Ludhnt penqe dwdkm tqe judhmm

mimdhochei.
Twenty-five soldiers came on Wednesday
Deiktins dnt penque trdkm tobhosqe

judhmobhos
They gave indications to thirty-five soldiers
Kom km tom ambhirjm bhbherti/

bhbhr nti sulnm latom
A hundred tourists (is)/ are taking

advantage of the sunny day
N gheghjj km tom adkl nm agonts
I dont get bored managing one hundred

clients
Ops (opss) esmi km tom dhljomnos

ambhirjs
I am busy dealing with a hundred tourists
Dwikm tns epmes adchodhons /dwoi

km toi epmes adchodhm
We received two hundred applications
Glaghs sm ghesld ludhnt stnm
The protests came from one thousand

places
Dwdekm
tnomnoses dinologjei koi
sonti: ougrnijos, dhechrnijos,

taurnijos, wesnijos, bhlnijos,
ekwnijos, aidhrnijos, karpnijos,
wl qnijos, woinnijos, dhoncnijos,
kwentnijos.
The twelve months of year in the calendar

are these: January, February, March, April,
June, July, August, September, October,
November, December.
33
Ridhmpikimona
Numeral adjectives
Krdhesja
Ordinal
Prwos wosos n rjeti kr pjobhim-two
The first dress does not pass with your

shoes
Tod antjei gisto sm ghslosjo

newnkm
tmtm nwndkm
tm
oktwosjo tnosjo
This happened by the end of the year

nineteen ninenety eight
Edjw esti prwos karplijosjo dwter

sm ghslosjo dekmosjo
Today is first of August of two thousand

ten
Ausrom dkmom ikomos

kwentnijosjo
Tomorrow we have tenth of December
itija
Partitive
Trejes qtwr ws eksigns/ghstejes

kmjugts sonti
Three out of four foreigners are married
Trejes qtwr ts eksigns kmjugts

sonti
Three out of four foreigners are married
Trejes qtwr ws eksignm kmjugts/

kmjugts sonti
Three quarters of the foreigners are

married
Trejes qtwr ts eksignm kmjugts/

kmjugts sonti
Three quarters of the foreigners are

married
Krenghom moitja penqw kposjo

kosjo
I exchanged the ring for a fifth of this land
34
Winmeja
Distributive
kslegtiwortija
Of selective value
Wtesi wtesi (=qkosmi wtesi)
Each year / year by year
Diw diw (=qkosmi diw)
Each day/ day by day
Dwterei (q qosmi) wtesi
Every two years
Pluplektiwortija
Of multiplicative value
Dwsn wtesa
Two consecutive years
Jektrom tod kpsis qrjetor

dwdekm skm cl km
This medicine is sold in boxes of twelve

pills
Smlegtiwortija
Collective
Sweksn iketi putl

(=swekstim iketi putlm)
She has six children (=he has a sextet of

children)
Kaiwopelwijogrbhtija
Cardinal of pluralia tantum
Km tmolm trsnoisu wrbhoisu

sonti
There are lots of riots all three outskirts
Ridhmogromogrbhtija
Dekm bhnt wnms, newrs, knists,
truns, krkontes, chaiss, serqejes
morigns joqe dekm dhl rs, kaljs,
snors, wjesjs, moiws, jwones
mghewes.
Dwisn dekm nw kelujont.
Qrostija
Wghokoi trejes bhnt westrodhnja.
Wru trija nijetm westrodhnja.
Ksweks bhnt westrodhnja, trija
wghokoi qqosmi. Wru trsn
nijetm westrodhnja, t.e. wghokom
semm qqos.
Cardinal of a numeral group

There were ten pretty, fresh, youthful,
tender, graceful, comely, splendid lasses and
ten budding, gorgeous, lusty, sturdy, sappy,
young lads.
The two groups of ten travelled on a boat.
Classificative
There were three suitcases on the cart. Two
men carried the three suitcases.
There were six suitcases, three on each cart.
Each of the two men carried three suitcases,
i.e. one cart each
35
Ksweks bhnt westrodhnja, trija

wghokoi qqosmi, qetworesqe wrs.
Dwsnu wru trsn nijnt
westrodhnja.
There were six suitcases, three on each cart,

and four men. Every two men carried three
suitcases.
Newn bhnt westrodhnja trejesqe

wrs. Wrs preiwos trsn (trija) nijt
westrodhnja.
There were nine suitecases and three men.

Each man carried three suitcases.
Apo ptn s oktosnns kowesn t
They evacuated the passengers eight by

eight
Apo ptes oktosns kowsn to
The passengers were evacuated eight by

eight
Pluplektija
Multiplicative
m gtiwortija
Of augmentative value
Dwoplm luwt awoqrojom
He paid a double fee
Wr dhom tod dwoplm iketi usdoikom
This word has a double meaning
Triplm ghedt kousnom
She received a triple rent
itiwortija
Of partitive value
Dwoplm westrodhnjom
(=dwbhudhmi westrodhnjom)
A double-bottom suitcase
Dwopl domus (=dwplris domus)
A two-storey house
Qrostija
Classificative
Komwodhos so dwopls: napads n

weknt kptolondhom leiktum, joqe
enigns wedr erktum n weknt
It (was) a twofold conflict: the invaders did

not want to leave the captured ground and
the native population did not want to share
the water
Aigjom esjo dwogenm: n moght

ghostum neqe sweptum
His illness had double consequences: he

could neither eat nor sleep
Aigjom esjo dwobhujm: neqe ghost

neqe lwto
His illness had a double origin: he neither

ate nor washed himself
36
Ridhmpiwrmona
Numeral adverbs
Iter tija
Iterative adverbs
Tebhei dkm qis (=dkmqr

t) woqa:
smeustrom neqom klawde prjsm
nedhskrknetim neu.
Ive told it ten times to you: never close the

computer without first saving (your) files.
Stleswortija
With locative value
Sm weghtom
n
qid
peum;
dwweghtom trija labhm wr dha;
trweghtom galmoupologhom labhm;
qtwr weghtom solwns peum bhnins,
enim pnqeweghtom galmom seghtum
moghm.
The first time I did not understand

anything; the second time I catched three
words; the third time I got the topic of the
conversation; the fourth time I understood
whole sentences, and the fifth time I was
able to hold a conversation.
Kswksweghtom
(=kswksweghtom
jom
jwonm medm mdodikm
The sixth time I came, I met a young

doctor.
cm jonts
ludhm),
Udbhrowortija
Dhghjesi
newom
prwnim woghnom
Dwonim (=dws)
epitruns
With contingential value

bhrgts
esmi
mgsomobhruns
Yesterday I used the new car for the first

time
For the second time (=twice), the
maximum limits have been surpassed.
N trinim (=trs) peqonjom klewtum

skel
This is the third time (=three times) now I

have to clean the kitchen
Wtesi kosmei seghtr so sperstim

qtwr nim (qturs) wikt
This year this champion has won the

competition for the fourth time (=four
times)
Edjw mdodikm tom pnqenim setjai
Today I visit this doctor for the fifth time
Ksweksnim cm jonts (=jom ksweksnim

ludhm) senom medm mdodikm
When I came for the sixth time, I met an

old doctor.
Winmowortija
With distributive value
Dwn kleitrom adst pnqewr tis /

pnqeqr pis (=pnqe sstisu)
She prepared the database in five times (=in

five sessions)
37
Pluplektija
Multiplicative
Dkm dh lbm qt
He paid ten times for his crime
Ambhimoj bhrgtis
Alternative use
Tridh kdr tod leutwijom (=tribhs

koitubhis)
This problem can be solved in three ways

(=through three manners)
itija
Partitive
Londhom medn trigha widht (=trija

en krora)
The governor divided the country in three

parts (=in three regions)
piseqesja
Sequential
Mlowortija
Of chronological value
Prwom, gerj (bhudhj) joqe ud

sistm. Dwterom dr km lowom,
dontn s melk tribhs miwn bhis joqe
mreja (prtera) dhidhm ukesa.
Tritjom, prmdjom edmi joqe ow
Firstly, I wake and get up in the morning.

Secondly, I wash my face, brush my teeth in
three minutes and do my morning exercises.
Thirdly, I have a breakfast and get dressed.
Of argumentative value
Proknsowortija
Krts en dhghmn, semkn s prijm
prowodhm rdh, dwikn s mldhr
rtij werg, trikn s snitjs gousnos
joqe qtwrkn
s (enim ntjokn s) ejos
widjolubhjs awonomos.
She is a reputed person; firsly because of

her friendly manners, secondly, because of
her excellent artistical work, thirdly,
because of her exquisite tastes and fourthly
(and finally) because of her philosophical
contributions.
38
4.-Antinmona (prorok uporokqe)
Pronouns and determinants
nonmija
Personal
Widktija antinmona
Demonstrative
Is, id
Def. nom os(i), ac. om/em, dat. esmei,
gen. s. esjo, pl. esom, altern. ad im,
ismei, ejos, eisom
This, he, she
Qismei jmi cotni anbhorma

(anabhoriks wertos)
Referred to something already mentioned

(anaphoric value)
Petri prkom qid eitr ambh mnjet, atqe

neqid is proti wewqt
I asked Peter what he thought about the trip,

but he didnt answer anything
Trs woida bhloigom, n lubhj aw ejos

antjom
Ive seen the film three times, but I dont

like the end of it
So, s, tod
This
Komkpotos anwesnta
bhtorklutrbhom
Conceptually present to both speaker and

hearer
Ordhsmn tod meghei mnestom prpeti
This proposal seems reasonable to me
Bhdhjom tosmi wri skel prsnim

qm ati medoim
Ghoi-ke, ghi-ke, ghod-ke
Bh mntos anwesnta
bhtorklutrbhom
Eme bheitlom ghod-ke enim kldom
skdhi ghom-ke
Qis domei trbheti ghesi?
Ghod-ke chel wesmnorkjom
I have to speak to this man before I meet

him again
This
Physically present to both speaker and
hearer
Take this axe and cut this piece of wood
Who lives in this house?
I want this cupboard
39
Chapter A4: Pronouns and determinants
(E)ko, (e)k, (e)kod
This
Bh mntos komkpotoswe anwesnta

oinim bhtorei
Physically or conceptually present just to

speaker
Porsgaldhrom kod n s bhngetoi
This telephone does not work well
Chedhj proti m dwmenei kosmi

skribhete
Please do not reply to this message
dqismei trtini anbhorma

(kmtabhoriks wertos)
Referred to something which will be

explained (cataphoric value)
Septm bhtiswenworns sonti koi: m,

b, miau, bau, kol, qa, cr
The seven natural musical notes are these:

C, D, E, F, G, A, B
Oiso, ois, oisod
That, yonder
Bhtores qeli, kltori proqd
Far from speaker, near to hearer
Pri enke sedlm oism
Bring that chair to me
Qori pn t stighesi issd?
Why are you going that way?
Eno, en, enod (elno, eln, elnod)
That, yonder
Bhtorkltrbhem qeli
Both from speaker and from hearer far
Enod spekje ceri
Look at that mountain
Knswo wronkim elnm leintum
Try to avoid that dip
Widktijs doljs
Demonstrative particles
Ke, ki
An
Aw
This
This other
That, yonder
Sontom lege ke, plndhi em an kom

joqe em aw olje w
Read this letter, complete this other one

and destroy that one
40
Q wntera antinmona
Quantitative pronouns
Edqis, edqid (qis, qid)
Someone, anyone, something, anything
Esti qis kei an domei?
Is there anyone here at home?
Edqid colnei me bhojjet cwei mene

ambh
Something on the plane caused me to fear

for my life
Neqos, neq, neqod
Someone, something
Neqos klwm km nnke
Someone has found this key
Primon nwostis ghdn esti neq
The news was received with a certain

amount of pleasure
Edqos, edqod
Some
Prd dhljogntjes edq cece daitis
Some time has elapsed since the babys

birth
N dqosmi plakj smudhmeni
I dont agree with some idea
Qisqe, qidqe
Each (one)
Dsdhi qsmeiqe swijom
Give to each one his share
Dekm senti dmewes, qismiqe qetwora

sweptorja
There are ten houses with four bedrooms

each one
Qqos, qq, qqod
Eacb one
Wergom ejos qqos gnwe
Each one knows his work (of his)
Wergom sewe qqos gnwe
Each one knows his own work
Epi dkmeni deiktrom qqei dhtum

sklesi
You have to put a stamp on each document
Qjespejoi
A few, some
Dwspokna sonti dom qjespeja kpsi
There are still a few biscuits in the box
Drugholtm glghejes qjespejoisom

bhrgns sonti
The tips of some pencils have been broken
41
Solwos, solw, solwod
All, the whole
Dhochom solwom kei n bhowe
He hasnt been here in all the day
Solw tosjo alch ighei
He departed with all his money
Oljoi, olji, olja
All, every
Oljos tosjo ambhqolos ighei
He departed with all his servants
Drewa sjonti olja
All the trees are dry
Neqis, neqid
No one, none, nothing
Neqis woide qid ggoisisst PLPF. PREC.
No one knew what had happened
Apo neq tod wrutum mghsesi
You wont be able to open it with anything
Ninos, nin, ninod
No
Upri qertim elnm dokots bhowt

ninos skewonts
There was no teacher supervising that

activity
Eks nin einjom dhwor esti
It is not possible to go out through any

door
Totjoi, totji, totja
So/as many
Totjoi bhewent wrs jotji cens
There were so many men as women
Ttjbhis sprigj mrotbhis
I am fed up with so many stupid things
T wntos, t wnt, t wntod
So/as much
Meghei t wntom kob (kobom) esti

j wntom wolpsm
I am as successful as I had expected (I have

so much success as I had expected)
T wnt ednom (ghosmom) loda werg
I have forgotten the meal because of so

much work
42
Idmtera antinnoma
Indentity pronouns
Enis, enid
Some (one), a certain (one)
Anta jjnti nija gntla oknos eploghei

tosmei bhtrei
Certain signals cast doubt on this optimistic

scenario
Me nijom (dhghomenom) naisuns

wsttjes pigjonti
I get annoyed at some peoples irrespectful

attitudes
Smos, sm, smod
Some, certain
Rtjes sonti smi kandostm kom

woltewei
There are certain reasons to choose this

candidate
Troudons wwora smons kdenei

tosmi eksleutwiji
I found some difficulties to solve this

problem
Ambhu, ambhi, ambhoi/ qterosqid, qter-qid, qterod-qid
Both
Ambhu albhu (stes)
Both are white
Qteros-qid albhos (esti)
Both are white (=each one is white)
Aljos, alj, aljod
Another (one), more of the previous (one)
Trins jmi de belons, n aw aljom

glubheti
He has already eaten three apples and now,

he is peeling another one
Epi aljod nkjesi an? (=epi aw nkjesi

qid?)
Do you need anything else?
Onjos, onj, onjod
Another (one), a different one
Dsdhi-moi belom onjom, pls ke
Give me another apple, this one is putrid
N kei stounom, onjosmei plmeni

wertwijom
The information is not here, it has to be

found in another book
lteros, lter, lterod / nteros,

nter, nterod
The one, the other (one)
lteros wrisdjeti, lteros bhlti
If one of them is laughing, the other one is

weeping
nterobhi terp, nterobhi qntj
With one of them, I feel pleasure, with the

other one, I suffer
43
teros, ter, terod

m dhrom dnijom, terod qid wisowent
(=loiq wiswenta)
The blue one is edible, any other one is

poisonous (=the rest is poisonous)
He knows it, the rest ignore it
So gnwe, (te-/ke-) teroi ngnsjonti

The same (one)
Soms, som , somd
Dhworins peltum krtijns mghesi trins
som klw
You can open three different doors with the

same key
There are four versions of the same story
Wrstjes senti qtesres somosjo sqel

The same (one)
Isem, idem
Wrs elno isem qom dhjesi woida
Douknei kelseti ijo-em (=som) qm
bhrtr tewe
So-pe, s-pe, tod-pe / S(w)el (e)pe
Praiseds so-pe (=swelpe) moi
koiluwertum ludht
S tesi-pe (=swlpesi) drjeti
Qisqis, qidqid
Qisqis rgumona peuti ta
Wnm qq west essi
Qisqomqe, qidqomqe / josqis, jqis,
jodqid
Pri qimqomqe widjsi kasjom enke
That is the same man that I saw yesterday

He will travel on the same train as your
brother
Himself, herself, itself
The president himself came to salute me
She works for helself
Any, anyone, anything
Anyone understands these argumentations
You are pretty with any garment
Whoever, whatever
Bring whatever hare you may see
I give money to whoever needs it
Alchom ddmi qismeiqomqe nkjti

Tlis, tli
Of such kind/quality
Tli gudhjom mene seghom pos esti
Such is my joy after the victory
N tljom woida upelm protimoghtrom
I dont know the remedy to such evils
Tli chel wesmnorkjom

The other, any other
I want a wardrobe like this one
44
Neqteros, neqter, neqterod
None of the two
Neqteros wra gnwe
None of the two knows the truth
Neqter mghnijom drtum
It is impossible to work with any of these

two ones
45
Prktij antinmona
Interrogative pronouns
Qis, qid (swebhodhja)
Who, what (independent)
Qis bhtoi?
Who is speaking?
Qid wqesi?
What are you saying?
Qis so bhtoi? (Bhkejom)
Who is this who is speaking? (Focal)
Qis so lwseti? (Bhkejom)
Who is the one who is paying? (Focal)
Qos, q, qod (nswebhodhja)
Who, what (dependent)
Qos ambhqolos cme?
What servant has come?
Qom somosodm chlesi?
What car do you want?
Qod tod pjr woqta? (Bhkejom)
What is this insult you have uttered? (Focal)
Qteros, qter, qterod
Which of two
Qterm pljs gnwta cenm?
Which woman do you know best?
Qterosmi ghseni tebhei wolsnos?
In which hand do you have the wound?
Qtmos, qtm, qtmod
Which of many / which of all
Qtm regt protweqtis?
Which one is the right answer?
Qtmom plnim bhidhesi perilm?
Which expert do you fully trust?
Qotjoi, qotji, qotja
How many
Qotja lgta plmona?
How many books have you read?
Qtjoisu qrnjoisu prnntor skouss ki?
In how many shops are these trousers sold?
Q wntos, q wnt, q wntod
How much
Q wntom nkjesi alchom?
How much money do you need?
Q wnt pndesos me krpusjm?
Of how much weight did he/she take the

water melon?
Qlis, qli
Qli eksi guss estlom?
Qlismi pole wssi?
How, of what type?

How was the dish you chose?
In what kind of a city do you intend to
stay?
46
Atibhrtija antinmona
Relative pronouns
Jos, j, jod
The one who, the one hat
Kwonm jos bherti bhrtr esti mene

(=kwnbhrtr bhrtr mene esti / Kwonm
[so] bheronts bhrtr esti mene )
The one who is carrying the dog is my

brother
Eme jod welsi

S esti klws josjo twntms rkjeti
rnms
(=Tosjo esti s klws, qos twntms
rkjeti rnms)
Take what you want

This is the key of the one who conceals so
many secrets
(of the one this is the key, who conceals so
many secrets)
Qos, q(i), qod
Who, that
Wrs qos ekw wghetor jentr esti

tewe (=ekwoweghmos wrs jentr esti
tewe)
The man who is being conveyed by a horse

is my cousin (=The man riding the horse is
my cousin)
Kei esti nemots, qesjo ns sns tewe

chnts esti
S esti klws qess potis twntms
rkjeti rnms
Jteros, jter, jterod
Plmone dwoi stom skolpei, dsdhi-moi
jterod mgsi lubhojta
Jem tloqsai joter bheidhmn pljs
meghei esti (=jterom pljs bheidh)
Here is the enemy, by whose sword your

son has been killed
This is the key the master of which conceals
so many secrets
The one of two who/which
There are two books on the shelf. Give me
the one you liked most
Ill talk to the twin which I trust the most.
Jtmos, jtm, jtmod
The one among many who/which
Jtmos prtm mgnom ghedt, drtum

strigsti
The one who wins the big price will stop

working
Ersjr jtmoi nagesns (gesmuktns)

ljonti
Those who scold innocent people are

mistaken
47
Jotjoi, jotji, jotja
Those many, so many
Jotjoi bhntoi ersjonti
Those (many) who are speaking are wrong
Jewe jotjons nkjnti
Help those who may need it.
J wntos, j wnt, j wntod
That much
J wntod welsi eme
Take as much as you want
Rimn kod j wntosjo qqmai
This is a list of all I have acquired
Jlis, jlid
Of that kind, of that quality
Odsm j lija wiweqt
I detested the kind of things he used to say
Anbhorm ghda j lismi pikt
I took as reference the kind of things he

painted
inuja antinmona
Posessive pronouns
Mene tod (=menjom tod)
This is mine
48
5.-Doljs
neu
apo / ap / aps
apteri
ad
ambh
ana (na)
anta
ant
awou
d / de
d/ do
ek / eks / ksteri
en / en / ens / endo
nteri
ekts
epi / opi
jwn ts (qomdom)
kmti
kom
n dheri
n dhi
n
obhi
Particles
acc.
abl.
abl.
acc.
acc, loc.
acc, loc.
acc.
acc., loc.
abl.
abl.
acc, dat.
gen., abl.
ekstrd
acc., loc.
entrd*
acc, loc.
abl.
acc., loc., instr.
acc.
instr.
komtrd* instr, loc.
n dhertrd* acc., loc.
acc., loc.
acc., loc.
ntrd*
acc., loc.
ols, lteri
pra
pros
per(i)/perti
perom
pos(ti), psteri
poti
pri
priteri
prd / pro
prteri
proti
pnim
rdh
sn / sn ter
seqi
teni / tenos
trntis / teres / tr qe
upo
peri / ups
ud(i) / uds
w / wi
wr stom
*Kiwonim lokteiw ptt
acc., loc.
acc.
abl.
acc., loc.
loc., abl.
postrd* acc.
acc.
loc., abl.
acc.
acc., dat., abl.
acc.
acc., dat., abl.
acc.
gen.
abl.
gen.
gen.
acc.
acc., loc.
pertrd* acc., loc.
abl.
loc., abl.
acc.
oltrd*
*Only with the accusative case
49
Chapter A5: Particles
neu
Without
Smoldom welmi goldom neu
I want coffee without sugar
Suknstim neu ighoighei
He departed without saying good-buy
Ad
At, to, towards, according to
Ad glgaljnt sm
They were talking by the fireplace
Ad litomos smmdom
We are going to the party
Petrom ad, wrom tod n bht
According to Peter, this was not true
Ambh
Around, about
Ambh dms swepnt oljoi
All the colleagues were sleeping around
Ciwnt dekm ambh dlsjobhis dhochoi
They lived approximately on ten dollars a

day
Ambh kolsom dht kolsowospom
He put the scarf around the neck
Ambh wedhrom glgoljomos
We are talking about the weather
Ana (na)
To, on, along in an upwards direction
Somosds douknosttoriom na wrgeti
The train heads to the train station
Ana bhuwr tgesi
They were on board
Nwis na (=priteri) pluwt dnum
The ship navigated along the river
Ana okrim montjos stighm
I hiked up to the top of the hill
Woghoi na (=wogh) ludht
He came on cart (=by cart)
50
Anta
Towards
Somosds douknosttoriom anta

wrgeti
The car heads towards the train station

The question aims at the new restriction
measures
Prksk newans rirgseti anta

snitmestins
Ant
In front of
Domom ant stt(o)
He stopped in front of the house
Stmr tod ant sontjes, ttrudme
We are worried by the situation we are

facing
Apo / ap /aps
From, since, back
Ptlotjd lpeti ap
He stutters since his childhood
Domd ap mene sentum ad km tom

sonti podes
From my house to the path there are one

hundred steps.
Ap meghei dede ghornm plmn
He gave the lent book back to me
Ghwedh, krsi mewom ghawe ap
Please call me back tomorrow
Apteri
Behind/ after
Dhighd apteri sedjonti maqs
The boys are sitting behind the wall
Kaiwoditibhes apteri uksrm wedht
After his bachelor times he got married
Awo(u)
Back
Awo dhobhnm dhghjesi protipornjom

aanoke
The spoiled goods came back yesterday
Awo porsgaldhrom stolom leloghm
I laid the phone back on the table
51
D/de
From upwards
D nbheses kdeti wrst
Rain falls from the sky
D kmtom dlsjobhes pornetum

sklomos
We have to negotiate from one hundred

dollars downwards
D/ do
Until
D stight drmntjom
He walked until the end of the corridor
D oltrd srt dnewi tetnt
The queue reached the other side of the river
Ek / eks / ksteri / ekstrd

ekts
Outside
Dhmjet eks skreibhtorjd
He uses to smoke out of his office
Ekstrd awmd sodt prnkom

ghwtewei
He went our of the hotel to call for a taxi
Skownous eks trijom nuwts esti
He passed two (out) of the three exams
En / en / ens / endo / entrd
Inside
Kleitlm en mijomes
We entered the cabin
Skreibhtorjei n esti en
He isnt in his office
En te spektewi matrm -two mmnsk
When I look at you I remember your mother
nteri
Between, among
Dmese nteri esti prtim
There is a statue between the two buildings
Bhewet katus oljans nteri wnjsi
The was a fight among all the families
Gntos esti iwowidsi nteri
He is known among specialists
Epi / opi
On, in addition, despite
Domus st dhm bhonjoi epi
The house was situated on a graveyard
Epi trjm bht woinos
There was cheese in addition to wine
Epi wr st, chdhsomos dom
Despite the rain, well keep walking
52
Jwnts (momdom)
During
Kelutim jwnts swpnt
They slept during the journey
Probhoudhos: solwom dhochom swpont
Caveat: They slept (during) all the day
Kmti
Next to, beside
Domus st arw kmti
The house was situated beside a field
Kmti bhokom mmsm dht
He put the meat close to the fire
Kom, komtrd
Together
Kom dht wodr glaktiqe = kom dht

wodr glakt
He put the water and the milk together = he

put the water together with the milk
Ndheri ndhertrd
Deep under, underneath
Dhghmi ndheri esti kow
There is a cavern underneath the ground
Dhghomm ndheri kidr
They descended deep under the ground
Ndhi
Further than, in addition to
Weqmn ejos qid ordhsmenes ndhi

bht
His comment was something more than a

proposal
Ti pr ksks ghi jenti prd ndhi

lubhobhoudhd
These questions go well beyond mere

curiosity
Trstje ndhi spordhs ptum sklonti
Athletes must drink beyond thirst
N, nitrd
Down, downwards, at the bottom
Klopnim nitrd kidonti ekw
They go down the valley on horse
N klopne esti lakus
At the bottom of the valley there is a lake
N s nbhudhnm spekt
She looked down the abyss
53
Obhi
In the middle of
Obhi sentoi lougos st
There was a log in the middle of the path
Obhi dhworim sedlm stelt
He put a chair before the door
Ols /lteri/ oltrd
Beyond, on the other side
Ols kreekwi bhrankonim bhr
Beyond the border French is spoken
Oltrd loidom bhtos esti
He has spoken more than permitted
Ols Reinom sodnt twrms
Thee troops went beyond the Rhein.
Pra
Close, beside(s)
Polnins pra senti toqe stnejes stoighei
Beside the shops there are stands in the

street
Pra drtim minusterjei, lismona

wspenja ddti donsonjei
Besides his work at the ministry, he gives

classes in an evening school
Tosjo pra aiwos, yuwoon prpeti
He looks young for his age
Pros
Before, in front of
Domd pros swepet ekwos
The horse was sleeping in front of the house

John was appointed as Claudias boss
Sttos Johannis Claudyd pros esti
About, around
Per()/perti
I am waking up about dawn
Gerjai per aussm
The dog is turning around the tree
Kwn drewom wrteti per
Apart from, besides
Perom
Apart from work, I found severe problems
Perom wergd, trudn kdena wwora
She is really friendly, to say nothing of her

beauty
Gheris bhod esti, wnmoti perom
54
Pos(ti), psteri / postrd
Behind, after
The umbrella is behind the curtain
Pos wrsotrom praikonkei esti

Jodqid daitim pos prkskesi, jewos
skmbesi
Since you ask after time, you lose your right
ighei bhjdjom psteri
He departed after lunch
Poti (=wr stom)
Towards
Trejes kowireges grdjontoi stdhlom

poti
The three wise men advance towards the

stable
Mnjs twij neustum poti welis qm

spartum esti
You are more favourable to spending than to

saving
Pri /prai
Before
Pri nket Petros Marjd
Peter arrived before Maria
Rgi krseti pri
He runs before the king
Kersnd pri ghighj!
Come back before dinner!
Priteri
Along, depassing, laying aside
Nwis priteri (=ana) pluwt dnum
The ship navigated along the river
Dikns legm priteri dt
He gave orders laying aside the law
Prd / pro
Forwards, onwards, instead of , in favour

of
Pro stighomes sqomnom woikom
We went on walking towards the next

village
Ludhseti Marj Klaudjd pro

(=Klaudjs stnei)
Maria will come instead of Claudia (=in

lieu of Claudia)
Ednom tod meghei (prd) pqeti

(sudhiwom)
Hes cooking this fodd for me (benefactive)
Prteri
In advance, further
Bhmn adst ejos modnom prteri
He prepared his speech in advance of the

meeting
Teksnastnom m gm prteri mnena

tewe sonti
Your ideas are much further than the state

of technique
55
Proti
Against, in exchange of
Trosopoljom proti strudoime

(dusdhiwom)
Let us fight against terrorism (malefactive)
Bhrgjomnons proti qrponti loughs
Lies turn against people who use them
Daitrom meghei dedwe upstnojos

proti
He gave me a watch in exchange of (my)

services
Marki proti wewqt (=Marki apo

wewqt)
He answered to Mark
Marki proti (=apo) wewqt coti

Marki proti (=apo) wewqt cotom
He answered to Marks comment

He answered to Marks comment
Mrkosjo proti cotom wewqt
He refuted Markss comment
Pnim
Behind, back
Sr tm eiti pnim
He goes to the rear of the queue
Dewmn n ket pnim sonttorm
The message arrived back to its emissor
Rdh
Because of, due to
W wr sts wr tn rdh spordh esti
The match was suspended because of the

rain
N enmemeiteto esti, nitosjo prtijosjo

sewe rdh
He was not allowed in, due to his rivals

rancour
Sn/ snter
Apart
Smsts oljoi dmes, Markos aw nobhes

sn sdt
We were eating together, but Mark was

sitting apart, though
Sn loiqd kmertom tom Anni dhka

lodis gwmsn tei
Ive put this lobster apart from the rest for

Anna, who is coming later
Seqi
Vis--vis, in comparison to, relating
Ispanjs seqi, Mrokom bhod wesolijs

esti
In comparison to Spain, Marocco is really

cheaper
Prtijosjo ejos seqi knsjeti/ knsjetor
He is considered on a par with his rival
56
Teni / tenos
Until
Snm kanenntjsjo tenos
I swam until the end of the channel
Ucbhwnt ostjom tenos
They were wet until their bones
Trntis / teres / trqe
Through
Wed robhoi reimm teres soilt

(=Wedr robhoreim soilt)
Water dripped through a crack in the roof
Probhupropodom trntis eitum

sklomos
We have to go through a test process
Ud(i) / uds
Out (to a visible place), from under
Ud lkuwes sodt sweljos
The sun came out from the lake
Polmd ud dhrghe roupjom
He pulled a coin out of his pocket
Uperi / ups / pertrd
Up, upwards, up to, over
Oros uperi skandt
He hiked up to the mountain
resi uperi bht smmdos
There was a party up on the mountain
Upo
Under, below
Noinloi upo senti penkwe cmona
We have five degrees below zero
Dhghmi upo bht dnus
There was a river (just) under the ground
Oisoi Percjwonta ms dhghomm upo

teqr
Those surviving mice fled under the

ground
W / wi
Asunder
W dhghm skedr koimss
The drawing pins got scattered on the floor
W dew ghordhjd dtjs dlijro

mgtwijbhos nwostibhos
The messengers dispersed far from the

palace to anounce the news
Wr stom (=poti)
Towards
Trejes kowireges grdjontoi stdhlom

wr stom
The three wise men advance towards the

stable
Mnjs twij neustum wr stom welis

qm spartum esti
You are more favourable to spending than to

saving
57
Chapter A6: The adverb
6.-nawrmn
The adverb
An?
Perhaps?
D, ji
Drt
Oqoskrd
Ni
Ghi, ka, sm, toi
Uta d, uta ji
Wropropd
Bhewtum mgheti
Mghnijom
Opt
Bhwonim
Wrd
An n
Uta n
n mghnijom
N
Ghawd
Nei
Ghi n
Yes
Surely
Obviously
Absolutely yes
Certainly
Rather yes
Probably
Maybe
Optionally
Possibly
In reality
Truly
Maybe not
Rather not
Impossible
No
Not at all
Absolutely not
Not at all
nbhtidoljs
Emphatic particles
-i, -em, -ka
(This) right here, right now
58
Qom?
When?
N
Mlei kosmi/tosmi
Mlei tosmi/nosmi
Tom(-ke)
Now
At this moment
At that moment
Then
Qomqe /qomqid
Edqom
Neqom
iwesi/ aiwi
Jomqid
Qqom
Ambhom
Kom-pe/tom-pe/oisom-pe
Oisom-pe/im-pe/enom-pe
Aljom
Onjom
At any moment
At some moment
Never
Always
Whenever
At each moment
In both moments
In this very moment
In that very moment
In another moment again
In another moment else
Weghtei kosmi/tosmi
Weghtei tosmi/nosmi
Nnoi
This time
That time
Nowadays
For the moment
Before
Afterwards
During
In a moment (it happened in a moment)
In a moment (in a moment Ill be with the
client)
For a while/for a moment
On time
At the beginning
At the end
For a short time
Short time ago
Since short time ago
For a long time
Since long ago
A long time ago
After a while
Sometimes
Often
Frequently
From time to time
Occasionally, incidentally
Rarely
Nper
Pri
Pos(ti)/ psteri
Jwnts/ momdom
Mig/ bhroqoi (mig gisto)
Meigm pos/ bhroqom pos (meigm pos
qoks bhews)
Meigm / bhroqom
Prestim
Bhwite /prjei
Antjoi
Pauper/ neddom
Neddd
Neddoi
Ddom/ dwrm/ djwks
Ddr d
Ddoi
Qoild
Qr tus
Bhn gh
Mn gh
Apomomdomom
Qmdqid(qe)
R dh
59
Sm per
Tntom/protntm/sm tntom
Edjw, kidiwi
Dhghjesi
Ausrom/ krsi
Auseri/ ausr/ kwijs
Snpdei/ snpdoi
Praidhghjesi
Posausrom
Perndiwi
Smit / smit
Jmi/jm
Dom
Nedom /n dom
Penqedwijoi (nklawstijom dolos)
Penktd pri diws
Penqe dwm diwbhs
mroi/ prteri
Wesproi
Medhidiw
Medhinoqt
Noqt
Noqtm
Ati
jeri/ ghrw
Lodi
Stjosi/ psqoterom
Mogs
Psqoterom mogsteromwe
Wtesi kekn dwes/ procecwes
Wtesi ()kosmi
Wtesi ndsmoi
Once and for all

Continously/continually
Today
Yesterday
Tomorrow
At dawn
At sunset
On the day before yesterday
After tomorrow
In a few days
At the same time
Already
Still
Not yet
In four days (inclusive counting)
Four days ago
Since four days ago
In the morning
In the evening
At noon
At midnight
By night
During the night
Again
Early
Late
Later
Soon
Sooner or later
Last year
This year
Next year
Prjei
Olnim/ Antjei
Udh/ kitd
Trmn tos
pitmd
ksemt
At first
At last/ finally
Immediately
Finally
Definitively
Exceptionally
60
Qom apo?
Since when?
N-apo
Mlei kosmi/tosmi apo
Mlei tosmi/nosmi apo
Tom(-ke) apo
From now on
From this moment
From that moment
Since then
Qomqe /qomqid apo

Edqom apo
Neqom apo
iwesi/ aiwi apo
Jomqid apo
Qqom apo
Ambhom apo
Kom-pe/tom-pe/oisom-pe apo
Oisom-pe/im-pe/enom-pe apo
Aljom apo
Onjom apo
From any moment

From some moment
Since never
Ever since
Since whenever
From each moment
From both moments
From this very moment
From that very moment
From another moment again
From another moment else
Qom d?
Until when?
N-d
Mlei kosmi/tosmi d
Mlei tosmi/nosmi d
Tom(-ke) d
Until now
Until this moment
Until that moment
Until then
Qomqe /qomqid d
Edqom d
Neqom d
iwesi/ aiwi d
Jomqid d
Qqom d
Ambhom d
Kom-pe/tom-pe/oisom-pe d
Oisom-pe/im-pe/enom-pe d
Aljom d
Onjom d
Until any moment

Until some moment
Until never
For ever
Until whenever
Until each moment
Until both moments
Until this very moment
Until that very moment
Until another moment again
Until another moment else
61
Qm?
How?
S
Bhl g
Dus
Bhodis
Wolis
Pedis
Well
Wonderfully
Badly
Better
Preferably
Worse
Qwntom
How much?
Kwntom/ twntom
iswntom
Enwntom
This much
That much
That much
Qwntomqid
dqwntom
Nqwntom
lwntom
Jwntomqid
ljwntom/ njwntom
Any quantity
Some quantity
No quantity
Every quantity
Any quantity
Another quantity
Ligom
Ge
St, st
Pau
Meiwis/ mnusi
Ait
Ambh/ swi-per/ ad qolom
Epi, n dhi
Chon
Pel
Mgis/ mjis/ pljis
Welm
M gm
Sl wots
Pl nim
N dhi/ n dhidhughnm
Kiwotos
Minum, km bhism
Mgsm
Dris/ pr
A bit
At least
Enough
Little
Less
Partly
Approximately
Additionally
Abundantly
Much
More
A lot
Plentily, at wide extent
Completely
Fully
Too/ too much
Only
Minimum
Maximum
For free
62
Qodhei?
Where?
Kei/tei
Oisei /idhei
Enei
Here
There
Over there
Qdheiqe /qdheiqid
dqodhei
Nqodhei
lodhei
Jdheiqid
Qqodhei
mbhodhei
Kei-pe/tei-pe/oisei-pe
Oisei-pe/idhei-pe/enei-pe
terodhei
ljodhei/ njodhei
Anywhere
Somewhere
Nowhere
Everywhere
Wherever
In each place
In both places
In this very place
In that very place
In the rest of places
Somewhere else
Q(i), qote, qotrd?
Whither?
Kei/ kote / kotrd

Tei / tote/ totrd
Oisei/ isote/ isotrd
Enei /note / notrd
Here
Here
There
Over there
Q(i)qe / q(i)qid
Qteqe / qteqid
Qtrdqe /qtrdqid
To anywhere
To anywhere
To anywhere
Edq(i) / dqote/ dqotrd

Neq(i)/ nqote/ nqotrd
Ol(i) / lote / lotrd
J(i)qid / jteqid / jtrdqid
Qq(i)/ qqote/ qqotrd
mbh(i)/ mbhote/ mbhotrd
To somewhere
To nowhere
To everywhere
To wherever
To each place
To both places
K(i)-pe/ t(i)-pe/ ois(i)-pe

Kote-pe/ tote-pe/ isote-pe
Ois(i)-pe/ idh(i)-pe/ en(i)-pe
isote-pe/dhote-pe/note-pe
To this very place

To this very place
To that very place
To that very place
ter(i)/ terote/ terotrd

Alj(i) / onj(i)
ljote / ljotrd
njote/ njotrd
To the rest of places

To somewhere else
To somewhere else
To somewhere else
63
Qeti? Qotrd?
Wherefrom?
Keti/ kotrd
Teti/ totrd
iseti/ isotrd
Enei/ notrd
From here
From here
From there
From over there
Qtiqe /qtiqid
Qtrdqe /qtrdqid
From anywhere
From anywhere
dqeti/ dqotrd
Nqeti/ nqotrd
leti/ lotrd
Jtiqid / jtrdqid
Qqeti/ qqotrd
mbheti/ mbhotrd
From somewhere
From nowhere
From everywhere
From wherever
From each place
From both places
Keti-pe/teti-pe/iseti-pe
Kotrd-pe/totrd-pe/isotrd-pe
iseti-pe/dheti-pe/neti-pe
isotrd-pe/dhotrd-pe/notrd-pe
From this very place

From this very place
From that very place
From that very place
tereti/ terotrd
ljeti/ ljotrd
njeti/ njotrd
From the rest of places

From somewhere else
From somewhere else
Qosd?
Whereby?
Kosd/ tosd
isosd
nosd
By here
By there
By over there
Qsdqid
dqosd
Nqosd
losd
Jsdqid
Qqosd
mbhosd
Kosd-pe/tosd-pe/isosd-pe
isosd-pe/dhosd-pe/nosd-pe
By anywhere
By somewhere
By nowhere
By everywhere
By wherever
By each place
By both places
By this very place
By that very place
terosd
ljosd/ njosd
By the rest of places

By somewhere else
64
Qismi?
What for?
Kosmi/tosmi
isosmi
nosmi
For this
For that
For that over
Qdhosmiqe /qdhosmiqid
dqosmi
Nqosmi
losmi
Jdhosmiqid
Qqosmi
mbhosmi
Kosmi-pe/tosmi-pe/oisosmi-pe
Oisosmi-pe/idhosmi-pe/enosmi-pe
terosmi
ljosmi
njosmi
For any purpose

For some purpose
For no purpose
For every purpose
For whatever purpose
For each purpose
For both purposes
For this very purpose
For that very purpose
For the rest of purposes
For some other purpose
For another purpose
Qori? Q-i? Q-tu? Qija?
Why?
Kori/ tori
isori
nori
For this reason

For that reason
For that reason
Qriqid
dqori
Nqori
lori
Jriqid
Qqori
mbhori
Kori-pe/tori-pe/isori-pe
isori-pe/dhori-pe/nori-pe
For any reason

For some reason
For no reason
For every reason
For whatever reason
For each reason
For both reasons
For this very reason
For that very reason
terori
ljori
njori
For the rest of reasons

For some other reason
For another reason
65
Qota?
How?
Kota/ tota / ita (it)

isota
nota
This way, like this, so

That way, like that
That way, like that
Qtaqe /qtaqid
dqota
Nqota
lota
Jtaqid
Qqota
mbhota
Kota-pe/tota-pe/isota-pe
isota-pe/dhota-pe/nota-pe
Anyhow
Somehow
Nohow
Everyhow
In whatever way
In each way
In both manners
In this very manner
In that very manner
terota
ljota/ njota
In the rest of manners

Somehow else/ otherwise
Q?
By what means?; In what manner?
K, t
Ois
En
This way, like this, so

That way, like that
That way, like that
Qtaqe /qtaqid
dq
Nq
l
Qqid
Qq
Ambh
K-pe/t-pe/ois-pe
Ois-pe/idh-pe/en-pe
ter
lj/ nj
Anyhow
Somehow
By no means
Everyhow
By whatever means
In each way
In both manners
In this very manner
In that very manner
In the rest of manners
Somehow else
66
Apltd/ perm
Bhelnim
Kr dts
rmi/ wl
Dus
Andh
Mnmn
tos
Sm kloutnim/ sm pod
Prbhudhnim
Skrd
Kmmoin / kmmoinitos
Smojd/ Sm cnim
Kr diks
Regtd
Dhn gh
Absolutely
Aloud
Angry/ angrily
Appropriately
Bad
Blindly
By heart
By chance
Carefully
Clearly
Commonly
Conventionally
Cordially
Correctly
Directly
Reidhd
Somd / aiqd
Arti
Bhersi/ k/ twr td
Dhernim/ str
Dhreghnim
Kloutnim
N k
Ml k
Dikmn tos
Swd
Cmn tos
Ghoild
Molis
Uktim
Cr, swr, nok
Nmn tos
N bhrg
Ghleunim
Prsednim
Slags
Streptim
Moild
Bhewt
Kolis
Gnsmn tos
bhidhnim
Easily
Equally
Exactly
Fast
Firmly
Fluently
Fortunately
Forcingly, necessarily
By fumbling, gropingly
For instance
Gently, smoothly
Gradually
Happily
Hardly
Honestly
Importantly
In the name of
In vain
Jokingly
Kindly
Loosely
Loudly
Mildly
Naturally
Nearly
Normally
Officially
67
Sikes
Plmi
Kmsqr tim
Swedhumenesbhi
Orom
Awis/ dsteunim
sterotos
Ksip
Wr/ wrd
Rdhis
Klmi/ tjis / kustoisu
Tn gh, swr
Tausnim
Ml s
Ml d/ mltim
Dhn gh
Krep/ nert/ nertd/ blown t
Abhnim
Nekopnd
N kloutnim, ghler
Bhrg
Bhel/ ln /klamrd
S
Wk (wekonts)
Dusmenesbhi
Dusqold
Ernim
Sumenesbhi
Mr s
Pedbhi
Ghsr tos
Krsn tos
Ghornim
Twoisd
Widld/ widr
On purpose
Openly
Perfectly
Politely
Properly
Publicly (perceptibly)
Publicly (by the public)
Rashly
Really
Regularly
Secretly
Seriously
Silently
Slowly
Softly
Straightly/ directly
Strongly
Suddenly
Unexpectedly
Unfortunately
Usefully
Weakly
Well
Willingly
With bad intention
With difficulty
With energy
With good intention
With neglection
With the foot
With the hand
With the head
With pleasure
With violence
Wisely
68
7.-Wrmn
The verb
nonms
Prw
Dwtera
Tritj
Persons
First
Second
Third
Woqes
Voices
Active
Middle
Passive
Impersonal
Qqerj
Medhj
Ptjomn
ksonmis
Tenses
Wrtja
Present
Aorist
Perfect
Future
Enstnt
Nroki
Kmsqrtom
Bhewsont
Mdesa
Modes
Diktijom
Prknejom
Upotgtijom
ptijom
ntagtijom
Indicative
Precative
Subjunctive
Optative
Imperative
Bhrgtjes
Bhwtij
Stiw
Kntij
Propdej
ntonw
Mnghij
Wistij
Wnskiw
Uses
Natural
Stative
Inceptive
Progressive
Intensive
Frequentative
Causative
Desiderative
69
Chapter A7: The verb
nonms
Persons
Prw bhtei leght d
First refers to the speaker
(Eg) edqom welmi kwatsom
I want some cheese
Dwtera-klutorei leght d
trity
Second- refers to the listener
Age (t) dom
Go ahead!
Third nprtei leght d
Third-refers to that one whos not

participating
Knakjes cmm iknt tsmona
Bananas have lots of vitamins
Woqes
Voices
qqerj
active
Trestij
Transitive
Markos dhanum ghortei qeti
Mark sees a pinetree in the garden
ntrestij
Intransitive
Markos stigheti
Mark is walking
Bhondhw
Copulative
Markos pnwrs esti
Mark is a fireman
70
Medhj
Middle
Dhnghuprtikokej (Upologhos semli

qrtirstr qrtijatjrdisqe esti)
Direct reflexive (The subject is both the

initiator and the endpoint of the action)
Tegai
Kei dhejai
Markos spektlei qetoi
Markos ksnjetoi
I cover myself
I place myself here
Mark looks himself at the mirror
Mark shaves
Ndhnghuprtikokej -swesudhiw
Adejai owoqtjm
Pinjom sepai
Indirect reflexive - autobenefactive

I prepare myself an omelette
I provide myself with a stab
Aljoaljter
Cromedha
Nokjomedha
Reciprocal
We praise each other
We destroy each other
Smstter
Grnmedha
Wertjomedha
Collective
We gather together
We appreciate ourselves
Trestij
Gherijai
Bhrgjai
Qnumai
Mtijai
Transitive
I wish
I use
I avenge
I measure
ntrestij
Mntijai (mntij wrdhejwe qertis)
Rmoi (rmoi)
Bhmoi (bhmoi)
Medai
Intransitive
I put on, I pretend (mental o verbal activity)
I reckon
I speak
I ponder
Exceptions
I am afraid
I am fed up
ksemtjes
Bhbheimi
Sprigj
I get burnt (Spontaneous processes)

I get angry
I get hurt
I go mad
Eusaj (Sweqr ts propods)

Krdijai
Skedhai
Dhuwlijai
ksemtjes
Exceptions
Rudhsk (rudhsmi)
Albhsk (albhsmi)
R gsk (r gsmi)
Sensk (sensmi)
I get red
I get white
I get white/ brilliant
I get old
71
rijai (Krpesmowos)
Slijai
Pl nama
Leghjai
Bhudhjai
I stand up, I set out (Body motion)

I spring
I get near
I go to bed
I wake up, I get conscious
Exceptions
I turn towards the sun
I sit down
I go, I walk
I fall
I go up, I go down
ksemtjes
Qerp sweljom na
Sisd
Eimi, steigh
Chadh
Skand, keid
I change (change)
I become
I am born
I die
Mejai (Meitis)
Wrtai, gignai
Gnskai
Mrijai
Exceptions
I grow
I diminish
It gets light
ksemtjes
rdhj, augsk, krsk
swj
ussketi, luksketi (en)
Stative
I am lying
I find myself in Berlin
I feel good
Sttijm
Keimoi
smoi Bherolinjei
S qeisai (qismoi)
Exceptions
I am loaded
I am old
I am red
I am sitting
I am lying
ksemtjes
Gem
Senj
Rudhj
Sedj
Legh
ksonmis
Impersonal
Smitlm ktjntimenes oqer
The spot is seen from the other side of the

room
Smlogwos
Collective
Prati noqt dus swper
Last night we slept badly
Ptjomn
Passive
Markos nduwis qetor
Mark is seen by his neighbours
72
Ambhtow spekjs wrtjm

modesomqe
General outlook of tenses and moods
Qqerj woqs
Active voice
I show
I find
I produce
I govern
I make s.o. sit
I sell
I demand
I give
I renew
I love, I like
I remind
I am
I am, I result to be
I move
deik
wwermi
gign
reg
sdej
pr nmi
kupj
ddmi
newj
lubhj
mmnsk
esmi
bhewmi
r neumi
Middle voice/ passive/ deponent
Medhj woqs
deiki/ deikr
wiwrai/ wiwrar
gigni
regi
sdeji
pr nmai
kupji
ddwai
newji
lubhji
mmnski
seqi
bhmai
r nuwai
I show myself/ I am shown

I find myself/ I am found
I produce myself
I govern myself
I make myself. sit
I sell myself
I demand myself
I give for myself
I renew myself
I love, I like myself
I remind myself
I follow
I say
I move myself
Example: First person endings. Active and middle

Active
Thematic
Athematic
Primary
*oh2>
mi
Secondary
om
Thematic
Athematic
Middle
Primary
*oh2ei>*oai>i>i
*h2ei>ai/mai
Secondary
*oh2e>*oa>/oma
*h2e>a/ma
73
Deik show. Active voice. Present and aorist.
Indicative
Present
Aorist
Subjunctive
Optative
Precative
Imperative
deikoijm
deiksm
-----
deikois
deikss
deike
deikoit
deikst
diketu
dikoiwes
dikswes
-----
dikoitom
dikstom
diketanu
dikoitm
dikstm
diketenu
dikoimes
diksmes
-----
dikoite
dikste
dikete
Effective
Protelative
deik
deikom
dikesi
deikes
diketi
deiket
dikowos(i)
dikowes
diketas
diketom
diketes
diketm
dikomos(i)
dikomes
dikete
dikete
dikt(i)
dikwos(i)/
dikwes
diktas/
diktom
diktes/
diktm
dikmos(i)/
dikmes
dikte
dikonti
deikont
diknt(i)
deikoijnt
deiksnt
dikontu
dikm
dikm
dik / dikm
dikoijm
diksm
-----
diks
diks
dks(i)
dikois
dikss
dike
dikt
dikt
dkt(i)
dikoit
dikst
dketu
dikowes
dkwes
dkoiwes
dkswes
-----
diketom
dktom
dkoitom
dkstom
dketanu
diketm
dktm
dkoitm
dkstm
dketenu
dikomes
dkmes
dkoimes
dksmes
-----
dikete
dkte
dkte
dkoite
dkste
dkete
diknt
diknt
dknt(i)
dikoijnt
diksnt
dkontu
deik/
deikm
diks(i)
dkwos(i)/
dkwes
dktas/
dktom
dktes/
dktm
dkmos(i)/
dkmes
74
Deik show. Active voice. Perfect, pluperfect and future.
Indicative
Effective
dikw
dikadhum
dikate
dikm
dikst
dikr
Pluperfect
Future
Optative
Precative
Imperative
dikom(i)
dikes(i)
diket(i)
dikowos(i)/
dikowes
diketas/
diketom
diketes/
diketm
dikomos(i)/
dikomes
dikete
dikont(i)
dikjm
dikjs
dikjt
doiksm
doikss
doikst
----doikdhi
doiktu
dikwes
dikswes
-----
diktom
dikstom
diktanu
diktm
dikstm
diktenu
dikmes
diksmes
-----
dikte
dik nt
dikste
doiksnt
dikst
dikn t
Protelative
doika
doikta
doike
Perfect
Subjunctive
doikm
doiksm
dikissm
doiks
doikss
dikisss
doikt
doikst
dikisst
dikws
dikswes
dikisswes
diktm
dikstom
dikisstom
dikt m
dikstm
dikisstm
dikms
diksmes
dikissmes
dikt
dikste
dikisste
dikn t
doiksnt
dikissnt
deiks(j)
deiks(j)om
diks(j)/
deiks(j)m
diks(j)oijm
-----
diks(j)esi
deiks(j)es
diks(j)s(i)
deiks(j)ois
diketd
diks(j)eti
deiks(j)et
diks(j)t(i)
deiks(j)oit
dike(tu)td
diks(j)owos(i)
diks(j)owes
diks(j)oiwes
-----
diks(j)etas
diks(j)etas
diks(j)oitom
diketanutd
diks(j)etes
deiks(j)otes
diks(j)oitm
diketenutod
diks(j)omos(i)
diks(j)omes
diks(j)oimes
-----
diks(j)ete
diks(j)ete
diks(j)te
diks(j)oite
diketetd
diks(j)onti
deiks(j)ont
diks(j)nt(i)
diks(j)oijnt
dikon(tu)td
diks(j)wos(i)/
diks(j)wes
diks(j)tas/
diks(j)tom
diks(j)tes/
diks(j)tm
diks(j)mos(i)/
diks(j)mes
75
Deiki show oneself. Middle voice. Present and aorist.
Indicative
Present
Aorist
Subjunctive
Optative
Precative
Imperative
Effective
deiki
dikesoi
diketoi
Protelative
deik
dikeso
diketo
deiki/ dikma
dikso(i)
dikto(i)
dikoija
dikoiso
dikoito
diksma
diksso
diksto
----dikeswo
diketotu
dikowesdha
dikowedha
dikwe(s)dha
dikoiwedha
dikswedha
-----
deikei
deikei
deiki
dikoiji
deiksi
deikei
deikei
deikei
deiki
dikoiji
deiksi
deikei
dikomesdha
dikomedha
dikme(s)dha
dikoimedha
diksmedha
-----
dikesdhwe
dikontoi
dik /
dikoma
dikedhwe
dikonto
dik(s)dhwe
diknto(i)
dikoidhwe
dikoijnto
diksdhwe
diksnto
dikesdhwe
dikontotu
dkma
diki/ dkma
dkoija
dksma
-----
dikeso/
diketa
dkso
dkso(i)
dkoiso
dksso
dkeswo
diketo
dkto
dkto(i)
dkoito
dksto
dketotu
dikwedha
dkwedha
dkwe(s)dha
dkoiwedha
dkswedha
-----
diki
diki
diki
dkoiji
diksi
dikei
diki
diki
diki
dkoiji
diksi
dikei
dikmedha
dkmedha
dkme(s)dha
dkoimedha
dksmedha
-----
dikedhwe
dkdhwe
dkdhwe
dkoidhwe
dksdhwe
dkesdhwe
dikonto
dknto
dknto(i)
dkoijnto
dksnto
dkontotu
76
Deiki show oneself. Middle voice. Perfect, pluperfect and future.

Indicative
Perfect
Effective
dikai
diktai
dikei
dikwedhai
dikaia
dikaia
dikmedhai
diksti
Future
Optative
Precative
Imperative
dikoma(i)
dikeso(i)
diketo(i)
dikowe(s)dha
doikei
doikei
dikome(s)dha
dike(s)dhwe
dikja
dikso
dikto
dik wedha
dikji
dikji
dik medha
dikdhwe
diksma
diksso
diksto
dikswedha
diksi
diksi
diksmedha
diksdhwe
----doikswo
diktotu
----dik
dik
----dikdhw
dikonto(i)
diknto
diksnto
dkn totu
Protelative
dikri/ dikro
Pluperfect
Subjunctive
doikma
doikso
doikto
dikwedha
dik
dik
dikmedha
dikdhw
dikn to
deiks(j)i
diks(j)esoi
diks(j)etoi
diksma
doiksso
doiksto
dikswedha
doiksi
doiksi
diksmedha
diksdhwe
diksnto
deiks(j)om
deiks(j)es
deiks(j)et
dikissma
dikissso
dikissto
dikisswedha
dikissi
dikissi
dikissmedha
dikissdhwe
dikissnto
deiks(j)i/ -ma
diks(j)so(i)
diks(j)to(i)
diks(j)oija
diks(j)oiso
diks(j)oito
----dikeswotd
diketotutd
diks(j)owesdha
diks(j)owes
diks(j)we(s)dha
diks(j)oiwedha
-----
deiks(j)ei
deiks(j)ei
diks(j)ei
deiks(j)ei
diks(j)i
diks(j)i
diks(j)oiji
diks(j)oiji
dikeitd
dikeitd
diks(j)omesdha
diks(j)omes
diks(j)me(s)dha
diks(j)oimedha
-----
diks(j)esdhwe
diks(j)ete
diks(j)(s)dhwe
diks(j)oidhwe
dikesdhwetd
diks(j)ontoi
deiks(j)ont
diks(j)nto(i)
diks(j)oijnto
dikontotutd
77
Deikr be shown. Passive voice. Present and aorist.

Indicative
Present
Aorist
Subjunctive
Optative
Precative
Imperative
deikr
dikoir
dikoisor/
dikoitar
dikoitor
dikoiwer
deikoitr
deikoitr
dikoimer
deiksr
dikssor/
dikstar
dikstor
dikswer
deikstr
deikstr
diksmer
-----
dikoidhwer
diksdhwer
dikedhworu
dikontoru
Effective
deikr
dikesor/
diketar
diketor
dikowor(i)
deiketr
deiketr
dikomor(i)
Protelative
deikr
dikesor/
diketar
diketor
dikower
deiketr
deiketr
dikomer
dikedhwori
dikedhwer
dikontor(i)
dikontor
dikntor(i)
dikoijntor
diksntor
dikr/
dikts esmi
dkr/
dikts esm
dikr/ dikts
som(i)
dkoir/ dikts
sjm
dikesor/
diketar/
dikts essi
dksor/
dktar/
dikts es
dksor/ dktar/
dikts ses(i)
dkoisor/
dkoitar/ dikts
sjs
diketor/
dikts esti
dikower/
diktu
swos(i)
diketr /
diktu stas
diketr /
diktu stes
dikomer/
dikts
smos(i)
dktor/
dikts est
dikedhwer/
dikts ste
dkdhwer/
dikts ste
dikontor/
dikts sonti/
dikts senti
dkntor/
dikts sent
dkwer/
diktu swes
diktr /
diktu stom
diktr /
diktu stm
dkmer/
dikts smes
diksor/ diktar
diktor
dikwor(i)/ -wer
deiktr
deiktr
dikmor(i)/ -mer
dikdhwori/ dhwer
dikesoru
diketoru
----diketru
diketru
-----
dktor/ dikts
set(i)
dkwor(i)/ -wer/
diktu sowos/ wes
diktr / diktu
setas/ -tom
diktr / diktu
setes/ -tm
dkmor(i)/ -mer/
dikts somos(i)/
-mes
dkdhwori/ dhwer/ dikts
sete
dkoitor/ dikts
sjt
diksr/ dikts
essm
dkssor/
dkstar/
dikstar/
dikts esss
dkstor/ dikts
esst
dkoiwer/
diktu swes
dkswer/
diktu sswes
-----
dikoitr / diktu
stom
dikoitr / diktu
stm
dikstr / diktu
sstom
dikstr / diktu
sstm
dketru/
diktu stanu
dketru/
diktu stenu
dkoimer/ dikts
smes
dksmer/
dikts ssmes
-----
dkoidhwer/
dikts ste
dksdhwer/
dikts sste
dkedhworu/
dikts ste
dkntor(i)/
dikts sont(i)
dkoijntor/
dikts snt
dksntor/
dikts essnt
dkontoru/
dikts sentu
78
----dkesoru/
dikts esdhi
dketoru/
dikts estu
Deikr be shown. Passive voice. Perfect and pluperfect.

Indicative
Effective
diktar/ dikns
essi
dikor/ dikns
esti
Precative
doikr/ doikr/
dikns som(i)
dikesor/
diketar/
dikns ses(i)
diketor/
dikns set(i)
dikjar/
dikns sjm
diksor/
diktar/
dikns sjs
diktor/
dikns sjt
diksr/ dikns
essm
dikssor/
dikstar/
dikns esss
dikstor/
dikns esst
dikaiar/ diknu
stas
dikowor(i)/ wer/ diknu

sowos/ -wes
diketr / diknu
setas/ -tom
dikaiar/ diknu
stes
diketr / diknu
setes/ -tm
dikmr/ dikns
smos(i)
dikomor(i)/ mer/ dikns

somos(i)/ -mes
dikdhwr/
dikns ste
dikwr/ diknu
swos(i)
Pluperfect
Optative
dikwer/
diknu swes
dikjetr /
diknu stom
dikjetr /
diknu
stm
dikswer/
diknu
sswes
dikstr /
diknu sstom
diksoru/ dikns
esdhi
diktoru/ dikns
estu
----diktr/ diknu
stanu
diktr/ diknu
stenu
dikmer/
dikns smes
diksmer/
dikns ssmes
-----
dikedhwor(i)/
-dhwer/ dikns
sete
dikdhwer/
dikns ste
diksdhwer/
dikns sste
dikdhworu/
dikns ste
dikontor(i)-/
dikns sont(i)
dikntor/
dikns snt
diksntor/
dikns essnt
dikn toru/ dikns

sentu
diksr/ dikns
bhuwm
doikssor/
dikstar/
dikns bhuws
dikissr/
dikns bhsm
dikisssor/
dikisstar/
dikns bhss
doiktor/ dikns
bht
doikstor/
dikns bhuwt
Dikisstor/
dikns bhst
dikwr/ diknu
bhwes
dikswer/
diknu
bhwwes
dikisswer/
dikns bhst
diktr / diknu
bhtom
dikstr /
diknu
bhwtom
dikisstr /
diknu
bh stom
dikdhwr/
dikns bhte
dikstr /
diknu
bhwtm
diksmer/
dikns
bhwmes
diksdhwer/
dikns bhwte
dikisstr /
diknu
bh stm
dikissmer/
dikns
bh smes
dikissdhwer/
dikns bh ste
dikn tor/ dikns

bhnt
diksntor/
dikns bhuwnt
dikissntor/
dikns bhsnt
dikmr/ dikns
bhmes
-----
dikstr /
diknu sstm
dikn tar /
dikns sonti/
dikns senti
doikar/ dikns
bhm
doiksor/
doiktar/ dikns
bhs
diktr / diknu
bhtm
Imperative
Protelative
dikar/ dikns
esmi
Perfect
Subjunctive
79
Deikr be shown. Passive voice. Future.

Indicative
Future
Subjunctive
Optative
Precative
Imperative
Effective
Protelative
deiks(j)r
deiks(j)om
deiks(j)r
deiks(j)oir
-----
diks(j)esor/
diks(j)etar
deiks(j)es
diks(j)sor/
diks(j)tar
diks(j)oisor/
diks(j)oitar
dikesorutd
diks(j)etor
deiks(j)et
diks(j)tor
diks(j)oitor
diketorutd
diks(j)owor(i)
diks(j)owes
diks(j)wor(i)/ wer
diks(j)oiwer
-----
deiks(j)etr
deiks(j)ei
deiks(j)tr
deiks(j)oitr
diketrutd
deiks(j)etr
deiks(j)ei
deiks(j)tr
deiks(j)oitr
diketrutd
diks(j)oimer
-----
diks(j)oidhwer
dikedhworutd
diks(j)oijntor
dikontorutd
diks(j)omor(i)
diks(j)omes
diks(j)edhwor(i)
diks(j)edhwe
diks(j)ontor(i)
deiks(j)ont
diks(j)mor(i)/ mer
diks(j)dhwor(i)/
-dhwer
diks(j)ntor(i)
80
Wwermi find. Active voice. Present and aorist.
Present
Aorist
Subjunctive
Optative
Precative
Imperative
Effective
Protelative
wwermi
wiwerm
wwerom(i)
wiwrm
wwersm
-----
wwersi
wiwers
wweres(i)
wiwrs
wwerss
wwerdhi
wwerti
wiwert
wweret(i)
wiwrt
wwerst
wwertu
wiwr ws(i)
wiwr ws
wwerowos(i) /-wes
wiwrws
wwerswes
-----
wiwr ts
wiwr tm
wweretas/ -tom
wiwrtm
wwerstom
wiwr tanu
wiwr ts
wiwr t m
wweretes/ -tm
wiwrt m
wwersntm
wiwr tenu
wiwr ms(i)
wiwr ms
wweromos(i) /-mes
wiwrms
wwersmes
-----
wiwr t
wiwr t
wwerete
wiwrt
wwerste
wiwr t
wiwrn ti
wiwrent
wweront(i)
wiwrnt
wwersnt
wiwrn tu
wewrm
wewrm
wewr /-m
wewroijm
wewr sm
-----
wewrs
wewrs
wwrs(i)
wewrois
wewr ss
wewre
wewrt
wewrt
wwrt(i)
wewroit
wewr st
wwretu
wewrowes
wwrwes
wwrwos(i) /-wes
wwroiwes
wwr swes
-----
wewretom
wwrtom
wwrtas/ -tom
wwroitom
wwr stom
wwretanu
wewretm
wwrtm
wwrtes/ -tm
wewroitm
wewr stm
wwretenu
wewromes
wwrmes
wwrmos(i) /-mes
wwroimes
wwr smes
-----
wewrete
wwrte
wwrte
wwroite
wwr ste
wwrete
wewront
wewrnt
wwrnt(i)
wewroijnt
wewr snt
wwrontu
81
Wwermi find. Active voice. Perfect, pluperfect and future.
Effective
wewr w
wewradhum
wewrate
wewr m
wewr st
wewrr
Pluperfect
Future
Optative
Precative
Imperative
wworom(i)
wwores(i)
wworet(i)
wworowos(i)/ wes
wworetas/ -tom
wworetes/ -tm
wworomos(i)/ mes
wworete
wworont(i)
wewr jm
wewr js
wewr jt
wworsm
wworss
wworst
----wwordhi
wwortu
wewrwes
wworswes
-----
wewrtom
wewrtm
wworstom
wworstm
wewr tanu
wewr tenu
wewrmes
wworsmes
-----
wewrte
wewr nt
wworste
wworsnt
wewr st
wewrn t
Protelative
wwora
wworta
wwore
Perfect
Subjunctive
wworm
wworsm
wworissm
wewors
wworss
wworisss
wewort
wworst
wworisst
wewr ws
wworswes
wworisswes
wewr tm
wworstom
wworisstom
wewr t m
wworstm
wworissnt
wewr ms
wworsmes
wworissmes
wewr t
wworste
wworisste
wewrn t
wworsnt
wworissnt
wers(j)
wers(j)om
wrs(j)esi
wers(j)es
wers(j)/
wers(j)m
wrs(j)s(i)
wrs(j)eti
wers(j)et
wrs(j)owos(i)
wrs(j)oijm
-----
wers(j)ois
wwerdhitd
wrs(j)t(i)
wers(j)oit
wwertutd
wrs(j)owes
wrs(j)wos(i)/ wes
wrs(j)oiwes
-----
wrs(j)etas
wrs(j)etom
wrs(j)tas/ -tom
wrs(j)oitom
wiwr tnutd
wrs(j)etes
wers(j)ont
wrs(j)tes/ -tm
wrs(j)oitm
wiwr tnutd
wrs(j)omos(i)
wrs(j)omes
wrs(j)mos(i)/ mes
wrs(j)oimes
-----
wrs(j)ete
wrs(j)ete
wrs(j)te
wrs(j)oite
wiwr tetd
wrs(j)onti
wers(j)ont
wrs(j)nt(i)
wrs(j)oijnt
wiwrn tutd
82
Wiwrai find oneself. Middle voice. Present and aorist.
Present
Aorist
Subjunctive
Optative
Precative
Imperative
Effective
Protelative
wiwrai
wiwra
wweroma(i)
wwrja
wwersma
-----
wiwr soi
wiwr so
wwereso(i)
wwrso
wwersso
wwr swo
wiwr toi
wiwr to
wwereto(i)
wwrto
wwersto
wwr totu
wiwr wesdha
wiwr wedha
wwerowe(s)dha
wwrwedha
wwerswedha
-----
wiwr
wiwr
wwerei
wwrji
wwersi
wiwr
wiwr
wiwr
wwerei
wwrji
wwersi
wiwr
wiwr mesdha
wiwr medha
wwerome(s)dha
wwrmedha
wwersmedha
-----
wiwr sdhw
wiwr dhw
wwere(s)dhwe
wwrdhwe
wwersdhwe
wiwr sdhw
wiwrn toi
wewr /
wewroma
wwrento
wweronto(i)
wwri/
wwrma
wiwrnto
wwersnto
wwrn totu
wwroija
wwr sma
-----
wwrma
wewreso/
wewreta
wwrso
wwrso(i)
wwroiso
wwr sso
wwreswo
wewreto
wwrto
wwrto(i)
wwroito
wwr sto
wwretotu
wewrwedha
wwrwedha
wwrwe(s)dha
wwroiwedha
wwr swedha
-----
wewri
wewri
wewri
wwroiji
wewr si
wewrei
wewri
wewri
wewri
wwroiji
wewr si
wewrei
wewrmedha
wwrmedha
wwrme(s)dha
wwroimedha
wwr smedha
-----
wewredhwe
wwrdhwe
wwrdhwe
wwroidhwe
wwr sdhwe
wwresdhwe
wewronto
wwrnto
wwrnto(i)
wwroijnto
wwr snto
wwrontotu
83
Wiwrai find oneself. Middle voice. Perfect, pluperfect and future.
Subjunctive
Optative
Precative
Imperative
wewrai
wwr tai
wewrei
wworoma(i)
wworeso(i)
wworeto(i)
wewrja
wewrso
wewrto
wworsma
wworsso
wworsto
----wworswo
wwortotu
wewr wedhai
wewraia
wewraia
wworowe(s)dha
wewr wedha
wworswedha
-----
wworei
wworei
wewrje
wewrje
wworsi
wworsi
wewr
wewr
wewr medhai
wworome(s)dha
wewr medha
wworsmedha
-----
wewr sti
wewrri/
wewrro
wworma
wwore(s)dhwe
wewrdhwe
wworsdhwe
wewr dhw
wworonto(i)
wewrnto
wworsnto
wwrn totu
wworsma
wworissma
wworso
wworsso
wworissso
wworto
wworsto
wworissto
wewr wedha
wworswedha
wworisswedha
wewr
wworsi
wworissi
wewr
wworsi
wworissi
wewr medha
wworsmedha
wworissmedha
wewr dhw
wworsdhwe
wworissdhwe
wewrn to
wers(j)i
wworsnto
wworissnto
wers(j)om
wrs(j)ma(i)
wrs(j)oija
-----
wrs(j)esoi
wers(j)es
wrs(j)so(i)
wers(j)oiso
wwr swotd
wrs(j)etoi
wers(j)et
wrs(j)to(i)
wers(j)oito
wwr totutd
wrs(j)owesdha
wrs(j)owes
wrs(j)we(s)dha
wrs(j)oiwedha
-----
wrs(j)ei
wrs(j)ete
wrs(j)i
wrs(j)oiji
wiwritd
wrs(j)ei
wers(j)ont
wrs(j)i
wrs(j)oiji
wiwritd
wrs(j)omesdha
wrs(j)omes
wrs(j)me(s)dha
wrs(j)oimedha
-----
wrs(j)esdhwe
wrs(j)ete
wrs(j)(s)dhwe
wrs(j)oidhwe
wwr sdhwetd
wrs(j)ontoi
wers(j)ont
wrs(j)nto(i)
wrs(j)oijnto
wwrn totutd
Effective
Perfect
Plup.
Future
Protelative
84
Wiwrar be found. Passive voice. Present and aorist.
Subjunctive
Present
Aorist
Optative
Precative
Imperative
wwrr
wwersr
-----
wwrsor/
wwrtar
wwrtor
wwerssor/
wwerstar
wwerstor
wwrwer
wwerswer
-----
wwrtr
wwerstr
wiwr tru
wwrtr
wwerstr
wiwr tru
wwrmer
wwersmer
-----
wwrdhwer
wwersdhwer
wwr dhworu
wwrntor
wwroir/ wr ts
sjm
wwrn
toru
Effective
Protelative
wiwrar
wiwrar
wiwr sor/
wiwr tar
wiwr tor
wiwr sor/
wiwr tar
wiwr tor
wiwr wr(i)
wiwr wr
wiwrtr

wiwrtr

wiwrtr

wiwrtr

wiwr mor(i)
wiwr mr
wiwr dhwori
wiwr dhwr
wwrn
tor(i)
wewrr/
wr ts esmi
wwrentor
wwrr/
wr ts esm
wweretr
wweromor(i)/ mer
wweredhwori/ dhwer
wwerontor(i)
wewrr/ wr ts
som(i)
wewresor/
wewretar/
wr ts essi
wwrsor/
wwrtar/
wr ts es
wwrsor/
wwrtar/ wr ts
ses(i)
wwroisor/
wwroitar/
wr ts sjs
wewretor/
wr ts esti
wwrtor/
wr ts est
wwroitor/
wr ts sjt
wewrower/
wr tu swos(i)
wwrwer/
wr tu swes
wwroiwer/
wr tu swes
wwr swer/
wr tu sswes
-----
wewretr /
wr tu stas
wewretr /
wr tu stes
wewrtr /
wr tu stom
wewrtr /
wr tu stm
wwroitr / wr tu
stom
wwroitr / wr tu
stm
wewr str /
wr tu sstom
wewr str /
wr tu sstm
wwretru/ wr tu
stanu
wwretru/ wr tu
stenu
wewromer/
wr ts smos(i)
wwrmer/
wr ts smes
wwroimer/
wr ts smes
wwr smer/
wr ts ssmes
-----
wewredhwer/
wr ts ste
wwrdhwer/
wr ts ste
wwrtor/ wr ts
set(i)
wwrwor(i)/ wer/ wr tu
sowos/ -wes
wwrtr / wr tu
setas/ -tom
wwrtr / wr tu
setes/ -tm
wwrmor(i)/ mer/ wr ts
somos(i)/ -mes
wwrdhwori/ dhwer/ wr ts
sete
wwersntor
wwr sr/ wr ts
essm
wwr ssor/
wwr star/
wworstar/
wr ts esss
wwr stor/
wr ts esst
wwroidhwer/
wr ts ste
wwr sdhwer/
wr ts sste
wwredhworu/
wr ts ste
wewrontor/
wr ts sonti/
wr ts senti
wwrntor/
wr ts sent
wwrntor(i)/
wr ts sont(i)
wwroijntor/
wr ts snt
wwr sntor/
wr ts essnt
wwrontoru/
wr ts sentu
wwerr/
wwerr
wweresor/
wweretar
wweretor
wwerowor(i)/ wer
wweretr
85
wwr soru
wwr toru
----wwresoru/
wr ts esdhi
wwretoru/
wr ts estu
Wiwrar be found. Passive voice. Perfect and pluperfect.
Subjunctive
Effective
wewror/
wr ns esti
wworr/
wworr/ wr ns
som(i)
wworesor/
wworetar/
wr ns ses(i)
wworetor/
wr ns set(i)
wewr wr/
wr nu
swos(i)
wewraiar/
wr nu stas
wewraiar/
wr nu stes
wworowor(i)/ wer/ wr nu
sowos/ -wes
wworetr / wr nu
setas/ -tom
wworetr / wr nu
setes/ -tm
wewr mr/
wr ns
smos(i)
wworomor(i)/ mer/ wr ns
somos(i)/ -mes
wworedhwor(i)/
-dhwer/ wr ns
sete
wewr tar/
wr ns essi
wewr dhwr/
wr ns ste
wewrn
tar /
wr ns senti/
wr ns sonti
Plup.
Precative
Imperative
wewrjar/
wr ns sjm
wworsr/ wr ns
essm
-----
wewrsor/
wewrtar/
wr ns sjs
wewrtor/
wr ns sjt
wworssor/
wworstar/
wr ns esss
wworstor/
wr ns esst
wewrwer/
wr nu swes
wworswer/
wr nu sswes
-----
wewrtr /
wr nu stom
wewrtr /
wr nu stm
wworstr /
wr nu sstom
wworstr /
wr nu sstm
wewr tr/
wr nu stanu
wewr tr/
wr nu stenu
wewrmer/
wr ns smes
wworsmer/
wr ns ssmes
-----
wewrdhwer/
wr ns ste
wworsdhwer/
wr ns sste
wewr dhworu/
wr ns ste
wewrntor/
wr ns snt
wworsntor/
wr ns essnt
wewrn toru/
wr ns sentu
Protelative
wewrar/
wr ns esmi
Perfect
Optative
wworontor(i)-/
wr ns sont(i)
wworar/
wr ns bhm
wworsr/
wr ns bhuwm
wworissr/
wr ns bhsm
wworsor/
wwortar/
wr ns bhs
wworssor/
wworstar/
wr ns bhuws
wworisssor/
wworisstar/
wr ns bhss
wwortor/
wr ns bht
wworstor/
wr ns bhuwt
wworisstor/
wr ns bhst
wewr wr/
wr nu
bhwes
wworswer/
wr nu
bhwwes
wworisswer/
wr nu bh swes
wewrtr
/
wr nu
bhtom
wworstr /
wr nu
bhwtom
wworisstr /
wr nu bh stom
wewrtr
/
wr nu
bhtm
wworstr /
wr nu
bhwtm
wworisstr /
wr nu bh stm
wewr mr/
wr ns
bhmes
wworsmer/
wr ns
bhwmes
wworsdhwer/
wr ns
bhwte
wworsntor/
wr ns
bhuwnt
wewr dhwr/
wr ns bhte
wewrn
tor/
wr ns bhnt
wworissmer/
wr ns bh smes
wworissdhwer/
wr ns bh ste
wworissntor/
wr ns bhsnt
86
wworsoru/
wr ns esdhi
wwortoru/
wr ns estu
Wiwrar be found. Passive voice. Future.
Future
Subjunctive
Optative
Precative
Imperative
Effective
Protelative
wwers(j)r
wwers(j)om
wwers(j)r
wwers(j)oir
-----
wwers(j)esor/
wwers(j)etar
wwers(j)es
wwers(j)sor/
wwers(j)tar
wwers(j)oisor/
wwers(j)oitar
wwr sorutd
wwers(j)etor
wwers(j)et
wwers(j)tor
wwers(j)oitor
wwr torutd
wwers(j)owor(i)
wwers(j)owes
wwers(j)wor(i)/ wer
wwers(j)oiwer
-----
wwers(j)etr
wwers(j)ei
wwers(j)tr
wwers(j)oitr
wwr trutd
wwers(j)etr
wwers(j)ei
wwers(j)tr
wwers(j)oitr
wwr trutd
wwers(j)omor(i)
wwers(j)omes
wwers(j)oimer
-----
wwers(j)edhwor(i)
wwers(j)edhwe
wwers(j)oidhwer
wwr dhworutd
wwers(j)ontor(i)
wwers(j)ont
wwers(j)oijntor
wwrn torutd
wwers(j)mor(i)/ mer
wwers(j)dhwor(i)/
-dhwer
wwers(j)ntor(i)
87
Gign beget, reg direct, sdej settle, pr nmi sell, kupj demand, ddmi give.
First person active.
Indicative
Present
Aorist
Perfect
Pluperfect
Future
Subjunctive
Optative
Precative
Imperative
Effective
Protelative
gign
gignom
gign /-m
ggnoijm
gign sm
gigne
reg
regom
reg /-m
rgoijm
regsm
rege
sdej
sdejom
sdej /-m
sdjoijm
sdesm
sdeje
pr nmi
pr nm
pr njom(i)
pr njm
pr nsm
pr ndhi
kupj
kupjom
kupj /m
kpjoijm
kupsm
kupje
ddmi
ddm
didm(i)
didwm
ddsm
dddhi/ dsdhi
genm
genm
gn /-m
gnoijm
gensm
gen
regm/rgsm
regm
rgsom(i)
regm
regsm
rg(se)si
sesedm
sesedm
ssed /-m
ssedoijm
sesedsm
sesed
prm/prsm
prwm
pr()som(i)
perm
prsm
prdhi
keupm
keupm
kupom(i)
kupoijm
keupsm
keupe
dm
dwm
dwom(i)
djm
dsm
ddhi
ggona
ggonom(i)
gegn jm
ggonsm
gegn dhi
rga
rgom(i)
regjm
rgsm
regdhi
sdoja
sdjom(i)
sdojm
sdosm
sdodhi
ppora
pporom(i)
pepr jm
pporsm
ppr dhi
koupa
kupom(i)
kupjm
koupsm
kupdhi
deda/ddwa
ddwom(i)
dedjm
ddsm
dddhi
ggonm
ggonsm
ggonissm
rgm
rgsm
rgissm
sdojm
sdosm
sdjissm
pporm
pporsm
pporissm
koupm
koupsm
kupissm
dedm
ddsm
ddissm
gens(j)
gns(j) /-m
gnsoijm
ggnetd
regs(j)
rgs(j) /-m
rgsoijm
rgetd
sdes(j)
sds(j) /-m
sdsoijm
sdjetd
pers(j)
prs(j) /-m
persoijm
pr ntd
keups(j)
kups(j) /-m
kupsoijm
kpjetd
ds(j)
ds(j) /-m
dsoijm
ddtd
88
Newj renew, lubhj like, mmnsk remember, esmi be, bhewmi be, result to
be, r neumi move. First person active.
Indicative
Present
Aorist
Perfect
Pluperfect
Future
Subjunctive
Optative
Precative
Imperative
Effective
Protelative
newj
newjom
newj /-m
new joijm
newsm
newje
lubhj
lubhjom
lubhj /-m
lubhjoijm
lubhsm
lubhje
mmnsk
mmnskom
mimnsk /-m
mmnskoijm
mmnsksm
mmnsketu
esmi
esm
somi
sjm
essm
esdhi
bhewmi
bhewom
bhew /-m
bhewm
bhewsm
bhewdhi
r neumi
r neum
r nuwom(i)
r nujm
r neusm
r neudhi
newsm
/
newbhm
new bhuwm
new som(i)/
new bhuwom(i)
new bhjm
new bhusm
newj/
new (se)si/
new bhdhi
lubhbhjm
lubhbhsm
lubhj/
lubh(se)si/
lubhbhdhi
lubhsm
/
lubhbhm
lubhbhuwm
lubhsom(i)/
lubhbhuwom(i)
mimnsm

mimnsm
mimn som(i)
mimnsm
mimnssm
mimn (se)si
sm
sm
som(i)
sm
ssm
sdhi
bhm
bhuwm
bhwom(i)
bhjm
bhsm
bhdhi
orm
orm
rom(i)
orm
orsm
ordhi
newja
new jom(i)
newjm
newsm
newdhi
lubhja
lubhjom(i)
lubhjm
lubhsm
lubhdhi
mmona
mmonom(i)
memn jm
mmonsm
memn dhi
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
(bh)bhowa
(bh)bhowom(i)
bhbhjm
(bh)bhowsm
bhbhdhi
rra
rrom(i)
orr jm
rrsm
orr dhi
newjm
newsm
new jissm
lubhjm
lubhsm
lubhjissm
mmonm
mmonsm
mmonissm
-----
-----
-----
(bh)bhowm
(bh)bhowsm
(bh)bhowissm
rrm
rrsm
rrissm
news(j)
news(j) /-m
new s(jo)ijm
new jetd
lubhs(j)
lubhs(j) /-m
lubhs(j)oijm
lubhjetd
mmnsks(j)
mimnsks(j) /m
mmnsks(j)oij
m
mmnsketd
-----
-----
-----
estd
bhews(j)
bhews(j) /-m
bhws(jo)ijm
bhewtd
r neus(j)
r neus(j) /-m
r nus(jo)ijm
r neutd
89
Gigni beget o.s., regi direct o.s., sdeji settle o.s., pr nmai sell o.s., kupji
demand o.s., ddwai give o.s.. First person middle.
Indicative
Present
Perfect
Pluperfect
Future
Optative
Precative
Imperative
Effective
gigni
Protelative
gig
ggni /-ma
ggnoija
ggn sma
ggneswo
regi
reg
rgi /-ma
rgoija
rgsma
rgeswo
sdeji
sdej
sdji /-ma
sdjoija
sdsma
sdjeswo
pr nmai
kupji
pr nma
pr njoma(i)
pr njma
pr nsma
pr nswo
kupj
kpji /ma
kpjoija
kpsma
kpjeswo
ddwai
gen /
genoma
ddwa
didi/ ddma
ddwja
ddsma
ddswo
gnma
gni /-ma
gnoija
gnsma
geneswo
rgma
rgsoma(i)
rgja
regsma
rg(se)swo
ssedma
ssedi /-ma
ssedoija
ssedsma
sesedeswo
pr wma
pr()som(i)
prja
pr sma
pr swo
keupa/
keupma
kupma
kupoma(i)
kupoija
kupsma
kupeswo
dwa/
dma
dwma
dwoma(i)
dwja
dsma
dswo
gegnai
ggnoma(i)
gegnja
ggn sma
gegn swo
regai
rgoma(i)
regja
rgsma
regswo
sdojai
sdjoma(i)
sdojja
sdsma
sdoswo
peprai
pproma(i)
peprja
ppr sma
ppr swo
kupai
kpoma(i)
kupja
kpsma
kupswo
dedwai
ddwoma(i)
dedwja
ddsma
ddswo
reg /
regoma/
rgsa/
regsma
Aorist
Subjunctive
sesed /
sesedoma
prma
/prsa/
prsma
gegn ma
ggn sma
ggnissma
regma
rgsma
rgissma
sdoma
sdsma
sdjissma
pepr ma
ppr sma
pprissma
kupma
kpsma
kpissma
dedma
ddsma
ddwissma
gens(j)i
regs(j)i
gns(j)i /-ma
gnsoija
ggneswotd
rgs(j)i /-ma
rgsoija
rgeswotd
sdes(j)i
pers(j)i
sds(j)i /-ma
sdsoija
sdjeswotd
prs(j)i /-ma
persoija
pr nswotd
keups(j)i
ds(j)i
kups(j)i /-ma
kupsoija
kpjeswotd
ds(j)i /-ma
dsoija
ddswotd
90
Newji renew o.s., lubhji like o.s., mmnski remember o.s., seqi follow,
bhmai speak, r nuwai move o.s.. First person middle/ deponent.
Indicative
Perfect
Pluperfect
Future
Optative
Precative
Imperative
Effective
newji
Protelative
newj
newji /-ma
new joija
new sma
new jeswo
lubhji
lubhj
lubhji /-ma
lubhjoija
lubhsma
lubhjeswo
mmnski
seqi
mmnsk
mimnski /-ma
mmnskoija
mmn sksma
mmnskeswo
seq
seqi /-ma
sqoija
sqsma
sqeswo
bhmai
bhma
bh woma(i)
bhja
bh sma
bhswo
r nuwai
r nuwa
r neuwoma(i)
r nuwja
r nusma
r nuswo
newsa/
newsma/
new bhma
new bhuwma
new soma(i)/
new bhuwoma(i)
new bhwja
new bhusma
newjeswo/
new (se)swo/
new bhswo
lubhbhuwma
lubhsoma(i)/
lubhbhuwoma(i)
lubhbhwja
mimn sa/
mimn sma
mimn sma
mimn soma(i)
mimn sja
mimn ssma
mimn (se)swo
seq / seqoma
sqma
sqi /-ma
sqoija
sqsma
seqeswo
bhma/
bhtos esmi
bh wma/
bhtos esm
bhwoma(i)/
bhtos som(i)
bhwja/ bhtos
sjm
bh sma/
bhtos essm
bhswo/ bhtos
esdhi
ora/ orma
orma
roma(i)
rja
rsma
r swo
newjai
new joma(i)
newjja
new sma
newswo
lubhjai
lubhjoma(i)
lubhjja
lubhsma
lubhswo
memnai
mmnoma(i)
memnja
sesqai
bhwai/
bhnos esmi
ssqoma(i)
bh woma(i)/
bhnos som(i)
sesqja
bhwiija/
bhnos sjm
mmn sma
ssqsma
bh wisma/
bhnos essm
memn swo
sesqswo
bh wiswo/
bhnos esdhi
orrai
rroma(i)
orrja
rirsma
orr swo
lubhsa/
lubhbhma
Aorist
Subjunctive
lubhbhsma
newma
new sma
new jissma
lubhma
lubhsma
lubhjissma
memn ma
mmn sma
mmnissma
sesqma
ssqsma
ssqissma
bhwma/
bhnos bhm
bh wisma/
bhnos
bhuwm
bh wissma/
bhnos
bhsm
orrma
rrsma
rrissma
lubhjeswo/
lubh(se)swo/
lubhbhswo
news(j)i
lubhs(j)i
news(j)i /-ma
new s(jo)ija
new jeswotd
lubhs(j)i /-ma
lubhs(j)oija
lubhjeswotd
mmnsks(j)i
mimnsks(j)i /ma
mmnsks(j)oija
mmnskeswotd
seqs(j)i
sqs(j)i /-ma
sqsoija
sqeswotd
bhs(j)i
bhs(j)i/
bh s(j)ma
bh s(jo)ija
bhswotd
r neus(j)i
r neus(j)i /-ma
r nus(jo)ija
r nuswotd
91
Wrtja
Tenses
nstnt
Present
Prosod qertis
Accion in progress
Tbhwrdja gleubh
I am peeling potatoes
Oisons drwonti setins smalons iwe
They are treating those visitors like an

animals.
N edsi
You are now eating
Aposkroibhos nstntijosjo bhwon
Description of a present reality
Mtr menj tsaim lbhjeti
My mother likes tea
Doukna nclm jmi n bhr gjontoi
Trains dont use coal anymore
Dan polis widhetor
The city is divided by the river
Gnmejom (prtonwom)
Gnomic (protelative)
Sujet sei, tropls, slibesnt
When it rains, the sidewalks get slippery
Wodr pibom, aw woinom so
I drink water, he, however, drinks wine
Oljons drewont setins smalons iwe
They use to treat all visitors like animals
iwesi eds
You are always eating
Kntijom (knt qertis)
Conative (attempted action)
Jom wjona leinont, en krstjont

prtija
While they try to avoid vices, they rush into

opposite ones
W qekmr dhidhn ti
They are organizing a show
Domum prnm
I have my house on sale
Meugont
They try to cheat
Mugonti
They are trying to cheat
92
Jktijom bhli (Widmenjom)
Narrative in the past (Historic)
Wl dhdikjm widls, tm lubhsketi
When he sees the princess, he falls in love

with her
Olnom
Plan (= indicative future)
Ausrom bardhapukom dhdhmos
Tomorrow we are doing a barbecue
Drts udwortos (dolj)

Sure result (with a particle)
Alchonjom tod snqeti (nnoi)
This bank is sinking (at present)
Kom alchonjom snqeti (=snqti)
This bank sinks (=will sink)
Pri n kneumi wesprei kosmi
Im arriving this evening
(Pri) n prestim n kneumi wesprei
kosmi
Im not arriving on time this evening
Iteriwom
Iterative
Dochei qqei edqod skreibh
Everyday I write a bit
Upodt dhtis
Fact transmitted by tradition
Platn wweqti
Plato says
Rmm ghti Petros 42 AP
Peter arrives in Rome in 42 AD
93
Nroki
Aorist
rtija, dititos wlta gismona
Concrete, temporally diluted events
Wdmejom
Narrative
Enoiqe, regm kekluwoses, rijonto,

wele ita, str qom austroi drknt
(ddrknt/ddrksnt), is pri sodt, dom
nokws stt(o) epi dhljosjo stnoi
(epi jodhei dhljos sto).
And they, having heard the king, set

out; and lo, the star, which they saw
(had seen/had been seeing) in the east,
went before them, till it came and stood
over where the young child was. (Matt.
2.9).
Mqesjom, qrtibhmejom
Instantaneous / dramatic
Pro ordhesnom tewei dek
I accept your proposal
Apo nijm ta wrdha
I take back my words
Dhabheso? =dhdhabhta(i)?
Are you surprised?
Qori gels?
Why did you laugh? Why do you laugh?
Bhwtijom
Inchoative/ fientive (single and iterative

variants)
Dhghmones tksnt upokrojd pri
The people became silent before the show
AOR. EFF. II (SIGM.)
Bhwits smos ghostum rmom

momdom
We started to have lunch during the break
Jom prdoikots bhwjto ghostum,

dhghmones tksnt AOR. PROT. SIGM.
When the actor started to talk, people would

became silent
iwesi bhwjmedha (bhwitjmedha)

ghostum rmom momdom
We always started to have lunch during the

break
Kmstntijom(inok qertis)
Constantive (single act)
Dhghmones tkbhnt upokrojom

momdom
AOR. EFF. I
The people kept silent during the play
Ghosomes rmom momdom AOR. EFF. I
We had lunch during the break
Qtwrdekmatnjom londhei solwoi

rgbht
AOR. EFF. I.
During four decades, he reigned in all the

land
Sm sonchos n tlnijos bht
The concert was unbearable
94
Pertriwom
Durative (single and iterative variants)
Jom kaputprdoikots qrtibhmom

prwnim molt AOR.EFF., dhghmones
tkbhwnt AOR. PROT. I
When the main actor came on stage for the

first time, people were silent
Prsttos jom rmom momdom en

ludht AOR. EFF., ghsmes AOR PROT.
When the boss came in during the break, we

were having lunch
Daite nesi, Alksanros londhei

solwoi rgbhwt AOR. PROT. I
At that time Alexander reigned in all the

land
Upokrojntjoi qqei dhghmones iwesi

tkjnt AOR. PROT. II
At the end of each play, people were always

silent
Ghsmes (estjmes) rmom

momdom
We always had lunch during the break
AOR. PROT.
Culminative
Klmenjom
When I ended my studies, I began to work

in an international company
Studja jom tm, drtim enterlndhejoi

rij dherbhmei
They were persuaded by him
plkjontor
Proverbial or gnomic
dgjejom
As a flower in the fields, thus public esteem

passes away.
Mghoisu bhltis iwe, ita dhcht

ghdhos
He who wounds by the sword, dies by the

sword.
ns chenls, ns mrts PART. AOR.

Daitis bheugt, aiwom west
Time flees, eternity remains. The grass

withers and the flower falls off
Pps silbhnt jom altjoses bhnto
Children keep quiet when adults talk
Prlegtijom
Prolectic
Upo labh jod wergom tewe dhjesi

(AOR. SUB.) / dhssi (FUT. SUB.)
I assume you will do your work
95
Kmsqrtom
Perfect
Tmkejom
Resultative
piworjom upptmm Moskwiji

kpe
The police has caught the suspect in

Moscow.
Slwogonjom-Rtrospktijom
Universa-retrospective
Lidjm gnwa 1960 apo
I have known Lidia since 1960.
Udbhtijom
Existential
Lugttji bht Bhredos
Fred has been to Paris.
Knjm bhlm/qrtibhmejom
(kltonowostjes)
Recent past/dramatic (hot news)
Mmrtai belopotis Mohammed Aidid

Mogadishuwi iwest 61 atnm.
(wlmolgd)
General Mohammed Aidid has died in

Mogadishu at age 61. (From an
obituary)
Bhewsn ti qertjei anabhornm
Related to a future action
Me pretti an, llai
If he shall perceive me, I am ruined
Stiwom enstnt
Stative Present
Trija kakawatja wosr
There are three chocolates left
N woida, n mmona
I dont know, I dont remember
Epikmsqrtom
Pluperfect
Bhloqertis permd preiwijs onjd

bhloqertjes
Past action relatively anterior to another

past action
Regtm eitr emt jodqid dhghmskermn

spokt (effective)
He took the right way because he had

looked at the map
He took the right way because he had been
looking at the map
Regtm eitr emt jodqid dhghmskermn

spokst (protelative)
96
Bhewsont
Future
Chltijom -seiktis
Desiderative -intention
Prijes-te ywtibhi tewe
I should like to thank you for your help
Pri nksjeti qm lodi ndh bhuwet/

bhjt FUT. IND. + AOR. SUB./ OPT.
He wants to arrive before it will be too late
Qid apmisdhom meghei dsesi?
What reward will you give me?
Praidikt qertis
Predicted action
Wontlos bhreugwents atnoi kosmei

bhwseti
Andalusia is going to be rich in fruits this

year
Pri nksjeti qm lodi ndh
He will (certainly) arrive before it will be

too late
FUT. ND.
seti/bhweti
PRES. SUB.
N mrsesoi, m bhibhjs
FUT. ND.
You shall not die, dont be afraid
PREVENTIVE
Olnt qertis
Planned action
Ausrom bardhapukom dhsomos
Tomorrow we are doing a barbecue
Tks uprokrojd pri
I will shut up before the play
Tkbhw uprokrojom momdom
I will keep silent during the play

Gnomic
Gnmejom
Biaised mass media will never tell the truth
Wra loksows tljowoghts neqom

wdsonti
Conjecture
Pridhmos
Who is this? It may be the postman or the

milkman
Qis esti so? Dts bhwseti

glaktiqoloswe
Order (for future imperative)
Nidoikos (bhwsontes pro ntagtijd)
If something new happens, you will let me

know
Ggisetoi qid nwosjo an, mewom ana

woidsesi PRES. SUB. + FUT. IND.
97
Mdesa
Moods
Diktijom
Indicative
Qrmenjom bhwonom
Objecive reality
Sjeti
It is raining
Oktu wlnawbhei senti kanms
The spider has eight legs
Minpnijom
Potential
Jod imm bhtjoi lbheti tosjo tod
Whatever he takes in the battle is his own
Bhewnj updhtis
Real condition
Londhom an pkm geti, neqid bhnm
If the country lives in peace, nothing is to be

feared
98
Upotgtijom
Subjunctive
Ghoriwom
Hortatory
jomos aldhjom
Wrtjmedha domum
Lets go for a walk

Let us return home
An qis ghr dhnos esti, deti

Jos (qis) ghr dhnos seti, deti
If anyone is hungry, let him eat

(Anyone) who is hungry, let him eat
Wskoidwom
Deliberative
Qid dhdhjom n?
Jsdom emmosi an welis kei
wesmosi?
What shall I do now?

Shall we take the bus or rather stay here?
Final
Sikejom
Ap louksm wreumi, bhodis tsi
I open the window so that you may breath

better
Wrom weqm,
To say the truth,
Apowrejom
M smughs! (=M smughsi)
Preventive
Dont smoke!
Bhjejom
Of fear
Bhbheimij m qid ggoiseto (PF.)

Bhbheimi m qid gseto (AOR.)
Im afraid something has happened

Im afraid something will happen
Ambhigisejom
Of eventuality
Anti nkti md, dsdhi kersntwei

Edqis weqti n chel
If he arrives before me, give him a dinner

Someone can say I dont want
ksterom uploghi moghmn
Internal possibility for the subject
Ghlt t solw, domum selm
With all this gold I can buy a house
ksterom uploghi moghmn
External possibility for the subject
Uprmoimos yom ptjti

(ptbhweti), glakti qrs
When the supermarket will be open, I will

buy the milk
Trktijom
Permissive
Tinjem woqd-two pri
Let me finish before you speak
99
Bhewsontwrtowent
With a future value
Neqid tons dhebhnweti
Nothing can harm them
Kn sej qod km jesi

(=Tewom kmsontm kn sej)
I think you will get tired
Wltijom
Altjosbhis glgaljt
Km tom cjwsi atnm
Volitive
Let her talk to her parents
May you live one hundred years
Wlptijom
Of expectation
Welp qod cws solws nknwenti/

nknti (PRES. SUB./AOR. SUB.)
(=ins nksontns/nklns cwns solwns
welp)
I hope they are arriving/ they arrive safe

and sound
Welp qod cws solws nokont
I hope they have arrived safe and sound
(PF. SUB.)
(=ins nokwsns cwns solwns

welp)
Temporal value of the subjunctive mood
in simple and subordinate sentences
Type of clause
Present
Aorist
Simple sentence (modal)
present
past
Final
imperfective, relative future perfective relative future
Anterior
-----
Simultaneous
-----
Posterior
-----
Conditional and
concessive
Comparative
Causal
Consecutive
Completive (disjunctreportative)
posterior to the absolute

future
eventuality
modal in the
past/anterior to the
absolute future
Perfect
resultative/ present
stative
Future
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
anterior to the
expected result
-----
eventual result in the

future/eventual repetition
in the future
future
imperfective, eventual in the

future/imperfective, irreal in
the future*
perfective, eventual in
the future/perfective,
irreal in the future;
universally eventual
-----
expectative**
relative simultaneous
thematics
----relative anterior
thematics
----relative resultative
thematics
consequence in the present
consequence in the past

with perfect aspect
resultative
consequence
consequence in the future
(potential) relative
simultaneous
anterior
resultative
(potential) relative future
-----
-----
(potential) absolute
result
Completive (disjunctinjunctive)
imperfective relative future perfective relative future
Completive (conjunct)
(potential) absolute present
* also expressed by the present precative

** also expressed by the aorist precative
(potential) absolute past
100
----relative posterior thematics
ptijom
Optative
Wnesjom
Cupitive
Prijs nos bhwjoiso
May you become our friend
Nosbhis wesoit
May he stay with us
Jewijs sjm
I wish I were younger
Ghrewis ludhoim
I wish I had come earlier
Wlmes jwtibhi tewe prijetum
We would like to thank you for your help
Prkn stijom
Recommendative
Tod weqois, kr
You should say this, my dear
Ddwmes qid diw diw
We should give something everyday
Endoiks
Iussive
Qid uprterom wworta an, selois
If youve found something better, buy it
Qota spmnteros sjm?
How could I be more attractive?
Swedhumens dik
Polite command
Eks ijs
You may go out
Minpnijom
Potential
Qota sentum bhodejois tewe?
How could you improve your performance?
Tod an gisto
This could happen
Tod an ggisto
This could be happening
Reiwents sjs (bhjs), prijters enoi
If you were (became) rich, they would be

friendlier
Gerls gaudhjoit tod kluls
Charles would be happy if he heard that
Lokss
Oblique
Sqet jod lodi ludhoint
He said that they would arrive late
Elnom ad, kwones dhghmonjm n

pewnt dnghwm
According to him, dogs dont understand

human language
101
Nesrom kensos
Modest statement
Tod n seqoim/ sqoim (=tod n

seqsm)
I would not say that
Protiwrtnm
Adversative
(Epi) kms ikoimes lchosjo,

loubhom n seltum mghomos
Even if we have a lot of money, we cannot

buy love
Temporal value of the optative mood in

simple and subordinate sentences
Type of clause
Simple sentence
(modal)
Final
Anterior
Simultaneous
Posterior
Conditional and
concessive
Comparative
Causal
Consecutive
Completive (disjunct reportative)
Present
Aorist
present
past
Imperfective relative
future
posterior in the
present*
----Imperfective imaginary
potential
Future
Perfective relative
future
-----
-----
relative posterior*
-----
-----
future absolute*
relative anterior*
-----
-----
Perfective imaginary
potential
Resultative imaginary
potential
-----
----relative resultative
obliquity/absolute
resultative hypothesis
----relatve posterior
obliquity/absolute
future hypothesis
irreal future relative**

----relative simultaneous
relative anterior
obliquity/absolute past
obliquity/absolute
present hypothesis
hypothesis
future
-----
-----
-----
-----
simultaneous
anterior
resultative
future
-----
-----
Completive (disjunct - imperfective relative

future
injunctive)
Perfect
resultative/ present
stative
-----
perfective relative
future
-----
102
Prknejom
Precative
Soikos
Intention
Prket jod ad bhewst PRES. PREC.
He asked to have the chance to be present
Skekidr jod s im sgist bhloigom

PRES. PREC.
pos
They decided that she would look for him

after the film
Minpnijom
Potential
Tod an gssto
This could have happened
nbhwoq updhtis stmr we
Irreal condition or situation
Jewijs an bhewsm, Wetelj kelusm
If I were younger, I would travel across

Italy
Gerls gaudhst tod kluls
Charles would be happy if he could hear

that
Gerls gaudhbhst tod kluls
Charles would have rejoiced if he could

have heard that
AOR. PREC.
Nesrom kensos
Modest statement
Seqsm
I am to say
Sqsm
I was to say/ I would have said
Sqissm
I would have been saying
103
Temporal value of the precative mood

in simple and subordinate sentences
Type of clause
Simple sentence (modal)
Final
Anterior
Simultaneous
Posterior
Conditional and
concessive
Comparative
Causal
Present
Aorist
Perfect
present /future
-----
-----
relative future in irreal/

intentional clauses
-----
-----
expected anteriority
----expected posteriority
-------------
------------irreality in the present/irreality

in the future*
simultaneous and irreal
comparison in the present
irreality in the past
resultative irreality
simultaneous and irreal

comparison in the past
absolute present hypthesis**
absolute past hypothesis**
irreal , relative, resultative

comparison
absolute resultative
hypothesis**
-----
consequence in the past with

imperfect aspect
-----
-----
-----
relative future
relative past
-----
-----
future in the past
-----
Consecutive
Completive (disjunct reportative)
Completive (disjunct injunctive)
*also expressed by the present/ aorist subjunctive

** also expressed by the optative
ntagtijom
Imperative
Nidoiks
Of order
Wese kei
Skreibhtu (=skreibhtd) meghei
Remain here
Write to me
Wttijom
M pibe (=m pijs AOR. SUB.)
M ttu (=m ttd)
Prohibition
Dont drink
Dont steal
Protistupejom
Concessive
Ismi seqe. Neqid psesi
Tell him. You wont get anything
104
Bhrgtjes/wlntjom
Bhutij
Bheudh
Eimi
Kan
Usages/valency
Natural
I am awake, I pay attention
I go
I sing
Stiw
Bhudhj
Stntj
Tepj
Stative
I am an invigilator
I am delayed
I am warm
Kntij
Bhudhjai
Potijai
Mr ijai
Inceptive
I wake up, I get conscious
I acquire
I die
Propdej
Bhudhsk
Wijsk
Krsk
Swdhsk
Progressive
I get more and more awake
I wither
I grow
I get used
ntonw
Intensive
Mlmolmi (mlmolj)
Drdormi (drdorj)
Chnchonmi (chnchonj)
I crush once and again

I split once and again
I strike once and again
Probhoudhos: krkarj, glgolj, smlij ikonti

propsmona, alj n swe-per
ntonwa wrmona tdtina senti
Caveat: krkarj announce, glgalj talk have

similar formations, but shouldnt be considered as
intensive verbs per so.
Mnghij
Bhustj
Itj
Frequentative
I usually wake up
I usually go
Wistij
Bhoudhej snm
Sodej
Torpej
Loghej plmn
Causative
I wake up / rouse my son
I settle
I rejoice
I lay the book down
Ambhqolom bhorom bhorjeti

= Ambhqol bhorom bhorjeti
He has/makes the servant carry the burden
Wnskiw
Bhbhudhs
Dds
Jjebhs
Jjags
Desiderative
I wish to wake up
I wish to give
I want to fuck
I want to worship
(either double accusative/instrumental agent)
105
Chapter B1: Form of the sentence
Bhnis
The sentence
1.-Bhniprptus
Form of the sentence
Sm plobhnis
The simple sentence
Piskim (eg) edmi (=edmi piskim)
I am eating fish
OBJ.
SUBJ. VERB
Deike tod ati
Say that again
Ghawe me ati krsi
Call me tomorrow again
Antonjos jod sgijt wwore, lewtim

kdenos
Anthony has found what he was looking

for: the solution to the problem.
Apgnuj bhnis
The negative sentence
Piskim n edmi
Qis me sqet n dhewtum?
Qis moi sqet m dhewtum?
I am not eating fish

Who said that I dont run ?
Who told me not to run?
Bhbheimi m ludht
Bhbheimi nem ludht
I fear that he is coming

I fear that he will not come
N dr k qid/ neqid dr k
I dont see anything
Bhnidemtis
Construction of phrases
Prsteltis
Juxtaposition (parataxis)
Cma, woida, woika
I came, I saw, I won
106
Pr ktij bhnis
The interrogative sentence
Dhn ghus
Direct
itij
Partial
Qis esti so?
Who is this?
Qis essi? /Qis t?
Who are you?
Qid esti tod?
What is this?
Qim dr kes? /
Whom do you see?
Qid dr kes?
What do you see?
Qterom dr kes?
Whom of the two do you see?
Qterod dr kes?
Which of the two do you see?
Qesjo kod esti?
Whose is this?
Qodhei t? Qodhei essi?
Where are you?
Qeti t? Qeti essi?
Where are you from?
Q /qi / qote eisi?
Where are you going?
Qod donsonjom/olardinjom eis?
What school/university do you go to?
Qota wljesi?
How are you?
Qom ludhsesi?
When are you coming?
Qid/qori mewom wlchesi?
Why are you mocking me?
Qosmi tod dhdhsi?
What do you do it for?
Qlis uponojs-two (esti)?
How is your teacher?
Q wntosmi peri tod qrjetor?
How much does it cost?
Q wntom bholtom eds?
How much protein do you eat?
107
Qotjons ikesi prijons?
How many friends do you have?
Qtjojos wtesbhes gnts t?
How old are you?
Qm magns esti kwn-two?
How big is your dog?
Qm dl nghos esti stipls-two?
How long is your club?

Total
Sl wej
Kremom (an) lbhjesi?
Do you like beer?
D/ lubhj/ d, lubhj
N / n lubhj
Yes, I like it
No, I dont like it
Qterom welsi robhetum an rtum/

qijtum?
Do you want to play or to rest?
Qterom welsi robhetum uta rtum/

qijtum?
Do you want to play or rather rest?
Qid mr wos so uta swpeti?
Is he dead or rather sleeping?
108
ndhn
ghus
Indirect
Partial
itij
N woida qis seti so
I dont know who this is?
n gnsj qis sesi / qis t
I ignore who you are?
Okjeti qid tod seti
He wonders what is this?
Pr kjet qim dr ks
He is asking whom you are seeing
Pr kjet qid dr ks
He is asking what you are seeing
Pr kjet qterom dr kes
He is asking whom of the two you are

seeing
Pr kjet qterod dr kes
He is asking what of the two you are seeing
Gnjt / woidoit qesjo kod (seti)
He would like to know whose this is
Gntum n kj qodhei t / qodhei

sesi?
I need to know where you are
Weistum lubhobhudhj qeti t / qeti

sesi?
Im curious to know where you are from
Weqe moi q /qi / qote iesi
Tell me where you are going
Kom gje qod donsonjom/olardinjom

eijes
Confirm what school/university you go to
Weqe moi qota wljsi
Tell me how you are you
Gnrejes egj (tod ambh) qom

ludhssi
I dont have the knowledge (of) when are

you coming?
Bhtjeswo qid/qori mewom wlchsi
Confess why you are mocking me
Terdhi moi qosmi tod dhdhsi
Explain to me what do you it for
Peri skreibhe qlis uponojs-two

(seti)
Describe how your teacher is
Drdhje qwntosmi peri tod qrjtor
Make sure how much it costs
Woideje me qwntom bholtom edes
Orientate me how much protein you eat
109
Winde qotjons iksi prijons
Find out how many friends you have
Gntum wn sk qtjojos wtesbhes

gnts t (sesi)
I want to know how old you are
Weistum mendhesnm qm magns

kwn-two (seti)
It is interesting to know how big your dog

is
Deike moi qm dl nghos stipls-two

seti
Show me how long your club is
Sl wej
Total
N woida qterom lbhjsi kremom
I dont know which of the two beers you

like
N woida qterom kremom lbhjsi an
I dont know whether you like beer
110
Skrgtij bhnis
The exclamative sentence
Qum wnm s (esti)!
How pretty she is!
Qum s snchesi!
How well you are singing!
Qot(j)ons bhendhrons ikesi!
How many friends you have!
Qo-i kl tos dhochos!
What a hot day!
Qo-i geldhs/ kikls dhochos!
What a cold day!
Qod mgnom s!
What a big mouth!
Qota esti!
How he eats!
Q wntom est!
How much he eats!
Q wntom bharsj est(i)!
How much bread he eats!
Qm lodi cmjesi!
How late you come!
Qm jeri cmjesi!
How early you come!
Qm dus smrdeti!
How bad it smells!
Qlis dhrutr!
What a trickster!
Qodhei robhjonti!
Where they are playing!
111
nbhtij bhnis
The emphatic sentence
Antinmn
With a pronoun
Tod eg sqom
This is me who said it
Tod eno ludht
It was he who came
Eg-pe dhm
I did it myself
Nojs onmn ludht me ghrstewei
The director came in person to greet me
Nei qid ghosnt
They ate absolutely nothing
Eti eg chrs sm
Even I was drunk
Eti n toi woidsnt
Neither they did know it
Eg n plakj
As for me, I dont agree
Mene mene bht menr tod
It was my own idea
Nmn
With a noun
Tod wod m lubhj
It is water I like
Kanmn ghi/ ka/ d/ em/ sm kobom

(esti)
The song is really a success
Ghi/ ka/ d/ em/ sm kobom kanmn
Really a success (is) the song
nawrmn nawrmn strowwe
With an adverb or adverbial construction
N arti ghweti
It is precisely now that he is ringing
Akmn arti stornji/ arti meti kadt
The stone fell just in the centre/ just in the

middle
Bhersi bhersi nwostis ght
It was very quickly that the news arrived
Ita-i (it-i) dhtwijom
It has to be done like this
Num-i skeude!
Shoot right now!
Dm-swo nikijonto
They started quarrelling in my own house
Nei/ ghi n regtd mnjet
He is absolutely not right
112
Epikeimn
With an adjective
Pl nim n qisrm tod!
This is completely absurd
Spus, spus bht ed
Delicious, delicious was the food
Sptm bht ed
The food was very delicious
Ghi/ welm spus bht ed
Really/ very delicious was the food
Nei/ ghi n regtomns so
Absolutely not right-minded he
Skrgtij
Exclamative
, Marke!
Oh, Mark!
Wai ormi priji!
Woe to my poor friend!
113
Uses of the infinitives
Ndhigsnimobhrgtjes
Active
deiktum / deikom
/dikonom / deikmn
dikt(e)wos/ dikosjo/
dikonosjo/ dikmenos
Middle/Passive
nom.
deiktr
dikendhjom
(gen.)
nom.
(gen.)
nom.
(gen.)
deiktenos
dikendhjosjo
nom.
Present
(gen.)
Aorist
Perfect
Future
Present
Aorist
Perfect
Future
dik(e)dhjosjo
deikwr
deikwenos
deikes
dikesos/ deiksenos
Active
gentum
regtum
newtum
lubhtum
gentr
regtr
newtr
lubhtr
deik(e)dhjom
Middle/Passive
sdetum
pertum
keuptum
dtum
sdetr
pertr
keuptr
dtr
genwr
regwr
newwr
lubhwr
genes
sdejes
reges
pers
newjes
keupes
lubhjes
ds
dikesdhjom
dikesdhjosjo
gn(e)dhjom
rg(e)dhjom
newdhjom
lubhdhjom
genendhjom
regendhjom
newjendhjom
lubhjendhjom
sdewr
perwr
keupwr
dwr
114
gnesdhjom
rgesdhjom
newj esdhjom
lubhjesdhjom
sdedhjom
perdhjom
kup(e)dhjom
ddhjom
sdejendhjom
perendhjom
keupendhjom
dwendhjom
sdjesdhjom
persdhjom
kupesdhjom
dsdhjom
Morphological complementarity
Pr pttwejom smpl
notjom
Qqerj woqs
To close
To set fire
To find
To name, to say
To respect
To be
To eat
To fill
To earn
wreumi/wreumi/
werj
wrj
(w)wermi
werj
wrjai
esmi
edmi
pl nmi
pel
wertum,
Medhjo-ptjomn
woqs
werdhjom
wr tum
wwertum
wrtum
----bhewtum
ghostum
peltum/ pl ntum
peltum
wr dhjom
wwerdhjom
wrdhjom
wrdhjom
----ghosdhjom
pl ndhjom
peldhjom
115
Apokpnm nmn iwe
As an abstract noun
Tod lubhjom galmn
I like his (way of) talking
Prijej tewom sm daili(jen )dhjobhi
Thank you for participating (=for your

participation)
Prijej tewom sm dailwenbhi
Thank you for being participating
Prijej tewom sm dailijsdhjobhi
Thank you for your future participation
Qis woide qterom anne cjtum waltr

esti, joqe waltr cjtum?
Who knows whether to live is not to die,

and to die is not to live?
Neqid esjo mnonoi cholsews
There is nothing wrong in his (way of)

thinking
Dljbhis
With particles
Bheimnos sm strudond
(=strudeses) pri bht
He was quite afraid before fighting (=before

the fight
Prowr stiwdos/swdhuwdos
Expression of behaviour or habit
Koil ednom dhmeljom dl nghi

ciwoti esti
To eat healthily is the base for a long life
Ersjom dhghomjm, wimnjom

diwjm
To err is human, to forgive divine
Lskj bhltum
I feel like to cry
ddhmenj
Appositional
Jmi apostolom gnwta n serm:

ndhktijns apoworetum aigrotns
You already know our mission: to prevent

infectious diseases
Mdesj: wrmn
su pos chedhj,
opj, mogh, didksk, iqo.
Modal: after the werbs wish, choose,

must, be able, to know, to learn, etc.
Skeltim-swo opt dhtum
He chose to do his duty
Gnwe qota (mota) korbhim dhtum
He knows how to make a basket
Mdesj dhn ghuqrmoni
Modal with a direct object
Mewom went uponejr dmn
He wanted me to give the lesson
116
Wrmns jota mnj awti n neumi
With verbs like to think or to teach
Tewom wrom wedmn mnj
I think you are telling the truth
M ismi piskim dsdhi (ddhi) - im

n nudhi (endhi) pisktum
Dont give him fish; teach him how to fish
Sikmen (sm bhondhm kmtagmn )
Of purpose (agreeing clause)
Sm drtores wejes bhwsomos,

ambhibhowom pltewei
We will be your cooperators, to protect the

environment
Welpont protiwoqom ghn stum
They were waiting to obtain an answer
Speude douknom labhtum
Hurry to take the train
Yuws me swestum kikloisi wdn su

sntum
You helped me get used to swim in cold

waters (adjunct)
Sikmenos (n sm bhondhm kmtagmn )
Of purpose (not concertated clause)
Deike nosbhos gntewei (=ei

ggnskmos)
Tell us, so that we may know
Stupom ismi ddta tewom

stoupmenei
You gave him a stick to beat you with
Ims sweptum
We go to sleep
jomos aldhjom
Lets go for a walk
Kidomos prmoghostum
We go down for breakfast
Kidmos sntum
Lets go down to swim
Twenghesj
Of obligation
Trija ikomos alsenei sa
We have three mouths to feed
Alchos so tebhei ddhji
This is the money we have to give you
Prijontn s ikomos kmnedhus

bhenstjes bherghsenei
We have friendly relations to maintain with

our neighbours
Rktij
Of determination
Dhl eghl rokto apolewesdhji

tnantjd pri
*The debt was established to be paid back

before the end of the year
Kpts koiludhji likst
The prisoner was allowed to be healed
117
Mghtij kktijqe
Of capability and aptitude
Adels t dhghomn estorjom tod

mdnewesei / mednusenei
You are the right person to manage this

restaurant
Skrgtij
Exclamatory
Eg tewom ambh dus bhdhjom?
I am ill-speaking about you!?
Qid nom? Dhochom sedtum solwom

smeustrom ant?
What then? Shall I sit all the day in front of

the computer?
Gnesj
Genitive
Djtew(o)s/ djetwos/ djtei(o)s/

djetjos stto
It stopped moving
Em djetew(o)s/ djetwos/ djtei(o)s/

djetjos stnt
They stopped him moving
Esjo djetim/ djetum (=djonom) stnt
They stopped his moving (=movement)
Medhi wr gtwos im bhmnom wrnt
In the middle of the work they found him

talking
Kmseqmenj
Consecutive
Neqis ita kreps esti tod tlsenei
Nobody is so strong so as to endure this

calamity
Koituj
Of manner
Neqid bhlt lwesi
You dont solve anything by weeping
Nqid-terom
With nothing
Neqid bheitum new prstat
There is nothing to fear with the new boss
Prast
Yuxtaposed
Adedhjom welm sperstje dhwtewei
I would like to prepare myself to run in the

competition
Wn skoms peutum ptum
We want to achieve to understand this text
118
Aitkpjobhrgtjes
Uses of the participles
Ambhtow spekjs aitkpjoprpesom
General outlook of participial forms
Active voice
Perfect
Future
Passive voice
deikmos/dikms, deikm/dikm ,
deikmom/dikmm
(dikmosjo/dikmosjo, deikms/dikm s,
dikmosjo/dikmosjo)
nom.
deikonts, deikonts/dikont, deikont
dikomnos, dikomn, dikomnom
(gen.)
(deikn ts, deikn ts/ deikn tj s/ deikn tijs,

deikn ts)
(dikomnosjo, dikomns, dikomnosjo)
nom.
dikls, dikl , diklm
dikomns, dikomn , dikomnm
dikts, dikt , diktm
(gen.)
(diklosjo, dikl s, diklosjo)
(dikomnosjo, dikomn s, dikomnosjo)
(diktosjo, dikt s, diktosjo)
nom.
dikws, dikusj/dikus, dikws
dikm nos, dikm n, dikm nom
doikns/dikns, doikn /dikn , doiknm/diknm
(gen.)
( dikwesos, dikusjs/diksijos, dikwesos)
(dikm nosjo, dikm ns, dikm nosjo)
(doiknosjo/diknosjo, doikn s/dikn s,

doiknosjo/diknosjo)
nom.
deiksonts, deiksonts/diksont, deiksont
diksomnos, diksomn, diksomnom
deiktwijos, deiktwij, deiktwijom
(gen.)
(deiksn ts, deiksn ts /deiksn tijs/

deiksn tj s, deiksn ts)
(diksomnosjo, diksomns,
diksomnosjo)
(deiktwijosjo, deiktwijs, deiktwijosjo)
Present
Aorist
Middle voice
Possibility
participle
deikmn, deikmon
diknijos, diknij, diknijom
(dikmonos)
(diknijosjo, diknijs, diknijosjo)
Propensive
participle
dikonqos, dikonq, dikonqom
diktinos, diktin, diktinom
(dikonqosjo, dikonqs, dikonqosjo)
(diktinosjo, diktins, diktinosjo)
Active voice
Present
Aorist
Perfect
Future
Possibility
prospective
participle
Propensive
participle
Middle voice
Passive voice
gignonts
sdejonts
ggnomnos
sdjomnos
ggnomos
sdjomos
regonts
pr nnts
rgomnos
pr nmnos
rgomos
pr nmos
newjonts
kupjonts
new jomnos
kpjomnos
new jomos
kpjomos
lubhjonts
didnts
lubhjomnos
ddmnos
lubhjomos
(d)dmos
genls
sesedls
genomns
sesedomns
gents
sdts
regls
perls/ prls
regomns
prmns
regts
pr tos/ prts
newls
keupls
newmns
keupm ns
newts
kupts
lubhls
dls
lubhmns
dmns
lubhts
dts
gegn ws
sd()ws
ggonmnos
sdomnos
genns
sdns
regws
pepr ws
rgm nos
ppormnos
regns
pr nos/ prns
newws
kupws
newmnos
koupmnos
newns
kupns/ koupns
lubhws
ded()ws
lubhmnos
ddmnos
lubhns
dns/ dns
gensonts
sdesonts
gnsomnos
sdsomnos
gentwijos
sdetwijos
regsonts
personts
rgsomnos
prsomnos
regtwijos
pertwijos
newsonts
keupsonts
new somnos
kpsomnos
newtwijos
keuptwijos
lubhsonts
dsonts
lubhsomnos
dsomnos
lubhtwijos
dtwijos
genmn
sdemn
gnnijos
sdnijos
rgnijos
prnijos
regmn
permn
newmn
keupmn
new nijos
kupnijos
lubhmn
dmn
lubhnijos
dnijos
ggnonqos
sdjonqos
gntinos
sdtinos
prtinos
rgonqos
pr nnqos
rgtinos
new jonqos
kpjonqos
new tinos
kuptinos
lubhjonqos
ddnqos
lubhtinos
dtinos
119
Pridoikw bheungtis
Predicative function
Ln gont eitr
Bhmn cows
Kr dts prsttos
Smiromnos spoks
Bhms upgalis
An exhausting trip
A talking cow
An angry boss
An admiring spectator
A feared pirate
Ln gn tjs eitr
Kr dtteros prsttos
Smiromnoteros spoks
Bhmteros upgalis
A more exhausting trip

An angrier boss
A more admiring spectator
A more feared pirate
Ln gn tsmom eitr
Kr dtsmos prsttos
Smiromnosmos spoks
Bhmsmos upgalis
The most exhausting trip

The angriest boss
The most admiring spectator
The most feared pirate
Lngn
tistm eitr
Kr dttmos prsttos
Smiromnotmos spoks
Bhmtmos upgalis
An extremely exhausting trip

An extremely angry boss
An extremely admiring spectator
An extremely feared pirate
Chedhj, prd lgontn s bheudhe
Please, attend the people who are

reading/while they are reading
Mntwijos wrs kosmi trbheti

stoighei
The man who has to be remembered lives

in this street
Mntwijom widj wrm
I see the man who has to be remembered
Mntwij bhts esmi wr
I talked to the man who has to be

remembered
Uprbhjom tod mntwijosjo wrosjo
This is the legacy of the man who has to be

remembered
Musnijom tod
This is confidential
120
dspektijos wertos
Aspectual value
Enstantaitkpjom: Smoj qertis
Present participle: simultaneous action
So prjtins stleti
This one places the orders
Bhoungj so opes jetoi
This one operates the appliance
So esti dmos bhtor/ qtor
This one is feared/ respected by his

colleagues
So esti prjtins stelonts
This is the one who places the orders
Bhoungj so opoes jomnos esti
This is the one who operates the appliance
So esti dmos bhms/ qms
This is the one who is feared/ respected by

his colleagues
So esti prjtins stelonts jom klops

wdhjnt
This is the one who was placing the orders

when the robbers broke in.

wdhjnt
This is the one who is placing the orders

now the robbers are breaking in.

wdhsonti
This is the one who will be placing the

orders when the robbers will break in.
Toi bhnt joi mewom sqontes pijonm

dusmosimqe dhrwonm bhewtum
These were the people who said I was a

drunkard and an ill-tempered rogue
121
Mlejom geismn
[21a]
[23a]
[21e]
[23e]
Momentaneous event
[21a]
[23a]
[21e]
[23e]
Bhdhjom didkskonts regs, wlotm

enim mdt
When the king was learning to speak, he

met a certain oracle
Bhdhjom ddkskn tos rgos, welots

enis ghordhjom ludht (perms)
When the king was learning to speak, a

certain oracle came to the palace (absolute)
Prisedos wweqn tos: latom, sludhls

oljoi, sm sodos bhwsomnos, eg klm
en eim (perms)
When the president uttered: good

morning, welcome all of you, the conference
is going to begin I was entering the room
(absolute)
Identical temporal extension
[21c] [22c] [23c]
[21d] [22d] [23d]
Aiqotempos
[21c] [22c] [23c]
[21d] [22d] [23d]
Entrebhr tr gt mnjonts gherbhos
smitlm bhewtum
He brushed the piece of furniture thinking

that the scratch was just a stain
Bhdhjom ddkskonts regs putlonojm

ikt/ikt/eiket
When the king was learning to speak, he

had an instructor
Priji wljesqet bhlnt
She said goodbye to her friend weeping

Occasional action
[21b][22b][23b]
[21f]
[23f]
praipdej qertis
[21b][22b][23b]
[21f]
[23f]
Qid sews didn ts bhndhroisi,
n dkesnom m emtum (perms)
When friends give you something good, it

is uncomely not to take it (absolute)
Qid sews ddmoi bhndhros,

n dkesnom m emtum (perms)
When something good is given by friends,

it is uncomely not to take it (absolute)
122
n rokjaitkpjom: antimlej qertis
Aorist participle: anterior action
So esti prjtins stells
This is the one who placed/had placed/will

have placed the orders
Bhoungj so opesmns esti
This is the one who operated/had

operated/will have operated the appliance
So esti dmos bhts/ qts
This is the one who was/had been/will

have been feared/respected by his
colleagues
So esti prjtins stells jom klops

wdhjnt
This is the one who had placed/ had been

placing the orders when the robbers broke
in

wdhjnt
This is the one who has placed/has been

placing the orders now the robbers are
breaking in

wdhsonti
This is the one who will have placed/ will

have been placing the orders when the
robbers will break in
Ud sestd stlosjo, w trins gheudont

qelispokoi musktonn s (perms)
*When I stood up from the siesta, the three

musketeers were on TV. (absolute)
Argmona kluls esom, wewqt:
And having heard their arguments, he

spoke:
Rudhrm trls tuskjm,

widhuklopnim ghs
Passing through the red desert you arrive to

the willow valley
Penqe wolmonebhls wtesa,

monwowostum splight
After governing for five years, he retired to

a monastery
Qrtibhmejom
Dramatic
Upo ptr-mo dh oqls, upo mewom

wedt
My father, suspecting at once, cursed me

roundly
Awakrosns bhnuntor, ud pr qom

swnmejom genls praidoikom
The fountain jets are illuminated, producing

a colourful musical show
S gesi mewom memenls

S ags mewom memenls
S gsesi mewom memenls
You do well in reminding me

You did well in reminding me
You will do well in reminding me
Reidhd enludhls kudht (=eneints

kudht)
He easily hid when he entered
123
Komsqrtitikpjom tmkej qertis:
Perfect participle: resultative action
Kwn, n gntm widws, dus prd

wr teti, uplosjo neqid qn tws
The dog, when seeing an unknown person,

behaves badly, without having suffered any
trouble
Drtm eik tewom tercos wilwmonm

pole-nos epistestws
Im sure you can dissolve the threat hanging

over our city
Ud sestd stestwesos, w trins

gheudont qelispokoi musktonn s
(perms)
*While I was up from the siesta, the three

musketeers were on TV. (absolute)
What was the reason for the arisen dispute?
Qtmom r usjs bht drejos weismn ?

Qota w dm-two epistl nm lwmos
oknom?
How shall we solve the doubt raised by

your colleague?
124
Bhewsontaitkpjom: posmlej qertis
Future participle: posterior action
So esti prjtins stelsonts
This is the one who was going to place/is

going to place/will be going to place the
orders
Bhoungj so opes somnos esti
This is the one who was going to operate/

id going to operated/will be going to
operate the appliance
So esti dmos bheitwijos/qeitwijos
This is the one who was going /is going

/will be going to be feared/ respected by
his colleagues
So esti prjtins stelsonts jom klops

wdhjnt
This is the one who was going to place the

orders when the robbers broke in.

wdhjnt
This is the one is going to place the orders

now the robbers are breaking in.

wdhsonti
This is the one who will be going to place

the orders at the moment when the robbers
will break in.
Bhrw tr qewastwijom dhdhje

dnum
Karsonts sodt nwostim = Sodt
nwostjei kartwiji
He made the river (to be) fordable with a

bridge
He went to announce the news =He went
for the news which was to be announced
125
Mdesjos wertos
Modal value
Mlejos
Temporal
Ud medhi stnt obhi dn tes
They stood up in the middle of the lunch
Ud stnt (=stwnt) obhi dn tes
They stood up (=kept standing up) during

the lunch
Mene dekm (tnojos gnts) sn tos,

gentore meictum skidotm (perms)
When I was ten (years old), my parents

decided to move (absolute)
Domum mdneuwn tos ptrs, kms

dhedhr pesom (perms)
When my father administered the house,

lots of works were executed (absolute)
Wismenjos
Causal
Kannt jod wikls (wikwses) bhnt
They sang because they had won
Wikls /wikwses kannt
Since they had won, they sang
Wns bhodjosn s qeisonts,
Considering that you are better,
Rdists enoi pertisrowoi dhchini

(perms)
They were very happy because the leak had

disappeared (absolute)
Pole solwi errusji

(perms)
Since all the city had been destroyed

(absolute)
Protistupejos
Concessive
Swijom eikonts weghtlom, peds

isesi?
Having your own wehicle, you want to go

(there) on foot?
Skeltim-two n prodht, twojo olnt

aw bheughet (perms)
You dont do your duty; however the things

you plan come off well (absolute)
n widws, kn sjeti weistum
Even without knowing, he states he knows
Loiq wiwqsont (wiweqsuw), n

tr komes (perms)
Even though she wanted say the rest of the

things, we did not allow him (absolute)
Ad moghl dhertum, apo aw ddje
Even though she could have kept it, she

gave it back
Komwodhom newekn t, aw gisto

(perms)
Even though I did not want the conflict, it

happened (absolute)
126
Koitujs
Of manner
Klpontes gherghrobhn tesqe ciwonti
They live stealing and scavenging
Bhendhros stutls, uperi kom ludhnt

(perms)
With their friends supporting them, they

managed to get back on their feet (absolute)
Updhtijos
Conditional
Diktum n mghesi misdhm n

lewonts
You cannot command if you dont pay the

salary
Deiwoi wenli neqid moghet legs,

Deiwoi n wenli neqid moghet jotnos
2 x PART. AOR. + PRES. PROT. (perms)
If God wishes law cannot do anything, if

God doest wish the effort cannot do
anything (absolute)
Drls udojom widsesi
If you have worked, you will see the results
Qorjostnei qijskn t (qoji, sme),

solwa s (perms)
If the office is quiet, everything is OK

(absolute)
Sikejos
Final
Dhtr cme ghesr meghei dsont

dhlj
The nanny has come to give me a hand with

the baby
Ap ludht dhgterm lewsonts
He came to rescue her daughter
N nojs enskroibhons ghelsonts esti

(=n nojs enskribhobhos
gheltwijobhos esti)
There is no director to sign the documents

(=there is no director for the documents to
be signed)
127
Qrtr nmn /Ptjomnonmn
Agent/patient noun
tr mejs:
-tor-, -tr; --, --; -(o)t-, -(et)-/-(e)tj; - ; -wo-, -w-; -i-
endings:
tor-, -tr; --, -; (o)t-, -(et)-/-(e)tj-; - ; wo-, -w-, -i-
Trebhmn pnkontes kei sonti
Here are these who paint the apartment
Piktores senti kei trbhmenos
Here are the painters of the apartment
Sptrm bheronts klwm twoi dseti

wosj
The one who carries the suitcase will give

you the key of the room
Sptrs bhr tr klwm twoi dseti wosj
The carrier of the suitcase will give you the

key of the room
Sptrabhr tr klwm twoi dseti wosj
The suitcase-carrier will give you the key

of the room
Sptrs bhors klwm twoi dseti wosj
The carrier of the suitcase will give you the

key of the room
Sptrabhors klwm twoi dseti wosj
The suitcase-carrier will give you the key

of the room
Peds jntbhs sloiweinm dnt
They gave cola to the ones who went on

foot
Peditbhs sloiweinm dnt
They gave cola to the pedestrians
Tod esti moimei cinnts pekr
This is the brand prevailing in the market
Moimoct tod pekr
This is the /an in-the-market-prevailing

brand
Bhewsontm widwsm opos esti pr ktum
It is necessary to ask the one who knows

the future
Bhewsn ts wistorm opos esti pr ktum
It is necessary to ask the knower of the

future
Bhwsn twidm opos esti pr ktum
It is necessary to ask the future-knower
Pontim deikonts bhoungjom kom-ke

nos wodhe
The device indicating the way brought us

here
Pntidik bhoungjom kom-ke nos wodhe
The way-indicating device brought us here
128
Tod esti Anglonim bhmn teut
It is an English-speaking nation
Anglobhw s teut
It is a nation which speaks (in) English
Dhghmonn s ksniji gntns

mdomes
We met people born in the exterior
Eksnigonwons mdomes dhghmonn s
We met in-the-exterior-born people
Kl jomom tod qermn
This is a hidden activity
Kliwom tod qermn
This is a liable-to-be hid (clandestine)

activity
Widelmos kluwjonts bht wrs
There was a man who was named Widelm
Widelmos kluwis/nmon bht wrs
There was a man named/with the name

Widelm
Chori tod kremom
This is bitter bier
129
Perm kmtagmona
Absolute clauses
Sm bhondhm kmtagmn
Agreeing clause
ksr ludhl bherr adseti
When her wife comes, she will prepare the

luggage
Ddom medomns somosdm ismi

ghers
After having long meditated, I will lend

him (my) car
Joqe kluls, proti wewqt:
And having heard, he answered:
Joqe apoweqonts, sqet:
And answering, he thus spoke:
Joqe gudhjonts ita bhto:
And rejoicing, he said:
Permm stnejom:
ambhistanokmleghmn
Absolute locative: circumstancial context
Aposn t prsttoi, urusodjosi drjer
The boss being absent, one works more

comfortably
n widwesi pote, alchrkjom emt
Without (his) master knowing it, he took

the safe
Lukskn t kmeloi (kmeni) ighei
He departed with dawning sky
K deni lewtiwn t, mr neutum n skelss

(updhtijos wertos)
If the problem has a solution, you should

not worry (conditional value)
Bhwiji deiwei, wergom tisomos
With Gods help (in helping God), well

finish the work
Pweros kleuti bhn t uponoji
The boy listens with the teacher speaking

(=the boy lisens while the teacher speaks)
Neq streptorjei, tenm aw west

(protistupejos wertos)
Even though there was nobody in the

discotheque, he stayed for a while
(concessional value)
Tris djws procecwuss/ kekn duss

(mlejos wertos)
Three days having elapsed (temporal value)
130
Permm dhtlejom:
moghtrokmleghmn
Absolute instrumental: resource context
Twojo augtor, qid dht maqos?
What did the young lad do having you as

an instigator?
Bhewt duk, bhugsomos
Well succeed, having nature as a guide
Bhwij deiw, wergom tisomos
With Gods help, well finish the work
Swonmoqols, jzd niln, peds

eitum skidnt (wismenjos wertos)
The musicians, since the bus was out of

order, decided to go on foot (causal value)
Permm gnejom: meelokmleghmn
Absolute genitive: temporal context
Promominsterosjo (sn tos), en

swruns dukt meitins
When he/she was a Primed Minister, he

introduced important changes
Rgos ptlosjo, welots enis ghordhjom

ludht
When the king was a small child, a certain

oracle came to the palace
Lukskn ts kmelosjo (kmenos)

ighei
He departed when the sky was dawning
Mr tosjo rgos, orbhjom wl dhdiks

deketo stolmom
After the kings death, the prince inherited

the throne
kseros ludhl s, bherr adsonti
When her wife comes, they will prepare the

luggage
Ddom mene medomnosjo, somosodm

med dksetoi
After my long meditating, he will get the

car from me
Pweros kleuti bhn tos uponojosjo
The boy listens while the teacher speaks
Trijm diwm procecwesom/

kekn dwesom
Three days having elapsed
131
Sm bhondhos
Type of agreement
Agreement
Gender
Case
Number
Adjective and
determinants with the
noun
Apposition with the

noun
(X)
(X)
3
4
5
Relative with the

antecedent
Predicate with its
subject
Attribute with the verb
Person
(X)
(X)
(X)
Epikimenos antinmenomqe nmon
Of the adjective and determinants with the

noun
Ko paulos krenghos
En wnm elmos
Twijom argrm menr
s (tod) menr
This small ring

That beautiful elm
Your brilliant idea
(This is) a good idea
Wnm knmona leukm wtejom

(=Wnmoknmona leukowtejom=
leukowtiwnmoknmona)
Beautiful songs of brilliant poets
Particular cases
Oiws pttjes
Akris dn ghw
The tip of the tongue
Akre dn ghwi (=dn ghwkroi,

dn ghwabhr ste)
At the tip of the tongue
Medhjoi teni
In the middle of the way
kstmoi pedostnei
In the extreme position
ltmi Rotsji/ dhubew Rotsji
In the farthest part of Russia
Akre resi/pmei resi
At the top of the mountain
Prmei samoi/ghimeni
In the extreme summer/winter period
132
ddhmenos nmon
Of the apposition with the noun
Alksanros, makedonom regs, prd

dsm wedht Dhreyowsum proti,
persm regm
Alexander, king of the Macedonians, made

war against Darius, king of the Perses
Paktm tewe mdm, prijm tom

dhghmonm
I met your fiance, that lovely person
Dnumoloi obhi ghosomes, somi

stnoi jod ljotom welomes
We had lunch at the river embankment, the

same place we chose the other time
Weswijom setijomes, ceri deksinoisi

Apennnoisu (=deksinotos Apennnois)
We visited the Vesuvius, mount in the South

of the Apennines
133
tibhrtimosjo praisod
Of the relative with its antecedent
Polim gnwa qd prd cmta
I know the city (from which) you come from
Antonios, Markos Claudjosqe, qoi

juwsms esnt (juwsms esn tes),
prsms ghnt
Anthony, Mark and Claude, who were the

youngest ones (being the youngest ones),
arrived first (the first ones)
With neuter gender
Nqoter gnon
Ghdhos opnqe, qa wswa wrjomos,
dusopn sonti
Honour and wealth, which we call goods,

are difficult to obtain
Agreement with the nearest element
Ndsm tmeni sm bhondhos

Dss, inesa, eduns, qs dhoubnoi
sont, ud n skelsnt bhewtum
Wars, calamities and pains, which are in the

world, should not exist
Snstum ad
Ad sensum
Ghers aitis, qs keiwintibhi

mndheswontes sn t, mluwnt
sm sodomtrom (=q keiwintibhi
mndheswents st, mluwt...)
A small part who, was (were) interested in

politics, spoke during the conference
Enod n widjom qos me rgjeti n

lbhjeti mewom
That stupid person who is tormenting me

does not like me
With attraction
Spt
Globhos, j pl twij wrjetor, chr sketi
The globe, which is called Earth, is getting

warmer
Tmenom koisom adnmenjm so nteri

nonmqe antinmn loubhis eti snter
nmon
Of these adnominal elements between them

and with the personal pronoun, even without
the noun being present
Ekod chedhj mgnom
I want this big one
Mewom gert swpontm
He woke me up who was sleeping (=when I

was sleeping)
Mewom dhrut astuwidlm
He misled me, (being myself) expert in

tricks
Trudsmm esji tod putlos oini
It is difficult to her alone with the children
134
Nunjosjo upologh
Of the predicate with its subject
Rodj bhlosjeti
Prd agroworgs wr gnt
Gheisls dhts sonti
The rose is blooming

The countryment went on working
They were made hostages
Snstum ad
Ad sensum
Kom mgnm tljom gert
A great multitude gathered together
Ud km tm dhghmonom erins
wewr tr/wr tns sonti
One hundred people have resulted injured
Km tm wrm ludht
One hundred men came
Km tm wrs ludhnt
One hundred men came
Sml ogwosmgnos
Collective singular
Drew bhreugn s bhert (=bhern t)
Trees bear fruit
Putl qidqomqe kreddht (=krddhn t)
Children believe anything
Bhlmr dhwomrqe oiws kreni

nosmi esti
Fauna and flora is special in that region
Anadkosjo upologh
Of the attribute with the verb
Dhghomn mr tijos esti
The human being is mortal
Cen lghl st
The lady was tired
Daitis bhdsm uponoj
Iime is the best teacher
Kknj wesn krs (esti)
The stork is the anouncer of the spring

With neuter gender
Nqoter gnon
Dl ku dekesnmqe n krm jewtum
It is sweet and honourable to help the needy
Loubhos mr tisqe nekopn ludhnt
Love and death come out of the blue
Ghourm esti wl qos stdhlobhos
Terrible is a wolf for the stalls

With attraction
Spt
Toltom, tagpolis, klutrown t esti
So esti loktos mene = tod esti loktos
mene
Toledo, the city of the Tajo, is rich in

legends
This is my fault
135
Chapter B2: Sentence combination
2.-Bhnism bhendhmn
Sentence combination
Komjougos
Coordination
Wedhmosjtra
Copulative clauses
smdhtla
joqe, enim, atqe, qe, eti, etiqe, toqe
nekiwotos.imm, epi,
nekiwotos..toqe/eti/plis
Kmbhewontes qertjes (egsmn
smdhtld)
Silj, n welmi bhdjom
Smp ld choniw qertis
Petros domom demt joqe ghortom
rtujt
Smitis
Peri kwn lghto, pukom weiponts
Kombhndhn /komseqomn qertis
Lodi ghwa enim ad n bhoudhai
prwm ordhsmonom
Prtinom
Edjw drs atqe ausrom ers
Is glti atqe eg bhlmi
Peimis qertis
Bhusts esmi (groma), stmqe ud,
ltsqe, ghosmqe prm, pektsqe esmi
wergmqe sodm.
Chonesmn
ntms senti prijs eti sm sts
usdhowi itjonti
Kmstis
Nekiwotos me pjeti imm ismi
bhldeti
Coexisting actions (lack of link)

I keep quiet; I dont want to speak.
Simply additive action
Peter built a house and arranged a garden
Simultaneity
The dog licked himself, waving his tail
Correlated/consecutive action
I arrived late and did not get acquainted
with the first proposals
Contrast
Today Ill work and tomorrow Ill rest
He laughs and I weep
Quick action
I woke up, stood up, got washed, ate
breakfast, combed myself and went to work.
Addition
They are very close friends and even go for
holidays together
Overmuch state
Not only does he insult me, but he also
boasts about it
136
Delmosjtra
Disyunctive clauses
smdhtla
we, awti, (qterom) an, uta (an),
loubhis
Sm plom lterotwom
Simple alternative
Prd nupopodnim wr teto awti n wids

so
He either behaves improperly or is an

ignorant
Awti tkjesi awti ccsi
Either you shut up or you go
(Qterom) drjesi an qlskes?
Are you working or studying?
Solwom ad bhewtum n kjesi dinom,

awti, an opss t, mrom ge
You need to be present all the day, or, if you

are busy, at least during the morning
Jsd awti doukn iesi
You may go there either by bus or by train
Wesprei qelispektrom spekj awti

sontons skreibh
In the evening I watch TV or write letters
lterotwom+optis
Alternative + election
Solwom ad bhewtum n kjesi dinom,

loubhis, an opss t, mrom ge
You need to be present all the day, or, if you

are busy, at least during the morning
Jsd loubhis doukn iesi
lterotwom+optis+ambhemtjom
Alternative+ election + indiference
Jsd loubhis douknwe iesi
Wesprei qelispektrom spekj sontonswe

skreibh
In the evening I watch TV or write letters
Nosbhos mis meiwiswe dhnijom

ordhsmn (esti)
We have a more or less feasible proposal
137
Protiwrtnosjtra
Adversative clauses
smdhtla
m, aw, aly , t, n, tmen,
d.aw
Lni prtinom
Weak contrast
Alchom ikmes, m en eitum nosbhis

n trknt
We had money, but they did not allow us to

go in.
Llgsmes; putl aw robhetum prd

wwelnt
We were tired, but the children wanted to

go on playing.
Melom prtimn
Neqis en eitum mgheti; alj kms an
esti tebhei lchosjo, worm bhoidhetum
mghesi
Neqid swenwidjom ambh woidt. N
klwmn swonetum arti bhwits esti.
Strong contrast
No one can go in; however, if you have a lot
of money, you can convince the guardian
He did not know anything about music. All
in all, he just started to play the piano.
Tldhtis
T bhrik wedr nkjeti, men
Austrlij ploudons qntjet (=bhrik
wedr nkjeti, atqe Australj ploudons
qntjet)
Balancing
If Africa needs water, Australia suffers from
floods (=Africa needs water whereas
Australia suffers from floods)
Uppltis
Domowergom-two teidhi qelispktewos
stnei (=qelispktewes prd) !
Substitution
Finish your homework instead of watching
TV!
Mdodiks, grjusettejos stnei

(=grjusettejes prd), im medonji
ghonghst
The doctor, instead of visiting the old lady,

had her go to his office
138
Winomosjtra
Alternative/correlative/distributive
clauses
smdhtla
n.n, swiwe.swi, tomtom
lteros.. lteros; so.ene
Wdhmejosjo wert
Swiwe robhjesi swi qesi lowtum
sklesi
With copulative value

Whether you play or watch you have to pay
Dlmejosjo wert
N weitins srpjet, n owins pketi;
iwesi drjeti.
With disyuntive value

Now he prunes the vines, now he shears the
sheep; he is always working.
Prtiwrtnejosjo wert
lteros srgjonts louksm kludeti,
lteros kljonts apo wrjeti
With adversative value

This one feels cold and closes the window,
and the other one feels hot and opens it
Ekswqosjtra
Explicative clauses
smdhtla
tod esti, id esti, nmntos, kritm
Somowortja sonti smdhtla
All the conjunctions are equivalent
Kdr lewtum skel, tod esti newom

wwertum poqm
I have to solve the problem, this is to find

another cook
Bhjoima twojo monwm weqtim,

nmntos misdhugmn mene.
Id like to talk to you about an outstanding

issue, namely my pay rise
139
Enbhorosjtra
Illative clauses
smdhtla
enim, ita, itaqe, tom-ke, tenim
Perils n esmi dhjoi kosmei enim
protiwoqom tebhei dtum n mogh
I am not an expert in this matter, and cannot

give you an answer
Skombns esnt, ita prkont

ambhirjosjo qorjostni
They were lost, so they asked for the tourist

office
Ludhr oljoi; tom-ke bhwidhjom

mghomos
All (the people) have come, so, we can

begin
N strigst stum solwom djwm,

tenim n regtd mnjes
It has not stopped raining the whole day,

and thus you are not right
Praiqinasjtra
Causal clauses
smdhtla
ar, ar ge, gar
Somowortja sonti smdhtla
All the conjunctions are equivalent
Tausnim en sodt, ar mtrm n gertum

welt
He came in silently, since he did not want to

wake his mother
Krdijm, gar lought
I was angry, as he had lied
140
Upojougos
Subordination
Kmplsjtra
Completive clauses
Wijugnsjtra
Qermn sjtra
N dhibhorwa
bheidh
bhled
krddhmi/mi
ml gj/neumi
peumi
Disjunctclauses
Objectclauses
Reportative
totrust
toboast
tobelieve
toannounce/toproclaim
tounderstand
prksk/prkj
toask
qqoita/kn sj
tn gj/awisdhij
upoddhmi
wbhti
wweqmi,seq
woida
Enjogwa
bhbheimi
chedhj
dikj
knjai
lein
lubhj/lubhj
mrj
n kj
n neumi
kinsesmi
oposesti/wergomesti
prpeti
prdbheudh
qmj
skeid
twengh
welmi
welp
wreumin
wtmi
wn sk
opinate
tofeel
tosuppose
itseems
tospeak,tosay
toknow
Injunctive
tofear
tobeg
toorder
totry
toavoid
tolike
todeserve
toneed
toteach
tobeready
itisnecessary,ilfaut
toseem
tobecareful
toappreciate
todecide
tocompel
towish
tohope,toexpect
towardoff
toprohibit
towant
Withpersonalforms
IND./SUB./OPT.
IND./SUB./OPT.
IND./SUB./OPT.
IND./SUB./OPT.
IND./SUB./OPT.
IND./SUB./OPT./
PREC.
IND./SUB./OPT.
IND./SUB./OPT.
IND./SUB./OPT.
IND.
IND./OPT.
IND./SUB./OPT.
SUB./OPT
SUB./OPT./PREC.
SUB./OPT./PREC.
SUB.
SUB./OPT
SUB.
SUB.
SUB.
SUB.
SUB.
SUB.
SUB.
SUB.
SUB.
SUB./OPT./PREC.
SUB.
SUB./OPT./PREC.
SUB.
SUB./OPT
SUB./OPT
SUB.
141
Withparticiple
x
x
x
x
x
Withinfinitive
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Sm jugnsjtra
Upologhosjtra
adelm(esti)jod
aiskrmesmi
bhtis(esti)jod
dhabhmesti
ggistoi
jwestom(esti)jod
kaunm/aichlmesti
mendhesnmesti
mghnijomesti
mrdhmesti
mrneumi
n kiwomesti
n prijmesti
pastosesmi/drtmeik
qidtodjod?
smeiromesti
udwrtai
wbhmi
wiklutmjod
Onjasjtra
apotdwdhetor
mogh
Plakj/sm wids(kosmei)
esmi/smorqs(kosmei)esmi
prdwdheti
skel
tdkomststti
tdlmbetoi
Withpersonalforms Withparticiple
Conjunctclauses
Subjectclauses
tobeadequate
IND./PREC.
x
tobeclear
IND./PREC.
x
tobesaidthat
IND./PREC.
x
tobesurprising
SUB./PREC.
x
tohappen
IND./PREC.
x
tobefair
IND./PREC.
x
tobeshameful
IND./PREC.
x
tobeinteresting
IND./PREC.
x
tobepossible
IND./SUB./PREC.
x
tobeupsetting
IND./PREC.
x
toworry
IND./PREC.
x
tobenecessary
IND./SUB./PREC.
x
tobedisgusting
IND./PREC.
x
tobesure
IND./PREC.
x
howisitthat?
IND./PREC.
x
tobewonderful
IND./PREC.
x
toresult
IND./PREC.
x
toseem
IND./PREC.
x
tobewidelyknownthat
IND./PREC.
x
Otherclauses
tobeduetothefact
IND./SUB./PREC.
that
tobeable
Withinfinitive
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
toagreeonthefactthat
IND./SUB./PREC.
tobringabout
tohaveto,must
toconsistof
todependon
IND./SUB./PREC.
IND./PREC.
IND./SUB./PREC.
x
x
x
x
142
Wijugn sjtra
Disjunct clauses
n dhibhorwa sjtra
Reportative clauses
Wweqmi, seq
To speak, to say
Bhlokaputsjtrom
The main clause is in the past
Dhghjesi sqet jod msnjom pridiwi

ptbht
Yesterday he said that the museum had

been open (was open) the day before
Dhghjesi sqet msnjom pridiwi

pttr

been open the day before (infinitive clause)
Dhghjesi sqet msnjom pridiwi

ptlm

been open the day before (participle clause)
Dhghjesi sqet jod msnjom ptjeti
Yesterday he said that the museum was (is)

open
Dhghjesi sqet msnjom pttum
Yesterday he said that the museum was

open (infinitive clause)
Dhghjesi sqet msnjom ptjont
Yesterday he said that the museum was

open (participle clause)
Dhghjesi sqet jod msnjom psterei

diw ptseti
Yesterday he said that the museum would

be open on the following day
Dhghjesi sqet msnjom psterei diw

ptjes

be open on the following day (infinitive
clause)
Dhghjesi sqet msnjom psterei diw

ptsont

be open on the following day (participle
clause)
Dhghjesi sqet jod msnjom krsi

ptseti
Yesterday he said that the museum will be

open today (tomorrow)
Dhghjesi sqet msnjom krsi ptjes

open today (infinitive clause)
Dhghjesi sqet msnjom krsi ptsont

open today (participle clause)
Sqet s jod eg esmi
She said that it was her (*that it is I)
143
Enstantkaputsjtrom
The main clause is in the present
Edjw sqeti jod msnjom dhghjesi

ptbht
Today he says that the museum was open

yesterday
Edjw sqeti msnjom dhghjesi pttr

yesterday (infinitive clause)
Edjw sqeti msnjom dhghjesi

ptlm

yesterday (participle clause)
Edjw sqeti jod msnjom ptjeti
Today he says that the museum is open
Edjw sqeti msnjom pttum

(infinitive clause)
Edjw sqeti msnjom ptjont

(participle clause)
Edjw sqeti jod msnjom krsi

ptseti
Today he says that the museum will be

open tomorrow
Edjw sqeti msnjom krsi ptjes

open tomorrow (infinitive clause)
Edjw sqeti msnjom krsi ptsont

open tomorrow (participle clause)
144
Bhewsntkaputsjtrom
The main clause is in the future
Usrom sqseti jod msnjom

praidhghjesi/dhghjesi ptbht
Tomorrow he will say that the museum was

open yesterday / that the museum has been
open today
Usrom sqseti msnjom praidhghjesi/

dhghjesi pttr

open today (infinitive clause)
Usrom sqseti msnjom

praidhghjesi/dhghjesi ptlm

open today (participle clause)
Usrom sqseti jod msnjom ptjeti

(mlei kosmi)
Tomorrow he will say that the museum will

be open at that moment
Usrom sqseti msnjom pttum

(mlei kosmi)

be open at that moment (infinitive clause)
Usrom sqseti msnjom ptjont

(mlei kosmi)

be open at that moment (participle clause)
Usrom sqseti jod msnjom krsi

ptseti

be open on the following day
Usrom sqseti msnjom krsi ptjes

be open on the following day (infinitive
clause)
Usrom sqseti msnjom krsi ptsont

be open on the following day (participle
clause)
145
Wrtjosm
sopos
Coordination of tenses
Wqeti jod ponts dl nghos esti
He says that the way is long
(PRES. IND.)
=Wqeti pontm dl nghom bhewtum

=Wqeti pontm dl nghom sntm

Wqeti jod ponts dl nghos sjt
(PRES. OPT.)
Wqeti jod ponts dl nghos bhewst

(PRES. PREC.)
Wqeti jod ponts dl nghos bhwseti

(FUT. IND.)
Wqeti jod ponts dl nghos bhewsoit
According to him, the way is long

He says that the way may be long
He says that the way will be long
According to him, the way will be long
(FUT. OPT.)
Wqeti jod ponts dl nghos bht

(AOR. IND.)
Wqeti jod ponts dl nghos bhjt

(AOR. OPT.)
He says that the way was long

According to him, the way was long
Weqt jod ponts dl nghos esti

Weqt jod ponts dl nghos sjt
Weqt jod ponts dl nghos bhewst
Weqt jod ponts dl nghos bhwseti
Weqt jod ponts dl nghos bhewsoit
Weqt jod ponts dl nghos bht
Weqt jod ponts dl nghos bhjt
He said that the way was long

According to him, the way was long
He said that the way might be long
He said that the way would be long
According to him, the way would be long
He said that the way had been long
According to him, the way had been long
Wqseti jod ponts dl nghos esti

Wqseti jod ponts dl nghos sjt
Wqseti jod ponts dl nghos bhewst
Wqseti jod ponts dl nghos bhwseti
Wqseti jod ponts dl nghos bhewsoit
Wqseti jod ponts dl nghos bht
Wqseti jod ponts dl nghos bhjt
He will say that the way will be long

He will say that the way may be long
He will say that the way will be long
He will say that the will have been long
According to him, the will have been long
ljoisu pri dhghomn su lenght qija im

ttgt/ ttgst (PLPF. IND./ PL. PREC.)
enim qota udh koilujeto/ koilujto
He declared unto him before all the people

for what cause she had touched him, and
how she was healed immediately
(AOR. IND./ AOR. SUB.)
146
Bhled
To boast
(Tod ambh) bhledont, jod awobhorons

n lewont/ lewnt/ lewoint
They boast about the fact that they do not

pay taxes
Sewom ambh bhledont awobhorons

n lwontn s
*They boast about themselves not paying

taxes
Sewe nawobhorolewtum ambh

bhledont
*They boast about their own tax-not-paying
Putla ambh bhledont awobhorons

n lwonta
*They boast about their children not paying

taxes
Ins ambh bhledont awobhorons

n lwonta
*They boast about their (childrens) not

paying taxes
Eisom ambh nawobhorolewtum

bhledont
*They boast about their (childrens) taxnot-paying
(Tod ambh) bhldonti, jod awobhorons

n lwonti/ lwnti/ lewoint
They boast about the fact that they are

paying no taxes

n luwnt/ luwnt/ luwoint
They boast about the fact that they did not

pay taxes

n lwsonti/ lwsnti/ lewsoint
They boast about the fact that they will not

pay taxes
(Tod ambh) bhl dont/ bhl dnt (AOR.

EFF./ AOR. PROT.), jod awobhorons n
lewont/ lewnt/ lewoint
They boasted about the fact that they

did/would not pay taxes
(Tod ambh) bhl dont/ bhl dnt, jod

awobhorons n lwonti/ lwnti/
lewoint
They boasted about the fact that they paid

no taxes

awobhorons n luwnt/ luwnt/ luwoint
They boasted about the fact that they had

paid no taxes
Sewom ambh bhl dont/ bhl dnt

awobhorons n llns
*They boast about themselves not having

paid taxes
Sewe nawobhorolewtr ambh bhl dont/

bhl dnt
*They boasted about their own previous taxnot-paying
147

awobhorons n lwsonti/ lwsnti/
lewsoint
They boasted about the fact that they would

pay no taxes
Sewom ambh bhl dont/ bhl dnt

awobhorons n lwsontn s
*They boast about themselves not being-topay taxes
Sewe nawobhorolewes ambh

bhl dont/ bhl dnt
*They boasted about their own future taxnot-paying
(Tod ambh) bhldsonti, jod

awobhorons n lwont(i)/ lwnt(i)/
lewoint
They will boast about the fact that they will

not pay taxes

awobhorons n luwnt/ luwnt/
luwoint
They will boast about the fact that they

wont have paid taxes

awobhorons n lwsonti/ lwsnti/
lewsoint
They will boast about the fact that they will

not pay taxes thereafter
148
Woida
To know
Woida tewom cenm dhwertum
*I know you to be unfaithful to your wife
Woida tewom cenm dhwrontm
*I know you being unfaithful to your wife
Woida jod cenm dhwresi/ dhwrsi/

dhwerois
I know that you are unfaithful to your wife
Woida tewom cenm dhwert
*I know you to have been unfaithful to

your wife
Woida tewom cenm dhrulm
*I know you having been unfaithful to your

wife
Woida jod cenm dhruws/ dhruws/

dhruwois
I know that you have been unfaithful to your

wife
Woida tewom cenm dhweres
*I know you to be unfaithful to your wife

in the future
Woida tewom cenm dhrusontm
*I know you being unfaithful to your wife in

the future
Woida jod cenm dhreuses/ dhreuss/

dhreusois
I know that you will be unfaithful to your

wife
Woidm tewom cenm dhwertum
*I knew you to be unfaithful to your wife
Woidm tewom cenm dhwrontm
*I knew you being unfaithful to your wife
Woidm jod cenm dhwresi/ dhwrsi/

dhwerois
I knew that you were unfaithful to your wife
Woidm tewom cenm dhwert
*I knew you to have been unfaithful to

your wife
Woidm tewom cenm dhrulm

*I knew you having been unfaithful to your
wife
Woidm jod cenm dhruws/ dhruws/
dhruwois
Weids cenm twojo dhruwendhjom/
dhrutm/ jod cen twojo dhruwetor/
dhrwtor/ dhrwoitor
I knew that you had been unfaithful to your

wife
I will know that your wife will have been
cheated on by you
149
Pr ksk
To ask
Pr ksket qid dhdhsi/ dhidhsi/

dhidhs (PRES. IND./ SUB. OPT.)
He asks what you are doing
Pr ksket qid dhsesi/ dhssi / dhsois
He asks what you will do
Pr ksket qid dhs/ dhs / dhjs
He asks what you did
Pr ksket qid dhdhta/ dhedhsi /

dhedhjs
He asks what you have been doing
Pr ksket qid dhidhs an
He asks what you would do
Pr ket qid dhdhsi/ dhdhsi/ dhidhs
He asked what you were doing
Pr ket qid dhsesi/ dhssi / dhsois
He asked what you would do in the future
Pr ket qid dhs/ dhs / dhjs
He asked what you had done
Pr ket qid dhidhs an
He asked what you would do
Prkseti qid dhdhsi/ dhdhsi/

dhidhs
He will ask what you will be doing
Prkseti qid dhsesi/ dhssi / dhsois
He will ask what you will do thereafter
Prkseti qid dhs/ dhs / dhjs
He will ask what you will have done
Prkseti qid dhidhs an
He will ask what you would do
Pr ksket qterom an dhdhsi/

dhidhsi/ dhidhs
He asks whether you are doing (it)
150
Qqoita (kn sej)
To think, to deem
Qqoita/ kn sej jod stmr tod cw/

cwm/ cwoijm (PRES. IND./ SUB./ OPT.)
I think that I am living this situation
Qqoitm / kn sejom jod stmr tod cw/

cwm/ cwoijm
I thought that I was living this situation
Qeqitws bhews/ kn ses jod stmr tod

cw/ cwm/ cwoijm
I will think that I will be living this

situation
Mewom qqoita/ kn sej stmr tod

cjtum (ACT. PRES. INF.)
I think I am living this situation
Mewom qqoitm / kn sejom stmr tod

cjtum
I thought I was living this situation
Mewom qeqitws bhews/ kn ses

stmr tod cjtum
I will think I will be living this situation

cwontm
(ACT. PRES. PART.)
I think myself living this situation

cwontm
I thought myself living this situation

stmr tod cwontm
I will think myself living this situation
Stmr tod mojo cjdhjom qqoita/

kn sej (PASS. PRES. INF.)
I think this situation is being lived by me
Stmr tod mojo cjdhjom qqoitm /

kn sejom
I thought this situation is being lived by me
Stmr tod mojo cjdhjom qeqitws

bhews/ kn ses
I will think this situation is being lived by

me
Stmr tod mojo cmm qqoita/ kn sej
*I think this situation being lived by me
(PASS. PRES. PART.)
Stmr tod mojo cmm qqoitm /

kn sejom
*I thought this situation being lived by me
Stmr tod mojo cmm qeqitws

bhews/ kn ses
*I will think this situation being lived by me
151
Qqoita/ kn sej jod stmr jmi tod

cwm/ cwm/ cwoijm (AOR. IND./
I think that Ive already lived this situation
SUB./ OPT.)
Qqoitm / kn sejom jod stmr jmi tod

cwm/ cwm/ cwoijm
I thought that I had already lived this

situation
Qeqitws bhews/ kn ses jmi jod

stmr tod cwm/ cwm/ cwoijm
I will think that I will already have lived

this situation
Mewom qqoita/ kn sej jmi stmr tod

cjtr (ACT. AOR. INF.)
I think Ive already lived this situation
Mewom qqoitm / kn sejom jmi stmr

tod cjtr
I thought I had already lived this situation
Mewom qeqitws bhews/ kn ses jmi

stmr tod cjtr
I will think I will already have lived this

situation
Mewom qqoita/ kn sej stmr tod jmi

clm (ACT. AOR. PART.)
I think myself having lived this situation

jmi clm
I thought myself having lived this situation

stmr tod jmi clm
I will think myself having lived this

situation
Stmr tod mojo jmi cwendhjom

qqoita/ kn sej (PASS. AOR. INF.)
I think this situation has been lived by me

qqoitm / kn sejom
I thought this situation has been lived by

me

qeqitws bhews/ kn ses
I will think this situation has been lived by

me
Stmr jmi tod mojo cwtm qqoita/

kn sej (PASS. AOR. PART.)
*I think this situation having been lived by

me
Stmr jmi tod mojo cwtm qqoitm /

kn sejom
*I thought this situation having been lived

by me
Stmr jmi tod mojo cwtm qeqitws

bhews/ kn ses
*I will think this situation having been

lived by me
152
Qqoita/ kn sej jod stmr tod ccwa/

ccwom/ ccjm (PF. IND./ SUB./ OPT.)
I think that Ive been living this situation
Qqoitm / kn sejom jod stmr tod

ccwa/ ccwom/ ccjm
I thought that I had been living this

situation

ccwa/ ccwom/ ccjm
I will think that I will have been living this

situation

cjwr (PF. INF.)
I think Ive been living this situation

cjwr
I thought I had been living this situation

stmr tod cjwr
I will think I will have been living this

situation

cicwsm (ACT. PF. PART.)
I think myself having been living this

situation

cicwsm
I thought myself having been living this

situation

stmr tod cicwsm
I will think myself having been living this

situation
Stmr tod mojo cjwr qqoita/ kn sej

(PF. INF.)
I think this situation having been lived by

me
Stmr tod mojo cjwr qqoitm /

kn sejom
I thought this situation having been lived

by me
Stmr tod mojo cjwr qeqitws

bhews/ kn ses
Stmr tod mojo cwnm qqoita/ kn sej
(PASS. PF. PART.)
Stmr tod mojo cwnm qqoitm /

kn sejom
Stmr tod mojo cwnm qeqitws
bhews/ kn ses
I will think this situation having been lived

by me
*I think this situation having been lived by
me
*I thought this situation having been lived
by me
*I will think this situation having been
lived by me
153
Qqoita/ kn sej jod stmr tod cws/

cwsm/ cwsoijm (FUT. IND./ SUB./
I think that I will live this situation
OPT.)
Qqoitm / kn sejom jod stmr tod cws/

cwsm/ cwsoijm
cws/ cwsm/ cwsoijm
cwes (ACT. FUT. INF.)
cwes
stmr tod cwes
csontm (ACT. FUT. PART.)
csontm
stmr tod csontm
Stmr tod mojo cwesdhjom qqoita/
kn sej (PASS. FUT. INF.)
Stmr tod mojo cwesdhjom qqoitm /
kn sejom
Stmr tod mojo cwesdhjom qeqitws
bhews/ kn ses
Stmr tod mojo ctwijom qqoita/
kn sej (PASS. FUT. PART.)
Stmr tod mojo ctwijom qqoitm /
kn sejom
Stmr tod mojo ctwijom qeqitws
bhews/ kn ses
I thought that I would live this situation

I will think that I will live this situation
I think I will live this situation

I thought I would live this situation
I will think I will live this situation
I think myself living this situation (in the
future)
I thought myself living this situation (in the
future)
I will think myself living this situation
thereafter
I think this situation will be lived by me
I thought this situation will be lived by me
I will think this situation will be lived by me
*I think this situation being lived by me (in

the future)
*I thought this situation being lived by me
(in the future)
*I will think this situation being lived by me
(in the future)
154
Kn sej/ dhmej/ qeis jod Petros

woinwents esti/ seti/ sjt (PRES. IND./
SUB./ OPT.) ertim kktewos
I consider that Peter is guilty for promoting

strife
Kn sej/ dhmej/ qeis Petrom

woinwentm ertim kktewos
(bhewtum)
I consider Peter guilty for promoting strife

woinwentm ertim kknuwontm
*I consider Peter guilty promoting strife

woinwentm (esn tm ) jod/ qod ertim
kkneuti
I consider Peter guilty because he promotes

strife
Tn gj/ awisdhij
To feel
Pl twijos chrtim/ chrstim

tn gjomos/ awisdhjomos
We feel the warming of the Earth
Pl tawchrtim / Pl tawchrstim
We feel the Earth warming
Chrskontm
/ chrjontm pl twijm
We feel the warming Earth
Chrtum / chrstum pl twijm

*We feel the Earth to warm
Tn gjomos/ awisdhjomos jod pl taw

chr sket/ chr skti/ chr skoit
chrjeti/ chrjti/ chrjoit
We feel that the Earth is warming
Cherwr tn gjomos/ awisdhjomos

pl twijm
We feel the Earth having warmed
Chechrusjm pl twijm tn gjomos/

awisdhjomos
We feel the having-warmed Earth

chchore/ chchoreti/ chchoroit
We feel that the Earth has been warming
Chrs tn gjomos/ awisdhjomos

pl twijm
*We feel the Earth being to warm
Chrs(s)ontm pl twijm tn gjomos/

awisdhjomos
We feel the being-to-warm Earth

chrs(s)eti/ chrs(s)ti/ chrs(s)soit
We feel that the Earth will be warming
155
W bhti
It seems
W bhti moi jod sjeti
It seems to me that it is raining
W bhti moi seutum
It seems to me that it is raining
W bhti moi jod ssowe
It seems to me that it has rained
W bhti moi seuwr
It seems to me that it has rained
W bhti moi jod sseti
It seems to me that it will rain
W bhti moi seus
It seems to me that it will rain
W bhti moi jod sjti
It seems to me that it may be raining
W bht moi jod sjeti
It seemed to me that it was raining
W bhti moi seutum
It seemed to me that it was raining
W bht moi jod ssowe
It seemed to me that it had rained
W bht moi seuwr
It seemed to me that it had rained
W bht moi jod sseti
It seemed to me that it would rain
W bht moi seus
It seemed to me that it would rain
W bht moi jod sjti
It seemed to me that it might be raining
W bht moi jod ssoweti
It seemed to me that it might have been

raining
W bhseti moi jod sjeti
It will seem to me that it will rain
W bhseti moi seutum
W bhseti moi jod ssowe
It will seem to me that it will have rained
W bhseti moi seuwr
It will seem to me that it will have rained
W bhseti moi jod sseti
It will seem to me that it will rain thereafter
W bhseti moi seus

thereafter
156
W bhti moi leughn
He seems to me a liar
W bhti moi jod leughn esti
He seems to me that he is a liar
W bhti moi (is) leughn bhewtum
He seems to me to be a liar
W bhti moi (im) leughonm bhewtum
He seems to me to be a liar
W bhti moi Prijotanantim

seghtum (INF. PRES.)/
seghontm (PART. PRES.)/
seghontm bhewtum (PART. PRES +
It seems to me that Ferdinand is winning
bhewtum)/

segtr (INF. AOR.)/
seghlm (PART. AOR.)/
seghlm bhewtum (PART. AOR +
It seems to me that Ferdinand won
bhewtum)/
seghontm bhewtr (PART. PRES + bhewtr )

seghes (INF. FUT.)/
seghsontm (PART. FUT.)/
seghsontm bhewtum (PART. FUT +
It seems to me that Ferdinand will win
bhewtum)/
seghontm bhewes (PART. PRES + bhewes)

W Priotanantis moi bhti seghsonts/
jod sghseti
W Priotanantis moi bht seghsonts/
jod sghseti
W Priotanantis moi bhseti seghsonts/
jod sghseti
Ferdinand gives me the impression that he

will win
Ferdinand gived me the impression that he
would win
Ferdinand will give me the impression that
he will thereafter
157
Enjougwa sjtra
Injunctive clauses
Chedhj
To beg
Komqiqerjosjtrom
Perfective clause
Im chedhm me leides/ lidesei/

leidesenei sntlomn swonejom
I begged him to allow me to play the

hapsichord
Im chedhm jod me lidt/ lidoit

sntlomn swonejom AOR. SUB./ OPT.
I begged him that he would allow me to

play the hapsichord
Im chedhm jod me leidst

sntlomn swonejom PRES. PREC.
I begged him that he would allow me to

play the hapsichord
Im chedh me leides/ lidesei/

I am begging him to allow me to play the

hapsichord
Im chedh jod me lidt/ lidoit

sntlomn swonejom AOR. SUB./ OPT
I am begging him that he allow me to play

the hapsichord
Im chedh jod me leidst

sntlomn swonejom PRES. PREC
I am begging him that he allow me to play

the hapsichord
Im chedhs me leides/ lidesei/

I will beg him to allow me to play the

hapsichord
Im chedhs jod me lidt/ lidoit

sntlomn swonejom AOR. SUB./ OPT
I will beg him that he allow me to play the

harpsichord
Im chedhs jod me leidst

sntlomn swonejom PRES. PREC.
I will beg him that he allow me to play the

hapsichord
N komqiqerjosjtrom
Imperfective clause
Chedhnt me rounm bherghtum
They begged me to keep the secret
Chedhnt me jod rounm bherghm/

bherghoim/ bherghsm
*They begged me that I keep the secret
Chdhjonti me jod rounm bherghm/

bherghoim/ bherghsm
*They beg me that I keep the secret
Chdhsonti me jod rounm bherghm/

bherghoim/ bherghsm
*They will beg me that I keep the secret
Chdhsonti me rounm bherghtum
*They will beg me to keep the secret
PRES. SUB./ PRES. OPT./ PRES. PREC.
158
To order
Dikj
Perfective clause
Komqiqerjosjtrom
Me dikjt skeustum
He ordered me to shoot
Moi dikjt skeudos
*He ordered to me the shoot
Moi dikjt jod skeudsm PRES. PREC.
He ordered to me that I should shoot
Moi dikjt jod skudm/ skudoim
He ordered to me that I should shoot
AOR SUB./ OPT.
Me dikjeti skeustum
He is ordering me to shoot
Moi dikjeti skeudos
*He is ordering to me the shoot
Moi dikjeti jod skeudsm PRES. PREC.
He is ordering to me that I should shoot
Moi dikjeti jod skudm/ skudoim
He is ordering to me that I should shoot
Me dikseti skeustum
He will order me to shoot
Moi dikseti skeudos
*He will order to me the shoot
Moi dikseti jod skeudsm PRES. PREC.
He will order to me that I should shoot
Moi dikseti jod skudm/ skudoim
He will order to me that I should shoot
AOR SUB./ OPT.
AOR SUB./ OPT.
Komqiqerjosjtrom
Me dikjt siltum
Moi dikjt silsmn
Moi dikjt jod silsm PRES. PREC.
Moi dikjt jod siljm/ siljoim
PRES. SUB./ OPT.
Imperfective clause
He ordered me to be quiet
*He ordered to me silence
He ordered to me that I should be quiet
He ordered to me that I should be quiet
159
Me dikjeti siltum
He is ordering me to be quiet
Moi dikjeti silsmn
*He is ordering to me the be quiet
Moi dikjeti jod silsm PRES. PREC.
He is ordering to me that I should be quiet
Moi dikjeti jod siljm/ siljoim
He is ordering to me that I should be quiet
Me dikseti siltum
He will order me to be quiet
Moi dikseti silsmn
*He will order to me the be quiet
Moi dikseti jod silsm PRES. PREC
He will order to me that I should be quiet
Moi dikseti jod siljm/ siljoim
He will order to me that I should be quiet
PRES. SUB./ OPT.
PRES. SUB./ OPT
160
Wn sk
To wish
Komqiqerjosjtrom
Perfective clause
Wn sk tewom apo eitum
*I wish you to go
Wn sk tewom apo jontm
*I wish you going
Wn sk jod apo sdsi
I wish that you go
Wenm tewom apo eitum
*I wished you to go
Wenm tewom apo jontm
*I wished you going
Wenm jod apo sdsi (AOR. SUB.)
I wished that you went
Wens tewom apo eitum
*Ill wish you to go
Wens tewom apo jontm
*Ill wish you going
Wens jod apo sdsi
Ill wish that you go
N komqiqerjosjtrom
Imperfective clause
Wn sk tewom mojo ad westum
*I wish you to stay with me
Wn sk tewom mojo adwsontm
*I wish you staying with me
Wn sk tewom qod/jod mojo ad wssi
I wish that you stay with me
(PRES. SUB.)
Wenm tewom mojo ad westum
*I wished you to stay with me
Wenm tewom mojo adwesontm
*I wished you staying with me
Wenm tewom mojo ad wssi
I wished that you stayed with me
Wens tewom mojo adwesontm
*Ill wish you to stay with me
Wens tewom mojo adwesontm
*Ill wish you staying with me
Wens tewom mojo ad wssi
Ill wish that you stay with me
161
Welmi (PRES. IND.), welm (PRES.

OPT.), wljm (AOR. OPT.), welsm
(PRES. PREC.), wl sm (AOR. PREC.)
To want, to choose, to prefer
Welmi sweptum
I want to sleep
Welm/ wljm sweptr
I would like to have slept
Welm jod sns dn ghwidjom

gheln dhls dn ghwds gent/ genoit
Id like that my son, having studied

linguistics, becomes a linguist
Welm snm dn ghwidjom ghlenstum

joqe dn ghwdm gendhjom (2 x INF.
*Id like my son to study linguistics and to

become a linguist
PRES.)
Welm snm dn ghwidjom

ghlendhontm joqe dn ghwdm
gignontm
*Id like my son studying linguistics and

becoming a linguist

ghlendht/ ghlendhoit (PRES. SUB./
OPT.) joqe dn ghwds gent/ genoit
Id like that my son studies (IMPERF.)

linguistics and becomes a linguist (PERF.)
(AOR. SUB./ OPT.)

ghlndhti (PRES. SUB..) dn ghwds
gendhji
Id like that my son would be studying

(IMPERF.) linguistics to become a linguist
Welm snm dn ghwidjom ghlenstr

joqe dn ghwdm genendhjom
*Id like my son to have studied linguistics

and to have become a linguist
Welm snm dn ghwidjom

gheln dhlm (AOR. PART.) joqe
dn ghwdm gegn wsm (PERF. PART.)
*Id like my son having studied linguistics

and having become a linguist

gheln dhst (AOR. PREC.) joqe
dn ghwds genst (AOR. PREC.)
Id like that my son would have studied

linguistics and would have become a
linguist
Wl sm jod sns dn ghwidjom

ghln dhisst (PLPF. PREC.) joqe
dn ghwds gnisst (PLPF. PREC.)
I would have liked that my son would have

studied linguistics and would have become
a linguist
(PERF.)
162
n kj
To need
n kj sweptum/ swepes (INF. PRES./

INF. FUT.) ausrteni dhtini skowni
I need to sleep to do the tomorrow exam
n kj/ n kjoim sweptr edjwteni

dhtini skowni
I need/ I would need to sleep to do the

today exam
Komqiqerjosjtrom
Perfective clause
n kj te sm tgosjo dostlona qreitum/

qreis
I need you to buy the ingredients of the

recipe
n kj te sm tgosjo dostlona qrinntm /

qreisontm (PART. PRES./ PART. FUT.)
*I need you buying the ingredients of the

recipe
n kj te sm tgosjo dostlona qreitr
*I need you to have bought the ingredients

of the recipe
n kj te sm tgosjo dostlona qrlm
*I need you having bought the ingredients

of the recipe
n kj jod sm tgodostlona qrjesi (AOR.
I need that you buy the ingredients of the

recipe
n kj jod sm tgodostlona qqrojes
I need that you have bought the ingredients

of the recipe
SUB.)
(PF. SUB.)
n kjm jod sm tgodostlona qqrojes

(PF. SUB.)
Twojo n kj sm tgosjo dostlona

qreidhjom/ qreisdhjom
qrm/ qreitwija (PART. PRES./ PART.
FUT.)

qrijendjom (PASS. AOR. INF.)
I needed that you would have bought the

ingredients of the recipe
I need the ingredients of the recipe to be
bought by you
*I need the ingredients of the recipe being
bought by you
*I need you the ingredients of the recipe to
have been bought by you
Twojo n kj sm tgodostlona qrt
*I need you the ingredients of the recipe

having been bought by you
Twojo n kj jod sm tgosjo dostlona

qrjontor (AOR. SUB.)
I need that the ingredients of the recipe are

bought by you
163
Twojo n kj jod sm tgodostlona

qqrjontor (PF. SUB.)
I need that the ingredients of the recipe have

been bought by you
Twojo n kjm jod sm tgodostlona

qqrjontor (PF. SUB.)
I needed that the ingredients of the recipe

would have been bought by you
N komqiqerjosjtrom
Imperfective clause
tmgol srgos n kjeti sneightewei
The atmosphere needs cold to snow
tmgol srgtum n kjeti

sneightewei
The atmosphere needs to be cold to snow
tmgoli srgos sneightewei n kiwom
Cold is necessary for the atmosphere to

snow
tmgoli srgtus sneightewei

n kiwos
*To be cold is Necessary for the atmosphere

to snow
Sneightewei n kiw srgjonts

tmgol
Sneightewei n kiwom jod tmgol
srgjti PRES. SUB.
*To snow it is necessary the atmosphere

being cold
To snow it is necessary that the
atmosphere be cold
Mrik mtewei sweljom (swl )

n kjonti
The grapes need sun to ripen
Mrik m jonta sweljom n kjonti
The ripening grapes need sun
Mrik mtewei sulntum n kjonti
*The grapes need to be sunny to ripen
Mtewei mrikobhs n kiwos sweljos
The sun is necessary for the grapes to ripen
Mtewei mrikobhs n kiwos sulntus
*To ripen it is necessary for the grapes the

being sunny
Mjn tbhs mrikobhs n kiwos

sulntus
*For the ripening grapes the being sunny

is necessary
Mjn tbhs mrikobhs n kiwom jod

sulnjti PRES. SUB.
For the ripening grapes it is necessary that

it be sunny
164
Mwenei mrikobhs n kiwom

sulnwr
*To have been ripening, for the grapes the

having-been-sunny is necessary
Memwusbhs mrikobhs n kiwom

sulnwr
*For the having-been-ripening grapes the

having-been-sunny is necessary
Memwusbhs mrikobhs n kiwom

jod sulnbhowet PERF. SUB
*For the having-been-ripening grapes it is

necessary that it have been sunny
Smona gembhtewei wr stm n kjonti
The seeds need rain to germinate
Smona gmbhsonta wr stm n kjonti
*The being-to-germinate seeds need rain
Smona gembhtewei seuwr n kjonti
*The seeds need to have been raining to

germinate
Gembhn tbhs smn bhos n kiwom

seuwr
For the germinating seeds to have been

raining is necessary
Gembhtewei smn bhos n kiwom seuwr
*To have been raining is necessary for the

seeds to germinate
Gembhtewei smn bhos n kiwom jod

ssowet PERF. SUB.
To germinate it is necessary for the seeds

that it has been raining
165
Opos esti/ wergom esti
It is necessary, il faut
Komqiqerjosjtrom
Perfective clause
Ghrsmn mstinom/ amstwijom (esti)
The lawn needs mowing
Opos esti ghrsmn amstum (ACC.)
It is necessary to mow the lawn
Opos esti ghrsmn amstewes (ABL.)
It is necessary to mow the lawn
Tebhei opos esti ghrsmn amstum/

amstewes
It is necessary for you to the lawn
Opos esti jod ghrsmn mss (AOR.
It is necessary that you mow the lawn
SUB.)
Opos esti jod ghrsmn twojo mstor

(AOR. SUB.)
It is necessary that the lawn be mown by

you
Opos ted esti ghrsmn msn tes
*There is need of you mowing the lawn
Opos ted esti ghrsmn amstewei
There is need of you to mow the lawn
N komqiqerjosjtrom
Imperfective clause
Ghortos obhidhorom/ obhidhoresmn

n kjeti
The garden needs maintenance
Opos esti ghortom obhidhoretum
It is necessary to maintain the garden
(ACC.)
Opos esti ghortom obhidhoretewes

(ABL.)
It is necessary to maintain the garden
Tebhei opos esti ghortom

obhidhoretum / obhidhoretewes
It is necessary for you to maintain the

garden
Opos esti jod ghortom obhidhorejs
It is necessary that you maintain the garden
(PRES. SUB.)
Opos esti jod ghortos twojo

obhidhorjtor (PRES. SUB.)
It is necessary that the garden be

maintained by you
Opos ted esti ghorthom

obhidhorjntes
*There is need of you maintaining the

garden
Opos ted esti ghorti obhidhoretwiji
There is need of you to maintain the

garden
166
Bhbheimi
To be afraid
Bhibheim/bhejm m ludht AOR. SUB.
I was afraid that he would come
Bhibheim/bhejm jod ludht
I was afraid that he would not come
Bhibheim/bhejm nem / m n ludht
I am afraid that he would not come
Bhibheim/bhejm m ludhoit AOR. OPT.
I was afraid that he would come
Bhibheim/bhejm jod ludhoit
I was afraid that he would not come
Bhibheim/bhejm nem / m n
ludhoit
I am afraid that he would not come
Bhbheimi m ludht
I am afraid that he will come
Bhbheimi jod ludht
I am afraid that he will not come
Bhbheimi nem / m n ludht
Bhbheimi m ludhoit
I am afraid that he will come
Bhbheimi jod ludhoit
Bhbheimi nem / m n ludhoit
Bheis m ludht
I will be afraid that he will come
Bheis jod ludht
I will be afraid that he will not come
Bheis nem / m n ludht
Bheis m ludhoit
I will be afraid that he will come
Bheis jod ludhoit
Bheis nem / m n ludhoit
167
Prd bheudh
To be careful
Prd bheudhe jod lugjm lins
Be careful to avoid the gap
AOR. SUB.
Prd bheudhe m lodi nks

AOR. SUB.
Be careful not to arrive late
Knjai
To try
Knjetoi ptlomos bhdsmom aitum

uponojom (INF.)
He tries to provide his children with the

best education
Knbhtoi ptlomos bhdsmom

aitum uponojom
He tried to provide his children with the

best education
Knsetoi ptlomos bhdsmom aitum

uponojom
He will try to provide his children with the

best education
Knjetoi jod (swoj) putl bhdsmom

iknti uponojom (PRES. SUB.)
He tries that his children have the best

education
Knbhtoi jod (swoj) putl

bhdsmom iknti uponojom
He tried that his children have the best

education
Knsetoi jod (swoj) putl

bhdsmom iknti uponojom
He will try that his children have the best

education
Knjetoi jod (swoj) putl bhdsmom

eikoint uponojom (PRES. OPT.)
He tries that his children may have the best

education
Knbhtoi jod (swoj) putl

bhdsmom eikoint uponojom
He tried that his children may have the best

education
Knsetoi jod (swoj) putl

bhdsmom eikoint uponojom
He will try that his children may have the

best education
Knjetoi (swoj) putl bhdsmom

eiktum uponojom (INF.)
He tries that his children have the best

education
Knbhtoi (swoj) putl bhdsmom

eiktum uponojom
He tried that his children have the best

education
Knsetoi (swoj) putl bhdsmom

ektum uponojom
He will try that his children have the best

education
168
Lubhj /lubhj
I like
Lubhj jod s prd wr tsi

Lubhj tewom s prd wr sdhjom
Lubhj tewom s prwr tomnom
*I like that you behave well

*I like you to behave well
*I like you behaving well
Lubhj jod s prd wrtesoi

Lubhj tewom s prd wertendhjom
Lubhj tewom s prowertomnm
*I like that you behaved well

*I like you to have behaved well
*I like you having behaved well
Lubhj jod s prd wrtssoi

Lubhj tewom s prd wrtesdhjom
Lubhj tewom s prowrtsomnom
*I like that you will behave well

*I like you to be behaving well
*I like you will be behaving well
Leubhs jod s prd wr tsi

Leubhs tewom s prd wr sdhjom
Leubhs tewom s prwr tomnom
*I will like that you behave well

*I will like you to behave well
*I will like you behaving well
Qmj
To appreciate
Qmjomos jod upstna-nos prokjsi
We appreciate that you request our

services
Qmjomos tewom upstna-nos

proketum
We appreciate your requesting our services

prokjontm
*We appreciate you requesting our services
Qmjomos jod upstna-nos pepreksi
We appreciate that you requested our

services

proketr
We appreciate your having requested our

services

prokelm
*We appreciate you having requested our

services
Qmjomes jod upstna-nos pepreksi
We appreciated that you had requested our

services
Qmjomes tewom upstna-nos

proketr
We appreciated your having requested our

services
Qmjomes tewom upstna-nos

prokelm
*We appreciated you having requested our

services
169
Sm jugn sjtra
Conjunct clauses
Upologhosjtra
Subject clauses
Apsrowokleutis me welm lousujt
The hearing of the water streaming

relaxed me a lot
Apsrowokleutus/ apsrowokleumn me
welm lousujt AOR. IND.
To hear the water streaming relaxed me a

lot
Apsrowom kleuwn ts welm lousujoma
I relaxed a lot when hearing the water

streaming
Apsrowos qom kluwm (=mojo

klums) welm me lousujt
The water streaming which I heard

(=heard by me) relaxed me a lot
welm lousjeti PRES. IND.
To hear the water streaming relaxes me a lot
Apsrowom kleuwn ts welm lousujai
I relax a lot when hearing the water

streaming
Apsrowos qom kleumi (=mojo

klums) welm me lousjeti
The water streaming which I hear (=heard

by me) relaxes me a lot
Apsrowokleuwr me welm lousjeti
To have heard the water streaming

relaxes me a lot
Apsrowom kluws welm lousujai
Having heard the water streaming I relax a

lot
Apsrowos qom kkluwa (=mojo

kluns) welm me lousjeti
The water streaming which I have heard

(=having been heard by me) relaxes me a
lot
welm lousseti FUT. IND.
To hear the water streaming will relax me

a lot
Apsrowom kleuwn ts welm loususi
I will relax a lot when hearing the water

streaming
Apsrowos qom kleus (=mojo klums)

welm me lousseti
The water streaming which I wil hear

(=heard by me) will relax me a lot
170
W bhmi
To seem
W noqterins eksojos/ noqterin

ksitis/ noqterins kseitus/ noqterinm
kseimn tewe meghei prowent bhti
Your going out at night seems dangerous to

me
W noqt moi eks jonts dhr sus bhsi
*You who go out by night seem bold to me
Jod noqt eks jesi w meghei

prowent bhti PRES. SUB.
It seems dangerous to me that you go out

by night
W noqterinm eksostr tewe meghei

prowent bhti
Your having gone out at night seems

dangerous to me
W noqt moi eks sodls dhr sus bhsi
*You who went out by night seem bold to

me
Jod noqt eks sods w meghei

prowent bhti AOR. SUB.
It seems dangerous to me that you went out

by night
W noqterinm eksis tewe meghei

prowent bhti
Your future going out at night seems

dangerous to me
W noqt moi eks eisonts dhr sus bhsi
*You who will go out by night seem bold to

me
Jod noqt eks issi w meghei

prowent bhti FUT. SUB.
It seems dangerous to me that you will go

out by night

kseimn tewe meghei prowent bht
Your going out at night seemed dangerous

to me
W noqt moi eks jonts dhr sus bhs
*You who went out by night seemed bold

to me
Jod noqt eks sods w meghei

prowent bht AOR. SUB.
It seemed dangerous to me that you went

out by night
171
W noqterinm eksostr tewe meghei

prowent bht AOR. INF.
Your having gone out at night seemed

dangerous to me
W noqt moi eks sodls dhr sus bhs
*You who had gone out by night seemed

bold to me
Jod noqt eks ijojes w meghei

prowent bht PLPF. SUB.
It seemed dangerous to me that you had

gone out by night
W noqterinm eksis tewe meghei

prowent bht FUT. INF.
Your future going out at night seemed

dangerous to me
W noqt moi eks eisonts dhr sus bhs
*You who would go out by night seemed

bold to me
Jod noqt eks eisonts bhss w

meghei prowent bht AOR. PREC.
It seemed dangerous to me that you would

go out by night thereafter
COMP.

kseimn tewe meghei prowent bhseti
Your going out at night will seem

dangerous to me
W noqt moi eks jonts dhr sus bhseti
*You who will go out by will seem bold to

me
Jod noqt eks issi w meghei

prowent bhseti FUT. SUB.
It will seem dangerous to me that you will

go out by night thereafter
W Prijotanantis seghonts bhti moi

sprows
The fact that Ferdinand is winning

(winning Ferdinand) seems exciting to me
W Prijotanntejos seghos meghei

sprowm bhti
Ferdinands victory seems exciting to me
172
Mr neumi
To worry
Esjo eksptosjo n sr kitus me mert

AOR. IND.
The fact that he was not fixing the

breakdown worried me
Is, ekspotom n sr kijonts, me mert
*He, not fixing the breakdown, worried me
Jod ekspotom n sr kijet me mert
That (=because) he was not fixing the

PRES. PROT.
Esjo eksptosjo n sr kiwr me mert
The fact that he had not fixed the

Is, ekspotom n sr kiws, me mert
*He, not having fixed the breakdown,

worried me
Jod ekspotom n sr kijt me mert
That (=because) he had not fixed the

PERF. IND.
Esjo eksptosjo n sr kijes me mert
The fact that he would not fix the

Is, ekspotom n sr kisonts, me mert
*He, not being to fix the breakdown,

worried me
Jod ekspotom n sr kbhst me mert
That (=because) he would not fix the

AOR. PREC.
Esjo eksptosjo n sr kitus me mr neuti
The fact that he does not fix the

breakdown worries me
Is, ekspotom n sr kijonts, me mr neuti
He, not fixing the breakdown, worries me
Jod ekspotom n sr kjeti me mr neuti
That (=because) he does not fix (=is not

fixing) the breakdown worries me
PRES. EFF.
173
Esjo eksptosjo n srkiwr
me mr neuti
The fact that he has not fixed the

Is, ekspotom n sr kiws, me mr neuti
He, not having fixed the breakdown,

worries me
Jod ekspotom n sr kije me mr neuti
That (=because) he has not fixed the

PERF. IND.
Esjo eksptosjo n sr kijes me mr neuti
The fact that he will not fix the breakdown

worries me
Is, ekspotom n sr kisonts, me mr neuti
*He, not being to fix the breakdown,

worries me
Jod ekspotom n sr kseti me mr neuti
That (=because) he will not fix the

FUT. IND.
Esjo eksptosjo n sr kitus me mrseti
The fact that he will not be fixing the

breakdown will worry me
Is, ekspotom n sr kijonts, me mrseti
He, not fixing the breakdown, will worry

me
Jod ekspotom n sr kseti me mrseti
That (=because) he will not be fixing the

FUT. IND.
Esjo eksptosjo n srkiwr
me mrseti
The fact that he wont have fixed the

Is, ekspotom n sr kiws, me mrseti
He, not having fixed the breakdown, will

worry me
Jod ekspotom n sr kiws bhwseti me

FUT. PERF. IND.
mrseti
That (=because) he wont have fixed the

Esjo eksptosjo n sr kijes me mrseti
The fact that he will not be fixing the

breakdown thereafter will worry me
Is, ekspotom n sr kisonts, me mrseti
*He, not being to fix the breakdown, will

worry me
Jod ekspotom n sr kisonts bhwseti

me mrseti
That (=because) he will not fix the

breakdown thereafter will worry me
174
Aiskrm esti
It is clear
Aiskrm st/bhwt jod tewom k spekt
It was clear that she was looking at you
Aiskrs ksjs tewom spektus

(st/bhwt)
Aiskr ksjs tewom spektis
(st/bhwt)
Aiskrm ksjs tewom spekmn
(st/bhwt)
It (was) clear her looking at you
Aiskr tewom spkont st/bhwt
*She was a clear looker at you
Aiskrm st/bhwt jod tewom k

spekst AOR. PREC.
It was clear that she would be looking at

you
Aiskr tewom spksont st/bhwt
*She was a clear future-looker at you
Aiskrm st/bhwt jod tewom k

spokst PLPF. PROT.
It was clear that she had been looking at

you
Aiskr tewom spekus st/bhwt
*She was a clear having-been-looker at you
Aiskrm esti jod tewom k spkjeti
It is clear that she is looking at you
Aiskrs ksjs tewom spektus (esti)

Aiskr ksjs tewom spektis (esti)
Aiskrm ksjs tewom spekmn (esti)
It (is) clear her looking at you

Aiskr tewom spkont esti
*She is a clear looker at you
Aiskrm esti jod tewom k spekt
It is clear that she was looking at you
Aiskrm esti jod tewom k spkseti
It is clear that she will look / will be

looking at you
Aiskrm bhwseti jod tewom k

spkseti
Aiskrm bhwseti jod tewom k
spekus bhwseti
Aiskrs ksjs tewom spektus
(bhwseti)
Aiskr ksjs tewom spektis (bhwseti)
Aiskrm ksjs tewom spekmn
(bhwseti)

It will be clear that she will look / will be

looking at you
It will be clear that she will have looked/
will have been looking at you
It (will be) clear her looking at you
175
Smeirom esti/smeirom tod
It is wonderful
Smeirom bht/smeirom tod jod weghj

sr kjtor
AOR. PROT.
It was wonderful that the road was being

repaired
Smeirom (bht) weghjs sr kidhjom
*It was wonderful the being repaired of the

road (infinitive clause)
Smeirom/smeir (bht) weghj

sr kjom
*It was wonderful the being-repaired road

(participle clause)
Smeirom bht/smeirom tod jod weghj

sr kjtor/ sr kin (bh)bhowe PLPF. E.
sr kstor/ sr kin bhuwt PLPF. PROT.
It was wonderful that the road had been

repaired/ *had been being repaired
Smeirom (bht) weghjs sr kiwr
*It was wonderful the having been

repaired of the road (infinitive clause)
Smeirom/smeir (bht) weghj sr kin
*It was wonderful the having-been

repaired road (participle clause)
Smeirom esti/smeirom tod jod weghj

sr kjetor PRES. EFF.
It is wonderful that the road is being

repaired
Smeirom (esti) weghjs sr kidhjom
*It is wonderful the being repaired of the

road (infinitive clause)
Smeirom/smeir (esti) weghj sr kjom
*It is wonderful the being-repaired road

(participle clause)
Smeirom esti/smeirom tod jod weghj

sr kijer/ sr kin esti PF. IND.
It is wonderful that the road has been

repaired
Smeirom (esti) weghjs srkiwr
*It is wonderful the having been repaired

of the road (infinitive clause)
Smeirom/smeir (esti) weghj sr kin
*It is wonderful the having-been-repaired

road (participle clause)
Smeirom bhwseti/smeirom tod jod

weghj sr ksetor FUT. IND.
It will be wonderful that the road will be

repaired
Smeirom (bhwseti) weghjs

sr kidhjom
*It will be wonderful the being repaired of

the road (infinitive clause)
Smeirom/smeir (bhwseti) weghj

sr kjom
*It will be wonderful the being-repaired

road (participle clause)
176
Dhabhm esti
It is surprising
Dhabhm bht/dhabhm tod jod

woghnom nkr
tm bhweti AOR. SUB.
It was surprising that the car was (might

be) intact
Dhabhs (bht) woghnonkr tobhowos
*It was surprising the intact condition of

the car (nominal clause)
Dhabhm (bht) woghnom nkr

tm
(esn t)
*It was surprising the being-intact of the

car (participle clause)
Dhabhm bht/dhabhm tod jod

woghnom nkr
tm bhwisst PLPF.
It was surprising that the car had been

(might have been) intact
PREC.
Dhabhm (bht) woghnonkrtobheuwr
*It was surprising the having-been-intact

of the car (infinitive clause)
Dhabhm (bht) woghnom nkr

tm
(esn t)
*It was surprising the having-been-intact

Dhabhm esti jod woghnom nkr

tm
seti PRES. SUB.
It is surprising that the car is (may be)

intact
Dhabhs (esti) woghnonkr tobhowos
*It is surprising the intact condition of the

car (nominal clause)
Dhabhm (esti) woghnom nkr

tm
(esn t)
*It is surprising the being-intact of the car

(participle clause)
Dhabhm esti/dhabhm tod jod

woghnom nkr
tm bhowet PF. SUB.
It is surprising that the car has been (may

have been) intact
Dhabhm (esti) woghnonkr tobheuwr
*It is surprising the having-been-intact of

the car (infinitive clause)
Dhabhm (esti) woghnom nkr

tm
bhebhuws
*It is surprising the having-been-intact car

(participle clause)
Dhabhm bhwseti/dhabhm tod jod

woghnom nkr
tm bhwsti FUT. SUB.
It will be surprising that the car will be

intact
Dhabhs bhwseti
woghnonkr tobhowos
*It will be surprising the intact condition

of the car (nominal clause)
Dhabhm bhwseti woghnom nkr

tm
(esn t)
*It will be surprising the being-intact of the

177
Ud wr tai
To result
Ud wr teto jod prs dm n

stipbhwt
It resulted that the house was not insured

against fire
Ud wr teto prs dm n stiptum
The house resulted not to be insured

against fire
Ud wr teto prs dm n stipjonts
The house resulted not insured against fire
Ud wr teti jod prs dm n stipjeti
It results that the house is not insured

against fire
Ud wr teti prs dm n stiptum
The house results not to be insured against

fire
Ud wr teti prs dm n stipjonts
The house results not insured against fire
Ud wr tseti jod prs dm n stipseti
It will result that the house will not be

insured against fire
Ud wr tseti prs dm n stiptum
The house will result not to be insured

against fire
Ud wr tseti prs dm n stipjonts
The house will result not insured against

fire
Ggistoi
It happens
Gisto jod akmn upo ttleto
It happened that the stone had been

removed
Akmn gisto upo tlwr
The stone happened to have been removed
Akmn upotlns gisto
*The stone happened removed
Ggistoi jod akmn upo tetler
It happens that the stone has been removed
Akmn ggistoi upo tlwr
The stone happens to have been removed
Akmn upotlns ggistoi
*The stone happens removed
178
Gisetoi jod akmn upo tlns

bhwseti
It happens that the stone will have been

removed
Akmn gisetoi upo tlwr
The stone will happen to have been

removed
Akmn upotlns gisetoi
*The stone will happen removed
Onja sjtra
Other clauses
Skel
Must, have to
Pelu mojo wrgosjo agrowik kosmi

dhtwijom: arwom qelstum skel,
kaplons tekstum, awigsnm amstum,
grnm werstum, dheighlm peistum,
prestum debhtumqe
Much work has to be done by me in this

farm: I have to furrow the land, to fashion
the tools, to reap the oat, to thresh the
grain, to crush, press and knead the dough
Mogh
Can
Mghesi chedhj moi wdn krauqjom

poti dtum?
Can you please pass me the jug of water?
Apo td wdhetor
To be due to the fact
Apo td wdhontor esjs dusjs

knstejes, jod kom n sghetoi neqe
prd bhudheti, kowjeti, mndhetoi
neqe epi ststti
Her bad marks are due to the fact that she

neither gets concentrated, pays attention, is
perceptive, feels interest nor devotes herself
Apo td wedhontor esjs dusjs

knstejes, jod kom n sghto neqe pro
bhudht, kowbhuwt, mn dhto neqe
epi stwt
Her bad marks were due to the fact that she

would neither get concentrated, pay
attention, be perceptive, feel interest nor
devote herself
Apo td wedhontor esjs dusjs

knstejes, jod kom n sghsto neqe
prd bhoudhst, kowbhowst,
mndhsto neqe epi ststowst
Her bad marks were due to the fact that she

had neither got concentrated, payed
attention, been perceptive, felt interest nor
devoted herself
Apo td wdhsontor esjs dusjs

knstejes, jod kom n soghei neqe prd
bhoudhe, kowbhowe, mondhei neqe
epi ststowe
Her bad marks will be due to the fact that

she has neither got concentrated, payed
attention, been perceptive, felt interest nor
devoted herself
Apo td wdhsontor esjs dusjs

knstejes, jod kom n soghn neqe prd
bhudhus, kowebhowus, mn dhn neqe
epi stestwus (bhwseti)
Her bad marks will be due to the fact that

she will have neither got concentrated,
payed attention, been perceptive, felt
interest nor devoted herself
179
nbhrosjtra
Relative clauses
nswebhodhja ndoikwa
Dependent defining (specificative)
Wrs so qos anchins trins domoi iketi
This is the man who has three snakes at

home
Cen s qm mndhochei widm
This is the woman I saw on Monday
Qm nokteu nkomes polim dirist

bht (=polis qm nokteu nkomes
dirist bht: praisodosptis )
The city we arrived in by night was

splendid (atraction of the antecedent)
Wrm medm qesjo sns jekonjoi

esti
I met the man, whose son is in hospital
Putl galm qosmi dwirotlm ddwa
I talked with the child to whom I gave the

bike
Ati stelpe delr, qosmi troikta
Revise the calculation in which you got

wrong
Pri maqm tebhei stel, q eksi itj
Ill introduce you to the girl Im going out

with
Plmn tod qosmd gnnom ghda
This is the book I got the information from
Rnjm n kj q tr qe mn nwetoi
I need a secretary which can translate
Neqid esti qod me croughjti
There is nothing that can make me sad
nswebhodhja witreja
Dependent descriptive (explicative)
Dhghjesi tmklom ghosm, (edlom) qod

meghei wesprom atibht solwom
Yesterday I ate curdled milk, (food) which

repeated on me during the whole evening
Marijm sgjomos, qm ambh ddd

neqid widm
We are looking for Mary, about whom we

dont know anything since long ago
Nokteu Mr goselwm n komes polim, q

dirist bht
We arrived by night in Brussels city, which

was splendid
Ddhi-moi tod, q tewom jewtum

moghs
Give me that, with which I will be able to

help you
Dsm bhwits Klutowoikom proti sonti,

qesjo rgos dtjos ludht
They started war against Ludovic, king of

whom a messenger came
Pri sesedt empiwdjejom komnom,

qosmi dhjoi suwids esti
He chaired the meeting about entomology,

subject in which he is an expert
180
Newom ims widhunjom, qosmi

(qodhei) n qontlos esti
We are going to the new park, in which

(where) there is now a festival
Pelu nkjet tltjosjo, qd apltim

egjet
He needs a lot of patience, which he

absolutely lacks
Enterwoidos Karol ikt, qesi ddom

worge
He had an interview with Carol, for whom

he has long been working
Prejr leloubhm plejos ness, qesi

wosa tisrns sptmtims
I was delighted by the charm of that city, in

which (where) I spent (remained) three
weeks
Swebhodhja ndoikwa
Independent defining (specificative)
Ud jos jeri stt tosmi deiwos dt
God gives to this who wakes up early (It is

the early bird that catches the worm)
Jom deiws lubhjont jwenis mrjeto
The one whom the gods love dies young
Tebhei ds solwa ja nkjsi
Ill give you all you need
Tosjo bhibhje ja wewqs
Im afraid of what you may say
Jons n wernt toibhos stlm regsnt
For any whom they did not find, they

raised a stele
Suwoljm prijejoim toisom joibhis

olnom bhwitum mogh
Id like to thank the good will of those with

whom I can start the project
M triks jodhei (josmi) prsnim

dusqors tebhei bhnt
Dont get wrong where you had difficulties

before (=dont make the same mistake)
Ddhi-moi (tod) j tewom jewtum

moghs
Give me that with which I will be able to

help you
181
Mdesjos wertos
Jos (qis) prsttom n klusoit mm bhoitor

Modal value
Sikejos
Final
Wlos stnom dikt, qosmi kllsnto
The leader indicated the place where (in

which) they should camp (=so that they
would camp)
Neqis n sme jos jwti (esti)
(There is) nobody to help us (=who may

help us)
Wismenjos (kiwotos deiktisjtroisu)
Causal (only in indicative clauses)
Prd nuktd wr tesi, jos/ qos neqid

n smi ddsi
You behave strangely, since you dont give

us anything
Apm eksloitrom tsom obhistm qod

st, auloworgos apo wwore
The drainpipe of these waters, being

obstructed, the plumber unblocked it
Kmseqmenjos
Consecutive
Qis so dhwolnteros, jos n wekti

prijos-two bhewtum?
Who is so crazy, that does not want to be

your friend?
Updhtijos
Conditional
Ja n woida, apo n deik weistum
If (what) I dont know, I dont pretend I

know it
Ja tr pij sonti, n dhsomos
If it (what) is ugly, we wont do it
Tebhei sqom m n wnm (=ja

n wnm sonti) dhtum
I told you not to do (it if it) what is not

beautiful
Open class relation
Ptwoqrejos nbhros
Jos (qis) lwonjom eitum n kjti, n
jeti
(Anyone) who needs to to go to the toilet

should do it now
Jos (qis) domuwergom n dhdhjet,

edjw dmtijom ikseti gnmenjom
(Anyone) who hasnt done the homework

will have a negative mark today
Jos (qis) domuwergom edjw dhidht

(dhedhws sjti), usrom dhmenjom
ikseti gnmenjom
(Anyone) who does the homework today

will have a positive mark tomorrow
Jos (qis) prsttom n klusti

mmbhsetor
(Anyone) who does not obey the boss will

be punished
182
(Anyone) who would not obey the boss

would be punished
Jos (qis) mewom pos cemtum chlti,
apo sewom-pe gjti, kreukm
ghbhjt enim me sqtoi
(Anyone) who desires to come after me, let

him deny himself and take up his cross and
follow me
An qis mewom pos cemtum chleti, apo

sewom-pe gjti, kreukm ghbhjt
enim me sqtoi
If any one desires to come after me, let him

deny himself and take up his cross and
follow me
An qis mewom pos cemtum chlti, apo

sewom-pe gjti, kreukm ghbhjt
enim me sqtoi
If any one ever desires to come after me, let

him deny himself and take up his cross and
follow me
Jos (qis) ousins klumenei ikti,

klwti
(Anyone) who has ears to hear, let him hear
An qis ousins klumenei iketi, klwti
If anyone has ears to hear, let him hear
183
Ambhistnosjtra
Circumstancial clauses
Soikowdos
smdhtla
ei, d, ad
The expression of finality
Soms upologhos promei upojukteiqe

sjtroisu
The same subject in principal and in

subordinate clauses
Wodhlom sola Angljm kelutewei
I bought a guide to travel to England
Wodhlom sola Angljm klunqos
I bought a guide intending to go to England
Wodhlom sola Angljm kelutjei
I bought a guide for the trip to England
Wodhlom sola ad Angljm kelutim
Wodhlom sola Angljkelutim ad
Wodhlom sola Angljkelutisoiki
I bought a guide for the sake of the trip to

England
Wodhlom sola Angljkelutijoqi
I bought a guide with a view to travel to

England
Wodhlom sola Angljm setitewei
I bought a guide to visit England
Wodhlom sola Anglji setitwiji
*I bought a guide for England to be visited
Wodhlom sola Angljm ad setjotinm
*I bought a guide for England to be visited
Wodhlom sola Angljs ad setitim
I bought a guide for the visit of England
Wodhlom sola Angljsetitim ad
I bought a guide for the visit of England
Wodhlom sola Angljsetitisoiki
I bought a guide for the sake of visiting

England
Wodhlom sola Angljsetitijoqi
I bought a guide with a view to visit

England
184
jomos sweptum
Lets go to sleep
jomos aldhjom
Lets go for a walk
Paulom (udwiklm) protiwrumn

olnom nteri klawstum solwod
mgheti
A small (upcoming) setback may block the

entire project
Paulom (udwiklm) protiwrumn enim

olnom nteri solwod klwdetor
A small (upcoming) setback and the entire

project is blocked
Kom paulom (udwiklm) noke

protiwrumn olnom nteri klawstewei
solwod
A small (upcoming) setback is enough to

block the entire project
kins esmi qid wgosjo euktum

kerktejei/ kerktewei
I am ready to practise some sport to get

slimmer
kins esmi qid wgosjo euktewi/

eukte kerktejei/ kerktewei
I am ready to the practice of some sport to

get slimmer
Mjsn s jotnons dhnt spordhm

wiktewei
They made big efforts to win the match
Kritu upologhu kaputsjtrei

upjougosjtreiqe
Different subjects in principal and in

subordinate clause
Perfective clause
Komqiqerjosjtrom
Mjsn s jotnons dhnt spordhi
wiktwiji
*They made big efforts for the match to be

won
Dtjom sesentm tebhei udojowdi

Dtjom sesentm tebhei udoj wdi
Dtjom sesentm tebhei udoj west(e)jei
*I sent a messenger for the account of the

result to you
Dtjom sesentm tebhei udojom

westewei
I sent a messenger to tell you the result
185
Dtjom sesentm tebhei udojom ad

wdotinom
*I sent a messenger for the result to be told

to you
Dtjom sesentm tebhei udoji

westwiji
*I sent a messenger for the result to be told

to you
Dtjom sesentm ei udojom tebhei

wedt (AOR SUB.)
I sent a messenger so that he could tell you

the result
Dtjom sesentm ei udojom tebhei

wedt (AOR. OPT.)
I sent a messenger so that he would tell you

the result
Dtjom sesentm qos udojom tebhei

wedt (AOR SUB.)
I sent a messenger who could tell you the

result
Dtjom sesentm qos udojom tebhei

wedt (AOR. OPT.)
I sent a messenger who would tell you the

result
Dtjom sesentm udojom tebhei

wedontm
*I sent a messenger telling you the result
Koisjonti m qis skombet PF. SUB.
They take care that no one has got lost
Koisjonti m qis skomboit
They take care that no one may have got

lost
Koisjonti m qim skembwenei
They take care that no one has got lost
Koisjonti m qis skm bt
They take care that no one will get lost
Koisjonti m qis skm boit
They take care that no one may get lost
Koisjonti m qim skembesei
They take care that no one will get lost
Koissonti m qis skm bns bhwsti
They will take care that no one will have

got lost
Koissonti m qim skembwenei
They will take care that no one will have

got lost
Qid dhidhms, ei ststst mqe

piptst?
What could we do, so that it kept standing

and did not fall?
Qid dhjms, ei ststst mqe

piptst?
What could we have done, so that it had

kept standing and had not fallen?
186
Imperfective clause
N komqiqerjosjtrom
Bhewdhi swedhumens ke-terosom
qmi twe ad
*Be polite, for the others appreciation to

you
Bhewdhi swedhumens ei ke-teroi twe

qm jnti/ qm joijnt PRES. SUB./
Be polite, so that the others appreciate

you
OPT.
Bhewdhi swedhumens ke-teros

qmdhji
Be polite to be appreciated by the others
Koisjonti m ghosr mnkti
They take care that no food is lacking
Koisjonti m ghosr menkoit
They take care that no food may be lacking
Koisjonti m ghosr menktewei
They take care that no food is lacking
Koisjonti m ghosr mnksti
They take care that no food will be lacking
Koisjonti m ghosr menksoit
They take care that no food may be lacking

in the future
Koisjonti m ghosr menkesei
They take care that no food will be lacking
Kisbhnt (koissn t) m ghosr

mnkti
They took care that no food was lacking

menkoit
They took care that no food might be

lacking

menktewei
They took care that no food was lacking
Koissonti m ghosr mnkti
They will take care that no food will be

lacking
Koissonti m ghosr menkoit
They will take care that no food may be

lacking
Koissonti m ghosr menktewei

lacking
Koissonti m ghosr mnksti

lacking thereafter
187
Stnowdos
The expression of place
smdhtla
jo(n)dhd; jodhei; ji, j, jote
Proitistnom
Place of departure
Eks nwes pluwnt jondhd prwnim

nkn t
The ships set sail from the place where

they had first arrived
Stnom qodhei qertis ggistoi
Place where the action takes place
Ursodejes qsmes jodhei en

kllmedha
We felt pretty comfortable where we had

camped
Soikos
Destination
Einqos jote prd kseutrom

stnetwijom
He has to go where they can fix his shaver
Mdesjom prtinom
Modal contrast
Woghej twe jote chlesi
I take you where you want
Woghej twe jote chlsi
I take you where you may want
Woghej twe jote chelois
I take you where you may ever want
188
The expression of temporality
Mlowdos
Relative
location of the Absolute location
principal
of the action
sentence
Past
Anterior
Present/atemporal
Future
Simultaneous Past
Present/atemporal
Future
Past
Posterior
Present/atemporal
Future
Action limit not m arked

Singular action
Iterative action
[11a]
[12a]
[13a]
[21a]
----[23a]
[31a]
[32a]
[33a]
[11b]
[12b]
[13b]
[21b]
[22b]
[23b]
[31b]
[32b]
[33b]
Action limit marked

Mixed composition
Singular action Iterative action Singular
Iterative
action
action
[11c]
[12c]
[13c]
[21c]
[22c]
[23c]
[31c]
[32c]
[33c]
189
[11d]
[12d]
[13d]
[21d]
[22d]
[23d]
[31d]
[32d]
[33d]
[21e]
----[23e]
[21f]
----[23f]
Antimlowdos
The expression of anteriority
smdhtla
anti qm, pri qm, prosei, prteri,
priwijosi, preitjom, prtmom,
dom, dqod, adqod, adnqod
dnqod, tiqe, prsnim
11a
Bhwq dhtis
Pri krpjons eks owm qm en
sodm AOR. EFF. + AOR EFF.
nsostjes pri krpjons eks
owm
11a
Intention/Indication of preparation
With a view to going in, I took off
my shoes
I told her the truth before she got
angry
Seiktis/Adesmndiktis
neisonts krpjons eks owm
Pri wra tesi wedm qm
krdt bhjt
Pri smdhmn pagtm esti qm
strudoint
Pri smdhmn pgsto qm
strudoint AOR. PREC. + AOR. OPT.
12a
Bhwq dhtis
Pri krpjons eks wa qm en
ijoja PF. IND. + PF. IND
Actual fact
I took off my shoes before I entered
Before (my) going inside I took off
my shoes
In anticipation of the fight, a treaty

was struck
In anticipation of the fight, a treaty
would be struck
12a
Actual fact
Ive taken off my shoes before
entering
Before (my) going inside Ive taken
off my shoes
nsostjes pri krpjons eks wa
I am taking off my shoes before

entering
Pri krpjons eks ow qm en

eimi PRES. EFF.+ PRES. EFF.
nsostjes pri krpjons eks ow
Before (my) going inside I am

taking off my shoes
neisonts krpjons eksi wa
With a view to going in, Ive taken
off my shoes
Ive told her the truth so that she
may not get/be angry
Pri wra tesi wda qm

krdt bhjt/sjt PF. IND. +
AOR./PR. OPT.
neisonts krpjons eksi ew
With a view to going in, am taking

off my shoes
Pri wra tesi wed qm

kr dt bhjt PRES. EFF. + AOR.
I am telling her the truth so that she

may not get angry
OPT.
190
13a
Bhwq dhtis
Pri krpjons eks ows qm en
sdmi FUT. IND. + AOR. SUB.
13a
Actual fact
I will take off my shoes before
entering
nsostjes pri krpjons eks

ows
Before (my) going inside I will take

off my shoes
Pri seqe tod qm eks sods
Say this before you go out
PRES. IMP. + AOR. SUB.
neisonts krpjons eksi ows
With a view to going in, I will take
off my shoes
Pri wra tesi weds qm

krdt bhjt FUT. IND. + AOR.
I will tell her the truth before she

gets angry
OPT.
N Rmjm swdhus esti upo qim

dtum pri qm lokns drk en drkm
lkontns eikoit joqe nklmn kepoit
wertri loktesmn proti dhtwiji
PRES. IND.+ PRES. OPT.+AOR. OPT
It is not the custom of the Romans to hand

over anyone before the accused has (met)
the accusers face to face and has taken an
opportunity to make a defense against the
charge
191
11b
Bhwq dhtis
Pri iwesi pro ghawt qm
ludht AOR. PROT.
11b
Actual fact
He would always phone before
coming
Pri iwesi pro ghawt cemtjes
He would always phone before (his)

coming
Leudhsonts pri iwesi pro
ghawt PART. FUT.+AOR. PROT.
He would always phone before with
a view to coming
Pri iwesi lughnt qm

alchom apo djent AOR. PROT. +
They would always lie before giving

back the money
AOR. OPT.
12b
Bhwq dhtis
Pri iwesi pro ghawet qm
cemjet PRES. PROT.
12b
He always phones before coming
Pri iwesi pro ghawet cemtjes
He always phones before (his)

coming
Pri dhl tercet qum nedhet
The tempest threatens before it rises
ghawet.
He always phones before with a
view to coming
Pri iwesi leughont qm

alchom apo djent PRES. PROT.+
They always lie before giving back

the money
AOR. OPT.
13b
Actual fact
Bhwq dhtis
Pri iwesi pro chwseti qm
ludht FUT. IND..+ AOR. SUB.
13b
Actual fact
He will always phone before
coming
Pri iwesi pro chwseti

cemtjes
He will always phone before his

coming (=13a)
chwseti
He will always phone before with a
view to coming (=13a)
Pri iwesi lughsonti qm

alchom apo djent FUT. IND..+
They will always lie before giving

back the money
AOR. OPT.
192
11c
Bhwq dhtis
Swpomes/swpmes adqod
stropom kleumes
11c
Actual fact
We kept sleeping until we heard the
noise
AOR. EFF./PROT.+AOR. EFF
Skroibht/skribhsto adqod w
tod lijnt PLPF. EFF./PROT.+AOR.
It remained written until they

deleted it
EFF.
He did not announce the victory

until he reached the city
Seghos n pri kart qm polim

ept
AOR. EFF.+AOR. EFF.
Swpmes adqod stropom
klwmes (=d stropokltim)
We kept sleeping until we would
hear any noise
AOR. PROT.+ AOR. OPT.
Skribhsto adqod w tod

lijoint (=d wilojom)
Seghom pri n karst qm
polim epoit AOR. PREC. + AOR.
It remained written until they could

delete it (=until deletion)
He would not announce the victory
until he would reach the city
OPT.
(=ptm d polim, eptim d

plejos, d polptm)
12c
Bhwq dhtis
Tlqomedha adqod eks
krddhmn ausijmes
12c
Actual fact
We are talking until we run out of
credit
PRES. EFF. + AOR. SUB.
Skroibhei adqod w tod lijnt
It remains written until they delete it
PF. IND. + AOR. SUB.
Tlqomedha adqod eks
krddhmn ausijoimes
We are talking until we may run out
of credit
PRES. EFF. + AOR. OPT.
Skroibhei adqod w tod lijoint
It remains written until they may

delete it
PF. IND. + AOR. OPT.
13c
Bhwq dhtis
Swpsomos adqod stropom
kluwomes
13c
FUT. IND. + AOR. SUB.
Actual fact
Well be sleeping until we hear the
noise
Skribhtm bhwseti adqod

w tod lijnt
It will remain written until they will

delete it
Trejes procecwoses bhwsonti

mnoses adqod eks wra
weront
Three months will elapse

until/before they discover the truth
FUT. PF. IND. + AOR. SUB.
193
11d
Swpsomos adqod stropom
klwmes
Well be sleeping until we might
hear the noise
Skribhtm bhwseti adqod

w tod lijoint
It will remain written until they can

delete it
Trejes procecwoses bhwsonti

mnoses adqod eks wra
werjnt
Three months will elapse

until/before they might discover
the truth
Bhwq dhtis
Leumn neu kelujmes adqod
mmbhomes
11d
Actual fact
We would travel without paying
until we got punished
AOR. PROT. + AOR. EFF.
Leumn neu kelujmes nserm

d mombhom
We would travel without paying

until our punishement
Leumn neu keljmes adqod
mmbhoimes
We travelled without paying until
we could get punished
AOR. PROT. + AOR. OPT.
11d
Bhwq dhtis
Leumn neu nitjd keljomes
adqod mmbhomes
12d
Actual fact
We usually travel without paying
until we get punished
PRES. PROT. + PRES. PROT.
Leumn neu keljomes adqod
m mmbhoimes
We are travelling without paying
until we get punished
PRES. PROT. + AOR. OPT.
11d
Bhwq dhtis
Leumn neu kelsomes adqod
mmbhmes
13d
Actual fact
We will travel without paying until
we get punished
FUT. + AOR. SUB.
Leumn neu kelsomes adqod
mmbhoimes
We will travel without paying until
we (may) get punished
FUT. + AOR. OPT.
194
Smitiwdos
The expression of simultaneity
smdhtla
seijod, qidei, jwn ts
sm, smit, jom, dom, mom, mtrom
21a
Prdoikots jom petet, stenmn

qesnim strpet
21a
When the actor fell down, the

orchestra rumbled plaintively
*The actor falling down, the
orthestra rumbled plaintevely
Prdoiketi piptn t, stenmn

qesnim strpet
(En) prdoiketos potoi, stenmn
qesnim strpet
With the actors downfall the

orchestra rumbled plaintively
Ksurm jom eks dhr ght,

tresoma
When he took out the knife, I got

scared
Ksurm eks dhraghn t

(dhr ghl), tresoma
When taking out the knife (having

taken out), I got scared
Ksurm en (esjo) dhraghtewi

tresoma
In (his) taking out the knife, I got

scared
22a
[mnketi]
22a
[uacat]
23a
Bhwq dhtis
Prdoikots jom ptseti, stenmn
qesnim strpseti 2x FUT. IND.
23a
Actual fact
When the actor falls down, the
orchestra will rumble plaintively
(En) prdoiketos potoi, stenmn

qesnim strpseti
With the actors downfall the

orchestra will rumble plaintively
Apo jom isesi, dhworim

klawde
When you go, close the door
Apo jonts dhworim klawde
When going, close the door
En apo itewi/ (en) apo ojoi

dhworim klawde
When going, close the door
Sedos jom drkm, seds
When I see a seat, I will sit down
AOR. SUB. + FUT. IND.
When I happen to see a seat, I will

sit down
Sedos jom drkoijm, seds

AOR. OPT. + FUT. IND.
195
21b
Stoighom jom trm (=stoighom

sei trm, iwesi dkster-laiw
spekm
21b
Stoighom en tertewi iwesi

dkster-laiw spekm
*In the crossing a street, I always

looked right and left
Stoighom trnts (teronts),

iwesi dkster-laiw spekm
As I crossed a street, I always

looked right and left
Bhltom drkt sei, ment wesr

jmi bhewtum (kolisposmlej)
When he saw a flower, he would

think it was already spring (quasipost.)
Bhltom drkls, ment wesr

jmi bhewtum (posmlej)
Having seen a flower, he would

think it was already spring
(posterior)
*In seing a flower, he would think it
was already spring
Bhltom en drktewi/ en
drkteni, ment wesr jmi
bhewtum
When we passed through the cloud

we were afraid
Nbhes perti jom ims

bhbhmes
22b
23b
When crossing a street (=everytime

I crossed a street), I always looked
right and left
Nbhes perti jontes bhbhmes
When we passed through the cloud

we were afraid
Nbhes perti en itewi

bhbhmes
*In passing through the cloud, we

were afraid
Stoighom terom sei, (iwesi)

dkster-laiw spekjom
22b
Everytime I cross a street, I look

right and left
Stoighom jom ter, iwesi

dkster-laiw spekj
When crossing a street, I always look

right and left
Stoighom trnts (teronts),

iwesi dkster-laiw spekj
As I cross a street, I always look

right and left

dkster-laiw spekj
*In the crossing a street, I always

look right and left
Sikena ta en upo seqdhjoi,

Einos sqomna snseti qrmona,
qelnubhmn qrmona sm pl nnts
In pursuing these objectives, the

Union shall carry out the following
activities, complementing the
activities carried out in the Member
States
Stoighom jom ters, iwesi

dkster-laiw speks
dkster-laiw speks
23b
196
When I will cross a street, I will

always look right and left
*In the crossing a street, I will
always look right and left
21c
Demtr drjt joqe smit

swisdt
21c
Demtr swisdt dom drjt

Drjonts demtr swisdt
The bricklayer whistled while he

worked
The bricklayer whistled while
working
The bricklayer whistled during the
work (at work).
Drtim jwnts (drte) demtr

swisdt
Drtimtrom demtr swisdt
*The bricklayer whistled in the

meantime of work
Neqom grnos mdet jwnts

deuks nsers cecst
Never did the council meet while our

leader was away
AOR. EFF. + PLPF. PROT.
22c
Demtr swisdeti joqe smit

drjeti
The bricklayer worked and whistled

at the same time
22c
The bricklayer works and whistles at

the same time
Demtr swisdeti dom dr jeti

The bricklayer whistles while he
works
The bricklayer whistles while
working
The bricklayer whistles during the
work
Drjonts demtr swisdeti

Drtim jwnts demtr swsdeti
*Drtimtrom demtr swsdeti
*The bricklayer whistles in the

meantime he works
N altjs esmi, n meghei pelu

esti daitjos
Now I am an adult, I dont have

much time
Qidei skwnoisi nuwts

smes, Weteljm usdhowi
bhms
23c
Demtr swisdseti dr seti dom
Now we have passed our exams, we

are on holidays in Italy. (quasiposterior)
23c
The bricklayer will whistle while (he

will be) working
Drjonts demtr swisdseti
The bricklayer will whistle while

working
21d
Demtr swisdt iwesi dom

drjt
21d The bricklayer would always

whisle while working
22d
Demtr swisdeti iwesi dom

dr jeti
22d The bricklayer always whisles

while working
23d
Demtr swisdseti iwesi dom

dr seti
23d The bricklayer will always

whistle while working
197
21e
Jwnts w qid dhs labhnt,

nwostis molt
21e
While they were debating what to

do, the news came up
Jwnts w qid dhs lbhontes

esnt, nwostis molt
While they were people debating

what to do, the news came up
W qid dhs lbhontom (gen.

abs.), nwostis molt
While debating what to do, the news

came up
Jwnts w qid dhs lbhtor,

nwostis molt
While what to do was being

discussed, the news came up
Jwnts w qid dhs labhmom

st, nwostis molt
While what to do was object of

discussion, the news came up
W qid dhs lbhmosjo (gen.

abs.), nwostis molt
What to do being object of

discussion, the news came up
Qid dhs en w labhtewi/

labhdhjoi nwostis molt
*In the debate what to do, the news

came up
Jom putlom sm, meghei

daitjos teusmn est enim skidm
swenmn ddktum
When I was a child, I had a lot of

time and decided to learn music
Qidei (=praipodei jom)

skwnoisi nuwts smes,
Weteljm usdhowi sodomes
When (=on the occasion of) we

passed all our exams, we went on
holiday to Italy (quasiposterior)
22e
[mnketi]
22e
[uacat]
23e
Bhwq dhtis
Jwnts w qid dhs lbhsonti,
nwostis mlseti
23e
Actual fact
While they will be debating what to
do, the news will come up
Qidei skwnoisi nuwts

bhwsomes, Weteljm
usdhowi isomos/litsomos.
(kolisposmlej)
Having passed all our exams, we

will go on holiday to Italy
(quasiposterior)
Jom senos bhews, meghei

daitjos teusmn bhwseti enim
skeids qid tbhi dhs
When I am old I will have a lot of

time and will decide what to do with
it
198
Kolisposmlej
Quasiposterior
Apo ludhsesi, bhsomedha
Youll come back, well speak
Apo jom ludhsesi,

bhsomedhai
When you come back, well speak
Apo tewe ludhlosjo,

bh somedhai
Having you come back, well speak
Jom senos bhuwom (an
moghm), skeids qid ditibhi
dhs AOR. SUB.+FT. IND.
When I am old (if I can), I will
decide what to do with my time
When I am old (if I ever have the
chance), I will decide what to do
with my time
Jom senos bhjm (praipodom

an eiksm), skeids qid ditibhi
dhs AOR. OPT.+FT. IND.
21f
Jwnts w qid dhs labhnt,

iwesi nwostis molt (moltjt)
21f
While they were debating what to

do, the news would always come up
*In the debating what to do, the
news would always come up
Qid dhs en w labhtewi iwesi

nwostis molt (moltjt)
22f
[mnketi]
22f
[uacat]
23f
Jwnts w qid dhs lbhsonti

(labhtsonti), iwesi nwostis
mlseti (moltseti) FUT. (ITER.)
23f
While they will be debating what to

do, the news will always come up
*In the debating what to do, the
news will always come up
Qid dhs en w labhtewi iwesi

nwostis mlseti (moltseti)
FUT. (ITER.)
199
Posmlowdos
smdhtla
pos, posti, posnim, jom epi, pori,
met, jn tos, apoqod, tpo, ita tom,
jom epi
The expression of posteriority
31a
31a
Bhwq dhtis
Actual fact
Pos krpjons trgm qm dnum

term AOR. EFF.+ AOR. EFF.
I wiped my shoes after crossing the

river
Krpjons trgm dnewos pos

tertim
I wiped my shoes after the crossing

of the river
I wiped my shoes after ther rivercrossing
Krpjons trgm dnutrtim

/dnutorom pos
Having crossed the river, I wiped

my shoes
Dnum tetr ws/ tetrusj

krpjons trgm
I wiped my shoes as soon as I

crossed the river
(quasisimultaneous)
Krpjons trgm jom epi dnum

term/ jom epi dnum tetr ws/
tetrusj
Krpjons trgm epi dnutrtim pos
I wiped my shoes just after the

river-crossing
Pos Mnkom teksnt qm

kusdhom klpont
They would flee to Monaco after

stealing the treasure (and they did
steal the treasure)
Pos Mnkom teksnt qm

kusdhom klpoint AOR. PREC.+
They would flee to Monaco after

stealing the treasure (but
everything was just a plan)
AOR. OPT.
Mnkom teksnt ksdhosjo

pos klopom/kusdhom pos
klptm/ kusdhoklopom pos
They would flee to Monaco after the

theft of the treasure
Pos Mnkom tekwnt qm

kusdhom klpont AOR. SUB.+
They may have fled to Monaco after

stealing the treasure (the theft is a
fact)
AOR. EFF.
Pos Mnkom tekwnt qm

kusdhom klpoint AOR. SUB.+
They may have fled to Monaco after

stealing the treasure (everything is
a conjecture)
AOR. OPT.
Pos Mnkom tekwoint qm

kusdhom klpoint AOR. OPT.+
Lets hope they have fled to Monaco

after stealing the treasure
AOR. OPT.
200
32a
Bhwq dhtis
32a
Actual fact
Pos krpjons torga qm dnum

tora PF. IND.+PF. IND.
Ive wiped my shoes after crossing

the river
Krpjons torga dnutrtim

/dnutorom pos/dnewos
tertim
Ive wiped my shoes after the rivercrossing/the crossing of the river

Having crossed the river, Ive wiped
my shoes

krpjons torga PF. PRT.+ PF/ IND.
Ive wiped my shoes as soon as I

have crossed the river
(quasisimultaneous)
Krpjons torga jom epi dnum

tora/ jom epi dnum tetr ws/
tetrusj
Pos krpjons terg qm dnum
tora PRES. IND.+ PF. IND.
I am wiping my shoes after crossing

the river
Krpjons terg dnutrtim

tertim
I am wiping my shoes after the

river-crossing/the crossing of the
river

krpjons terg PF. PRT+PRES. IND.
Having crossed the river, I am

wiping my shoes
I am wiping my shoes just after
crossing the river
(quasisimultaneous)
Krpjons terg jom epi dnum

tora/ jom epi dnum tetr ws/
tetrusj
Domus mgjs prpeti
pori werga dhdhra
The house looks bigger after they

have done works
Domus mgjs prpeti

wergodhmn pos
The house looks bigger after the

execution of the works
Pertidemn domus mgjs

prpeti PF. PART. +PRES. IND.
The house looks bigger once it has

been refurbished
Pos Mnkom tekwnti qm

kusdhom klpoint
They may be fleeing to Monaco

after stealing the treasure
Mnkom tekwnti
kusdhoklopom pos/ksdhosjo
klptm
They may be fleeing to Monaco

after the theft of the treasure
201
33a
Bhwq dhtis
33a
Actual fact
Pos krpjons tergs qm dnum

torom FUT. IND. + PF. SUB.
I will wipe my shoes after crossing

the river
Krpjons tergs dnutrtim

tertim
I will wipe my shoes after the rivercrossing/the crossing of the river

krpjons tergs
Having crossed the river, I will

wipe my shoes
Krpjons tergs jom epi dnum

torom/ jom epi dnum tetr ws/
tetrusj
I will wipe my shoes as soon as I

have crossed the river
(quasisimultaneous)
Pos Mnkom tksonti qm

kusdhom klpoint FUT. IND.
They will flee to Monaco after

stealing the treasure
+AOR. OPT.
Mnkom tksonti
klptm
They will flee to Monaco after

Pos Mnkom tksnt(i) qm

kusdhom klpoint
They may flee to Monaco after

Mnkom tksnt(i)
klptm
They may flee to Monaco after the

theft of the treasure
202
31b
iwesi pos skeidt qm

(ambhu) aitje wewqtm/
wqstm
31b
He always decided after both parts

had spoken
AOR. PROT. + AOR./PLPF PROT.
iwesi skeidt (ambhus) aitjus

wewqlus/woqwesus
He always decided after both parts

had spoken
AOR. PROT. + PART. AOR./PF.
iwesi pos skeidt (ambhus)

aitjus wqom/weqtim pos
He always decided after the speech

of both parts
iwesi skeidt
ambhitiwqom/ambhitiweqt
im pos
He always decided after the

bilateral speech
iwesi pos skeidt jom epi

(ambhu) aitje wewqtm/
wqstm
He always decided just after both

parts had spoken
iwesi skeidt epi

im pos / (ambhus) aitjus
wqom/weqtim pos
32b
iwesi pos skeidet qm

(ambhu) aitje wweqtm
He always decided just after the

speech of both parts
32b
PRES. PROT.. + PRES. PROT.
He always decides after both parts

have spoken
iwesi skeidet (ambhus)

aitjus wewqlus/woqwesus
He always decides after both parts

have spoken
iwesi skeidet
im pos / (ambhus) aitjus pos
wqom/weqtim
He always decides after the speech

of both parts
iwesi pos skeidet jom epi

(ambhu) aitje wweqtm
He always decides just after both

parts have spoken
203
33b
iwesi pos skidseti qm

(ambhu) aitje wewqtm
33b
He will always decide after both

parts will have spoken
FUT. IND. + AOR. SUB.
iwesi skidseti (ambhus)

aitjus weqlus/woqwesus
He will always decide after both

parts have spoken
iwesi skidseti
im pos / (ambhus) aitjus pos
wqom/weqtim
He will always decide after the

speech of both parts
He will always decide just after
both parts had spoken
iwesi pos skidseti jom epi

(ambhu) aitje wewqtm
204
31c
32c
33c
Ghebhl mene pisdjt pori

bheudhm
31c
My head ached since I woke up
Ghebhl mene pisdjt

bheustjes apo
My head ached since my awakening
Mijnto pori prwnim

mdont
They (had) changed since they first

met
Ghebhl poqod bhoudha

pisdjeti
32c
My head aches since I woke up
Mijr (mijrai) pori prwnim

mdont
They have changed since they first

met
Mijr (mijrai) pori dhljs

esnt
They have changed since they were

babies
Trqr twos gr nos mdet poqod

deuks nsers cece AOR.+ PF.
The council has met three times

since our leader departed
Neqom grnos mdet poqod

deuks nsers cece AOR. +AOR.
Never has the council met since our

leader departed
Grnokl kklawstai poqod

deuks nsers cece PF. + PF.
The meeting room is closed since

our leader departed
Bhwq dhtis
Ghebhl mene pisdseti pori
bhoudhom FUT. IND. +SUB. PF.
33c
Moimns bhwsonti pori

prwnim mdont
Actual fact
My head will ache since I wake up
FUT. PF. IND.+ AOR. SUB.
They will have changed since they

first met
Misontoi/mijusjs bhwsonti
pori prwnim mdnt
They will change/will have changed

since they first meet
FUT./FUT. PF IND. +AOR. SUB.
N drtum sklsomos pori

klutjom tghoimes
We wont have to work from the

time we may hit the lottery
205
31d
Slwoqom niknt pori

prwnim mdont AOR. SUB.
31d
They quarrelled all the time since

their first meeting
Slwoqom niknt prwd po

modnd
32d
Slwoqom nkjonti pori

prwnim mdont
33d
Slwoqom nksonti pori

prwnim mdnt
They quarrelled all the time since

they first met
32d
They are quarreling/have been

quarreling all the time since they
first met
33d
They will quarrel once and againg

since they fist meet
206
Updhtiwdos
smdhtla
an, s(w)ei, jod ei
The expression of condition
m an
tom-ke
Bhwoq updhtis
Real condition (Indicative-effective)
Udbhwr deiws an, swes senti
If gods exist, they are good
PERF. IND. + PRES. IND.
Woista an, chedh seqe
If you know it, please say it
PERF. IND. + PRES. IMP.
Kaudj an esti, (tom-ke) esji bhghewi

esti mlnomos laiwi
PRES. IND. + PRES. IND.
Ainos dhdhja an (=woinwents esmi

an), membhtwijos esmi
PERF. IND./PRES. IND.+ PRES. IND./FUT.
IND.
Upo mewom an seqonto, upo yusm

toqe sqsonto AOR. IND. + FUT. IND.
Te n widrim klst, tom-ke ers st
If it is Claudia, she has a mole on her left

arm
If I have commited a crime (=if I am

guilty), I shall be punished
If they persecuted me, they will also

persecute you
If he called you stupid he was wrong
AOR. IND. + AOR. IND.
Probhoudhos: nglij opwents bhmr ,

Namibj ita n (Smodhiwom)
Attention: If England is a rich nation,

Namibia not so much (Comparative)
207
Enstntqmdqdqej updhtis
Incidental condition in the present

(Indicative-protelative)
Gourom premes an, skanstos cm sket
If you press the button, the lift comes
PRES. IND. (PROT.) + PRES. IND.
ndhi edm sei, ghebhl edunt

PRES. PROT. + PRES. PROT.
Ghawes mewom sei, knja tewom

jewtum
Everytime I eat too much, my head aches

Whenever you call me, I try to help you
PRES. PROT. + PRES. PROT
Bhloqmd qdqej updhtis
Incidental condition in the past (Indicativeprotelative)
Ghawnt ns sei, ins knjmedha

jewtum
Whenever they called us, we tried to help

them
AOR. PROT. + AOR. PROT.
Spepondt qid (an), n lught
If he promised something, he would not lie
Bhewsontqmdqdqej updhtis
Incidental condition in the future (Future

subjunctive)
Ghwssi sei, knsi tewom jewtum
Whenever you call me, I will try to help

you
FUT. SUB.
FUT. IND.
208
Ambhgois updhtis
Eventual condition (Subjunctive)
N komqiqerjosjtra
Imperfective clauses
En seti an, widseti
If he happens to be inside, he will know it
ss bhwssi (an), dnom tebhei ds

FUT. SUB.
If you are good, I will give you a present
FUT. IND.
Tkjt (an), dr misi
If he keeps silent, I will fall asleep
PRES . SUB. + FUT. IND.
Komqiqerjosjtra
Perfective clauses
Ludht (an), weqs qid dhtwijom

(seti)
AOR. SUB. FUT. IND.
PRES. SUB.
Posti ghwet (an), en gals

AOR. SUB.
FUT. IND.
Mrtis pelset an, n qis mrtum welt

AOR. SUB.
Should he come, I will tell him what to do
AOR. IND.
Komnom skkidet jod worgs qis an

pljosns epet qoksns awti dikmenjom
eikt pronojom, apo misdhsto
If she calls later, I will talk with her
When death approaches, no one wants to

die
The board decided that should any employee
win more clients or have an exemplary
performance, they would be rewarded
AOR. SUB. + PRES. SUB. + PRES. PREC.
Tkset (an), apo n sme n jsonti

AOR. SUB. + FUT. IND.
If he shuts up, they will not expel us
209
Mnstrej minpnij updhtis
Imaginary potential condition (Optative)
N komqiqerjosjtra
Prijm ikojm (an) enim eikmi-,
ghoilos sjm
Imperfective clauses
If I had a friend -and I may have it-, I
would be happy
PRES. OPT. + PRES. OPT.
Reiwents sjm (an), njota cejwoim

PRES. OPT. + PRES. OPT.
If I were rich, I would live otherwise
Daitim eikois, jewois (Prkn stijom)
If you had time, you should help

(Recommendative)
Tkjoit (an), dr mjoija
If he kept silent, I would fall asleep
Komqiqerjosjtra
Reiwents bhjm, ntenm linqoim
wergom enim njota cejwoim
AOR. OPT. + PRES. OPT. + PRES. OPT.
Perfective clauses
If I became rich, I would leave my present
job and live otherwise
Ntenm liqoim wergom njota

cejwoim
If I left my present job I would live

otherwise
Tkbhjt, apo n sme n jijnt
If he shut up, they would not expel us
AOR. OPT. I + PRES. OPT.
Tkst, apo n sme n jijnt
If he had shup up, they would not expel us
AOR. OPT. II + PRES. OPT.
210
nsntos nbhwoq updhtis
Irreal condition of present (Precative)
Prijm eiksm (an) atqe n eikmighoilos bhewsm 2 x PRES. PREC.
If I had a friend -but I cant have it-, I

would be happy
Bhlosjo nbhwoq updhtis
Irreal of past (Precative)
Alchom noudsm solwom, n n
If I had spent all the money, now I could

not go on holidays
PERF. PREC.
moghsm usdhowi eitum

PRES. PREC
Meghei leiktim pplkss (an), n

mn sm AOR. PREC. + AOR. PREC.
If you had advised me to leave, I would not

have stayed.
Alchom nudissm solwom, tom-ke n

moghsm usdhowi eitum
If I had spent all the money, then I could

not have gone on holidays
PLPF. PREC. + AOR. PREC
Tkbhst, apo n sme n jsnt

AOR. PREC. + AOR. PREC.
Bhewsntnbhwoq
Sm jugns tom an eset, bhwonom n
krddhjet
If he had kept silent, they would not have

expelled us
Irreal of future (Subjunctive/ precative)
If he were married by that time, he would
not believe the reality
PRES. SUB. + PRES. SUB.
Sm jugns tom an bhewst, bhwonom

n krddhjet
If he were married by that time, he would

not believe the reality
PRES. PREC. + PRES. SUB.
Rd ciwotm (an) ludht, bhwonom

n krddhjet
If he came back to life, he would not

believe the reality
AOR. SUB. + PRES. SUB.
Rd ciwotm (an) cemst, bhwonom

n krddhst
If he came back to life, he would not

believe the reality
PRES. PREC.+ PRES. PREC.
211
Smosttwdos
The expression of comparison
smdhtla
jota, jotei, s(w)ei, swi, tm.qm,
mgis, plis, pljs, meiwis, minos,
jwn tomtwn tom
Somot
Equality
Knmona-swo knonti jota esom

awisdhjonti wqesa
They sing their songs as they feel their

lyrics
Twn tod bherois klwesos mwn

tod
pkos n smei loiqta
Take as much glory as peace you leave to us
(Ita) bhto jota sei duspodom woidst
He spoke as if he had seen the accident
AOR. EFF. + PF. PREC.
(Ita) bhwto jota sei

pedgugjospordhm widst
He was speaking /used to speak as if he

were seeing the football match
AOR. PROT. + PRES. PREC.
(Ita) bhwto jota sei

pedgugjospordhm widoit
AOR. PROT. + AOR. OPT.
(Ita) bhtoi jota sei duspodom woidst

PRES. EFF. + PF. PREC.
(Ita) bhtoi jota sei pedgugjospordhm

widst
PRES. EFF. + PRES. PREC.
(Ita) bhtoi jota sei pedgugjospordhm

widoit/widjt AOR. PROT. + AOR.
He was speaking /used to speak as if he

were going to see the football match
He is speaking as if he had seen the
accident
He is speaking as if he were seeing the
football match
He is speaking as if he were going to see
the football match
OPT./PRES. SUB.
Arti jota prows (wodroks) djejont

dhr neut, dhr neut, ita putla menja
(djejont)
Just like frogs move by jumping and

jumping, the same way my children move
Tod dhsomos jota wn skes
Well do it as you want
Tod dhsomos jota wn sks/ wn skois
Well do it as you may want it
212
n somot
Inequality
Bhodjs apoworetus qm upoqeltus
It is better to prevent than to treat
Pri ststti apoworetus upoqltewes
It is more worth preventing than treating
Apoworetis upoqltewes bhodjs
Prevention is better than treatment
Prosodos
Progression
Meiwis ghost, minos kn krewos eikt

(=meiwis kn kjt)
The less she ate, the less appetite she had
Mgis wel bhrtros-two dr km, mgis

glmi
The more I see your brothers face, the

more I laugh
Jwn tom jwn tom te spekj, twn tom

twn tom lubhsmi
The more I look at you, the more I fall in

love
213
Weismnwdos
The expression of cause
smdhtla
jod, qod, jod qid, ar, ar ge, qija,
ghina, josmd
Bhwoqos
Real
Nws sonqe; jegibhr ghom proti stoupt
The ship sank; she had hit an iceberg
Nws sonqe q-i jegibhr ghom proti

stoupt
The ship sank which (=because she) had

hit an iceberg
Nws sonqe jodqid jegibhr ghom proti

stoupt
The ship sank because she had hit an

iceberg
Nws sonqe jegibhr ghom proti stupl
The ship sank having hit an iceberg

(quasitemporal clause)
(kolimlejom sjtrom) PF. IND. + PART. AOR.
Nws jegibhr ghoprotistupt sonqe
The ship sank because of the fact of

colliding against an iceberg
Nws jegibhr ghoprotistupt sonqe
The ship sank because of a collision against

an iceberg
Nws jegibhr ghoprotistuptews/

jegibhr ghoprotistuptejs rdh sonqe
The ship sank on account of a collision

against an iceberg
Nws jegibhr ghoprotistuptiwois

sonqe
The ship sank due to the collision against

an iceberg
Bhloigos n dom tje; dhghmones

oljoi en senti
The film has not finished yet; all the people

are inside
Bhloigos n dom tje; ghina

dhghmones oljoi en senti
The film has not finished yet; indeed all the

people are inside
Bhloigos n dom tje, jod (=qija)

dhghmones oljoi en senti
The film has not finished yet, since all the

people are inside
Bhloigos n dom tje dhghmones oljoi

nesn tes (kolimlejom sjtrom)
The film has not finished yet, all the people

being inside (quasitemporal clause)
214
Elwom adjonti wosjom; dhljos cm jti
They are preparing the pink room; a baby is

coming
Elwom adjonti wosjom, ar ge dhljos

cm jti (=komjougosjtrom)
They are preparing the pink room because a

baby is coming (=coordinative clause)
Elwom adjonti wosjom, jod dhljos

cm jti
They are preparing the pink room because a

baby is coming
Elwom adjonti wosjom dhlj

cmonq (prmom sjtrom)
They are preparing the pink room, a baby

being coming (absolute clause)
Elwom adjonti wosjom dhljcm t
They are preparing the pink room because

of the fact of the babys arrival
Elwom adjonti wosjom dhljcm t
They are preparing the pink room because

of the babys arrival
Elwom adjonti wosjom

dhljcm tiwois
They are preparing the pink room due to the

babys arrival
Bhendrom ormodht s; im mrjomnom

widt
He pitied her friend; she saw him dying
Bhendrom ormodht s jod/ qod im

mrjomnom widt
He pitied her friend, because she saw him

dying
Bhendrom ormodht s qom im

mrjomnom widt
He pitied her friend, whom (=because) she

saw him dying
Bhendhrom mrjontm widl , im

ormodht
As (=when, because) she saw her friend

dying, she pitied him
Bhendhrom mrjomnom weidn ts, im

ormodht
As (=when, because) she was seing her

friend dying, she pitied him
215
Aljodhmnabhns
Referred as someone elses opinion
Apjnos esti wergd jod/ qod

adkl nobhos n prijs sjt/bhjoit
Hes been expelled from work (as they

said/allegedly) because he was not friendly
to the clients
Twkr ts jod/ qod jwn tm

kr njt loketor
Socrates was arraigned on the ground

that he was corrupting the youth
Twkr ts jod/ qod jwn tm

keroit loketor
Socrates was arraigned on the ground

that he (had) corrupted the youth
Twkr ts prowrtosjo juwn tkrjosjo

rdh loketor
Socrates was arraigned on account of

alleged corruption of the youth
iwesi prijtms ismei bhuwnt jod/

qod prd ins nosojoit
They were always very kind to him because

he had delivered them from danger
iwesi prijtms ismei sont jod/ qod

prd ins bhwsn ti nosesoit
They are always very kind to him because

he is supposed to deliver them from danger
in the future
216
Proqrejos
Thematic
Gudhj jod wljesi
I am happy you are fine
Gudhj jod wljsi
I am happy you are probably fine
Gudhbhm jod wljesi
I was happy you were fine
Gudhj jod wlbhs
I am happy you were fine
Gudhbhm jod wljsi
I was happy you were probably fine
Gudhj jod wlbhuwes
I am happy you were probably fine
Gudhs jod wljesi
I will be happy that you will be fine
Gudhj jod wlsesi
I am happy you will be fine
Gudhs jod wljsi
I will be happy that you will probably be

fine
Gudhj jod wlssi
I am happy you will probably be fine
Tod esti jod swr ghmes
This is something we had to be careful

about
Tod esti jod swrghmosi
This is something we have to be careful

about
Tod esti jod swrghsmosi
This is something well have to be careful

about
217
Epistmejos (koliskomjougosjtra)
Epistemic (quasicoordinative clauses)
Josmd somosod cm jesi, ad moi

wogheje koinns
Since you are coming by car, bring the

cradle to me
(Josmd) n knmis n moght steightum
(Since) legless it could not walk
N moght steightum, josmd knmns

n eikt (=ar knmns n eikt)
It could not walk, since it had no legs (=as it

had no legs
n dhistutejos
Assertive
Oqowidnim Ludhj donsonjom cme,

qidpe im edjw woida
Of course Lydia has come to school, since

Ive seen her today
Upomnejos (ptij /prknej)
Hypothetical (with optative/precative)
Epi tewom n dhedhmm jod/ qod

odws bhsm r sonbhsmwe, n jod/
qod lubhm
I did not critize you because I hated or

envied you, but because I loved you
2 X AOR. PREC + AOR. IND.
Epi tewom n dhmsm jod/ qod

odws bhjm r sonbhjmwe, n jod/
qod lubhm
I did not critize you because I hated or

envied you, but because I loved you
2 X AOR. OPT. + AOR. IND.
Epi tewom n dhmej jod/ qod dsm

r sonesmwe, n jod/ qod lubhj
2 X PRES. PREC. + PRES. IND.
Epi tewom n dhmej jod/qod doim

r sonejoimwe, n jod/ qod lubhj
I dont criticize you because I hate or envy

you, but because I love you
2 X PRES. OPT. + PRES. IND.
I dont criticize you because I hate or envy

you, but because I love you
Epi tewom n dhmes jod/qod odws

bhewsoim r sonesoimwe, n jod/ qod
leubhs
I wont criticize you because I will hate or

envy you, but because I will ove you
2 X FUT. OPT. + FUT. IND.
218
Sqermnwdos/kmseqmnwdos
The expression of effect/ consecution
smdhtla
tori, ita, itaqe, tom, tom-ke, jotosqe,
t wn tos, ute, itajod, ita..jota,
tm..qm, tmjod, ttom
Bhl qertis
Past action
Akrd dhuwt wentos, klsomom med

repet (ddhmn )
The wind blew strongly; it pulled off my

scarf (apposition)
Akrd dhuwt wentos, tom-ke

klsomom med repet (enbhorokomjougos)
The wind blew strongly, and so pulled off

my scarf (illative coordination)
Akrd dhuwt wentos, (enim) tori

klsomom med repet
The wind blew strongly, (and) therefore

pulled off my scarf
Ita akrd dhuwt wentos, jod klsomom

med rept AOR. PROT. IND. + AOR. SUB.
The wind blew so strongly, that it pulled off

my scarf
(Ita) akrd dhuwt wentos ute med

klsomom reptewei AOR. INF.
*(So) strongly blew the wind as to pull off

my scarf
Tm akrd dhuwt wentos qm

klsomom med reponts AOR. PART.
*The wind blew so strongly as (being able

to) pull off my scarf
Akrd dhuwt wentos klsomom med

reponts AOR. PART.
The wind blew strongly pulling off my scarf
Tm apo sm dew, jod im n dr ksm
I was so far that I could not see him
AOR. EFF. + AOR. PREC.
Tm apo sm dew, jod im n dr km
I was so far that I did not see him
AOR. EFF. + AOR. SUB.
Tm apo sm dew, jod im n dr ksonts

bhsm
I was so far that I would not see him

thereafter
AOR. EFF. + AOR. PREC. COMP.
219
Enstnts qertis
Present action
Kmm ikomos wrgosjo, qorjostnei

sptmantjoisi wsomosi
We have a lot of work; are staying in the

office during the weekends
Kmm ikomos wrgosjo, tom-ke

qorjostnei sptmantjoisi wsomosi
We have a lot of work, and so we are

staying in the office during the weekends
Kmm ikomos wrgosjo, (enim) tori

qorjostnei sptmantjoisi wsomosi
We have a lot of work, (and) therefore we

are staying in the office during the weekends
Twn
tod ikomos wergom (wrgosjo),
jod qorjostnei sptmantjoisi
wsmosi PRES. IND. + PRES. SUB.
We have so much work that we are staying

in the office during the weekends
Twn
tod ikomos wergom (wrgosjo)
ute qorjostnej sptmantjoisi westewei
We have so much work so as to stay in the

office during the weekends
Twn
tod ikomos wergom jotosqe
qorjostnej sptmantjoisi wsontes
We have so much work that we are staying

in the office during the weekends
Tm apo esmi dew, jod im n

ddorkom
I am so far that I havent seen him
PRES. EFF. + PERF. SUB.
Tm apo esmi dew, jod im n dr kjmi

PRES. EFF. + PRES. SUB.
Tm apo esmi dew, jod im n

dr ksm(i)
I am so far that I dont (cannot) see him

I am so far that I will not see him
PRES. EFF. + FUT. SUB.
220
Bhewsonts qertis
Future action
Douknom stn tjeti, per modnom

oighejm (oighes)
The train is delayed, I will miss the meeting
Douknom stn tjeti, tom-ke per

modnom oighejm (oighes)
The train is delayed, and so I will miss the

meeting
Douknom stn tjeti, (enim) tori per

modnom oighejm (oighes)
The train is delayed, (and) therefore I will

miss the meeting
Ita douknom stn tjeti, jod per modnom

oighejm PERF. IND. + PRES. SUB.
The train is so delayed, that I will miss the

meeting
Ita douknom stn tjeti, jota eg

modnom oighjesei ACT. FUT. INF.
*The train is delayed, so as to miss the

meeting
Ita douknom stn tjeti, jota per mojo

modnom oighjesdhji PASS. FUT. INF.
*The train is delayed, so as the meeting to

be missed by me
(Tm) douknom stn tjeti, jotosqe per

mojo modnom oighsont ABS. INSTR.+
The train is (so) delayed, being myself

missing the meeting
D.OBJ.
Ita douknom stn tjet, jod per modnom

oighesonts bhst PRES. PROT. + AOR.
PREC. COMP.
Tm apo bhews dew, jod im n

dr ksmi
The train was delayed, so that he would

miss the meeting
I will be so far that I wont see him
FUT. IND. + FUT. SUB.
221
Protistoupowdos
The expression of concession
smdhtla
eti, eti s(w)ei, eti an, epi, qita, n,
qidimmqe, qmqm
Dhtijos protistoupos
Factual concession
Bhl qertis
Past accion
Bhloukjom roudhom bht, stoighom

tert AOR. IND. + AOR. IND.
The light was red; he crossed the street
Bhloukjom roudhom bht. N

stoighom tert (protiwrtnokomjougos)
The light was red; however he crossed the

street ( adversative coordination)
Eti sei bhloukjom roudhom bht,

stoighom tert
Even though the light was red, he crossed

the street
Eti (sei) bhloukj roudh sn t,

stoighom tert PART. PRES. + AOR. IND.
Even the light being red, he crossed the

street
Epi/eti bhloukj roudh, stoighom

tert
Even with the red light, he crossed the

street
nstnts qertis
Present action
Eti sei bhloukjom roudhom esti,

stoighom treti PRES. IND.+PRES. IND.
Even though the light is red, he is crossing

the street

stoighom treti PART. PRES.+ PRES. IND.
Even the light being red, he is crossing the

street
Wra wdonti, eti (sei) kaun
They tell the truth, even (if) shameful
Wra wdonti, eti kaun snta
They tell the truth, even being shameful
Wra wdonti, eti sei kaun sonti
They thell the truth, even if it is shameful
Bhewsonts qertis
Future action
Eti sei bhloukjom roudhom bhwseti,

stoighom trseti FUT. IND. +FUT. IND
Even though the light will be red, he will

cross the street

stoighom trseti PART. PRES. + FUT.
Even the light being red, he will cross the

street
IND.
222
Updhtijos protistoupos
Conditional concession
Eti sei bhloukjom roudhom bhst,

stoighom terst
Even if the light had been red, he would

have crossed the street

stoighom terst
PART. PRES. + AOR. PREC.
Eti sei bhloukjom roudhom bhewst,

stoighom terst
PRES. PREC. + PRES. PREC.

stoighom terst
PART. PRES. + PRES. PREC.
Eti sei bhloukjom roudhom bhewt,

stoighom tert
PRES. SUB. + PRES. SUB.

stoighom tert
Even the light being red, he would have

crossed the street
Even if the light were red, he would (now)
cross the street
Even the light being red, he would (now)
cross the street
Even if the light may be red, he would cross
the street
PART. PRES. + PRES. SUB.
Even the light being red, he would cross the

street
Eti sei prd prekst, w im n

mn bhsm
Even if he had apologized, I would not

have forgiven him
Eti (sei) proprekl, w im n

mn bhsm PART. AOR. + AOR. PREC.
Eti sei prd prekt, w im n mn jmi
AOR. SUB. + PRES. SUB.
Eti (sei) proprekl, w im n mn jmi

PART. AOR. + PRES. SUB.
Eti sei prd pr kst, w im n mnsm

PRES. PREC. + PRES. PREC.
Eti (sei) proprekl, w im n mnsm

PART. AOR. + PRES. PREC.
Eti sei prd prekoit, w im n mnjoim

AOR. OPT. + PRES. OPT.
Eti (sei) proprekl, w im n mnjoim

PART. AOR. + PRES. OPT.
Even having apologized, I would not have

forgiven him
Even if he apologizes, I will not forgive
him
Even having apologized, I will not forgive
him
Even if he would apologize, I would not
forgive him
Even having apologized, I would not
forgive him
Even if he may apologize, I would not
forgive him
Even having apologized, I wouldl not
forgive him
223
Skndsljos protistoupos
Scalar concession
Epi mneswos (esn ts), n bhughseti
However clever he may be, he wont

succeed
Mneswos esn ts, n bhughseti
Clever as he is/may be, he wont succeed
Qmqm ghlendhm PRES. SUB., n

kom n kj kod ddktum uponejr
No matter how much I study, I dont

succeed in learning this lesson
Dn suqlosjo skreibhmn, epi prjotnim

skrbhnm, iwesi n lgnijom
A scholars writing, though written

carefully, is always illegible
Wtnstijos protistoupos
Extensional concession
Qidimmqe gssto, ddi tewom

stergs
Whatever may have happened, I shall love

you for ever
Qidimmqe gistm, ddi tewom

stergs
*Whatever happened, I shall love you for

ever
Qidimmqe gsto AOR. SUB., ddi

tewom stergs
Whatever may happen, I shall love you for

ever
Qidimmqe geistwijom, ddi tewom

stergs
*Whatever to happen, I shall love you for

ever
Apgnujos protistoupos
Negative concession
Ita dht, (t) n tosmi proktor

(protiwrtnokomjougos)
Ita dht, pr ktim neu tosmi
He did so, (however) he had not been

asked for that (adversative coordination)
He did so, without having been asked for
that
Ita dht tosmi npr kns
*He did so unasked for that
Ambhimojs protistoupos
Alternative concession
Qita lchodtijom edqom pomos/

psmos AOR./ FUT SUB. stoutom newe,
prd oln-nos isomos
Whether we get/ get thereafter any

financial support or not, we will go ahead
with our project
lchodtijom edqom epls/ psontes

stoutom newe, prd oln-nos isomos
*Getting any financial support or not, we

will go ahead with our project
Strongwos protistoupos
Restrictive concession
Neqid nsttjei wdhn tos pitmd

prowent bhewtum mgheti eti sei
nsttis dhghomenmsm w krtt
Nothing that leads to revolt can be

definitively dangerous even if revolt may
distort the character of the people.
224
Koituwdos
The expression of manner
Pslkes dhr neut djejont
Fleas move by jumping
Pslkes dhr neuwn tes djejont
Fleas move jumping
Pslkes dhrt djejont
Fleas move with the jumping
Pslkes dhr djejont
Fleas move with the jump
Pslkes dhromoghtr/
dhrtimoghtr djejont
Fleas move by means of the jump/jumping
-t (-tw) demtis
-t (-tw) construction
Piskim ghost
kersrom
jekom
bhrghesi
By eating fish you keep your brain healthy

One learns by teaching
n neut didksker
Strteni mmnt, ati swijom ugeti
croughnos
On constantly remembering, ones grief

grows anew
Suswedhesregdhlns n dhighrst
wergopedom ghde
He got his post by transgressing rules of

ethics
Deiwom gnt sl wopkowidhchijos

bhweti; ollnoisu qntessu,
gntimrtjewidhchijos bhweti. Ismi
mest, tritjos esti sttus; kr peswileute ,
olardijaudhis, oinei wn sk kmpl n
By knowing God there is a falling off of all

fetters; when the sufferings are destroyed,
there is a cessation of birth and death. By
meditating on him, there is the third state;
on the dissolution of the body, universal
lordship; being alone, his desire is fulfilled
Apo n strept sodt
She went without making any noise
225
Atikpjodemtis
Participial construction
Piskim edn ts jekom bhrghesi kersrom
By eating fish you keep your brain healthy
n neunts didksker
The one who teaches learns
Strteni mmnskn tos, ati swijom

ugeti croughnos (perm)
On constantly remembering, ones grief

grows anew (absolute)
Strteni mmnskonts, ati swijom

augjeti croughnos
The one who constantly remembers, makes

ones grief grows anew
Suswedhesregdhlns ndhighr
dls
wergopedom ghde
He got his post by transgressing rules of

ethics
Piktamorignasweqtum
wedhmn koits (esti)
updtijos
Blessing the adorned girl is the traditional

way of marriage
morignm
wedhmn koits
Blessing the girl after adorning the girl is

the traditional way of marriage (absolute)
Morignasweqtum
pikusjs updtijos
(esti) (perm)
Apo n streponts sodt
She went without making any noise
Koliskmseqmenjos
Quasiconsecutive
Qqi ghostipotjei wrsotrom bht,

qesjo wornos qqosjo ghstipotjos
kr pjobhjom plakbhwt
For every guest there was an umbrella the

colour of which went with the colour eacb
guests shoes
Qqi ghostipotjei wrsotrom bht, ita

jod
qqoworsotrowornos
qqosjo
ghstipotjos kr pjobhjom plakbhwt
For every guest there was an umbrella so

that the colour of eacb umbrella went with
the colour eacb guests shoes
Qqi ghostipotjei wornoi kr pjobhjom

plakntm wrsotrom bht
For every guest there was an umbrella going

with eacb guests shoes in the colour
226
General pattern of tenses, moods and their

sequence
3.-Ambhtowos wistolos mdesom,

wr tjm esomqe kmseqmenos
Mood
Modal connotations
Indicative mood
Subjunctive mood
Optative mood
Precative mood
Imperative mood
Reality, universality or assertiveness

Capacity, eventuality or potentiality
Potentiality, wish or recommendation
Potentiality, intention or irreality
Order
Infinitives/ participles
-----
Indicative mood: Reality, universality or assertiveness

Aspect
Present effective
Present protelative
Temporal perspective
In simple sentence/ in
principal clause/ in
In rest of subordinate
clauses
temporal, causal or
consecutive subordinate*
Reproduction of an ongoing
action
Relatively
simultaneous action
Universal
Imperfective. action in
progress
Imperfective or
durative
Absolute: universal action

Aorist effective
Aorist protelative
Perfect
Future
Perfective.
Imperfective or
repetitive
Resultative,
consequent, stative
Imperfective and
perfective
Absolute: action vanished in

the past
Absolute: past action recalled
in the present (dramatic)
Relatively past action
Absolute: single action with a

duration in the past
(constantive)
Past action caming over to the Relatively resultative
present
action
Future singular or durative
Relatively future action
action
227
Chapter B3: General pattern of moods, tenses and their sequence
Subjunctive mood: Capacity, eventuality or potentiality

Aspect
In simple
sentence/ in
principal
clause/ in
causal clause*
Present
Imperfective.
In subordinate
In subordinate
clause
clause
(temporal, final,
(conditional and
consecutive, or
concessive type)
injunctive type)
Possible or
eventual
Future eventual
Aorist
Perfect
Future
Perfective.
Relative future
eventual
Relatively
simulataneous
transmitted action
Relatively past
transmitted action
Past potential
Relative
Resultative,
Resultative
Relatively resultative
Resultative
resultative
consequent,
potential/
transmitted action
potential/ eventual
potential/ eventual
stative
eventual
Imperfective Future potential/ Future potential/
Relative future
Relatively future
and perfective
eventual
eventual
potential/ eventual
transmitted action
Optative mood: Potentiality, wish or recommendation

Aspect
In simple
In subordinate In subordinate
sentence/ in
clause
clause
principal
(conditional
(temporal, final,
clause/ in
and concessive consecutive, or
causal clause*
type)
injunctive type)
Present
In subordinate
clause (reportative
type)
Imperfective.
Potential,
recommendative
or desiderative
Past potential,
recommendative
or desiderative
Imaginary
potential
Relative potential
In subordinate
clause (reportative
type)
Relatively
simultaneous
potential transmitted
action
Relatively past
action
Aorist
Perfective.
Perfect
Resultative,
consequent,
stative
Resultative potential,
recommendative or desiderative
Relative
resultative
potential
Relatively resultative
action
Future
Imperfective
and perfective
Future potential, recommendative

or desiderative
Relative future
potential
Relatively future
action
228
Aspect
Present
Imperfective.
Aorist
Perfective.
Perfect
Resultative,
consequent,
stative
Precative mood: Potentiality, intention or irreality

In subordinate clause
In subordinate clause
principal clause/ in causal,
(final, portative and
(conditional-concessive
temporal or consecutive
temporal type)
and injunctive type)
subordinate clause*
Intentional future of the
Relative intentional
Irreal present/ irreal future
present. Recommendative
future
proposal. Potential event.
Relative intentional
Irreal past
Irreal past
future of the past
Intentional future of the past
Relative irreal past
Intentional future of the past
Relative resultative
irreal
Resultative irreal
Resultative irreal
Imperative mood: Order or concession

Aspect
Present effective
Aorist effective
Perfect
Future
Action to be realised
Perfective.
Resultative,
consequent, stative
Imperfective and
perfective
principal clause
Present or future order
Presen, past or future order
Resultative order
Future or universal order
*In these subordinate constructions, the perfect in the subordinate clause has a correlation with the
principal clause and viceversa. This perfect may thus adopt past (pluperfect) o future (perfect
future) forms, either in principal or in subordinate clause, following rules of sequence of tenses.
229
Chapter B3: General pattern of moods, tenses and their sequence
Dikmona
Examples
Kmmi jod n swswdha
I get tired because I am not used to it
Kmm jod n swswdhm
I got tired because I was not used to it
Kms jod n sweswdhws bhews
I will get tired because I will not be used to

it
Tm kkoma jod n lubhjm
I am so tired that I am not liking it
Tm kkomm jod n lubhjm
I was so tired that I was not liking it
Tm kekmws bhews jod n

lubhsm
I will be so tired that I will not be liking it
Lloubha jod im gnwa
I have a liking for him because I know him
Lloubhm jod im gnwm
I had a liking for him because I knew him
Lelubhws bhews jod im gnws

bhews
I will have a liking for him because I will

know him
Pos lloubha qm im gnwa
I have a liking for him after having known

him
Pos lubhsm
qm im gnwm
I got a liking for him after having known

him
Pos lelubhws bhews qm im gnws

bhews
I will have a liking for him after having

known him
Pos leubhs qm im gnws bhews
I will get a liking for him after having

known him
Pri lloubha qm im gnwa
I have a liking for him before having

known him
Pos lloubhm qm im gnwm
I had a liking for him before having known

him
Pri lelubhws bhews qm im gnws

bhews
I will have a liking for him before having

known him
230
4.-Kmseqtis mdesom
Sequence of moods
iwoisu pttisu, ud modessptis

bhweti
In some particular cases, modal attraction

may take place:
Jom slis bhweti, dhghomm tepti

AOR. SUB (=Jom slis bhuweti,
dhghomm tepit/ tpst AOR. OPT)
When there is sun, may it warm the earth
Qota oinonts tn gjois jodhei mtr-two

sjt? (=jodhei mtr-two esti?)
How could you feel lonely where your

mother is?
231
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A Tentative Syntax of Modern Indo-European

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A Tentative Syntax of Modern Indo-European

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Fernando Lpez-Menchero Dez

pitj eurp iosjo kntij kmtagtis

A tentative syntax of Modern Indoeuropean

Version 1. March 2013

A Tentative Syntax of Modern Indoeuropean

Parts of the sentence

4.-Antinmona (prorok uporokqe)

Pronouns and determinants

A Tentative Syntax of Modern Indoeuropean

General outlook of tenses and moods

Chapter A1: The substantive and the cases

Form of the sentence

The simple sentence

The expression of finality

3.-Ambhtowos wistolos mdesom,

General pattern of moods, tenses and their

A Tentative Syntax of Modern Indoeuropean

Parts of the sentence

The substantive and the cases

Swesr mene mmj esti

Smaurs kideti dnus

The river goes down turbid

Maq kom wr st esti cen

The girl became a woman

Maq cen gent

The girl became a woman

Chapter A1: The substantive and the cases

Susanna, cmje kom-ke

Susana, come here

Oh distaff, friend of them who spin

Gheuse, Kaison, mrsomns twoi

Hail, Cesar, those who are going to die

Qote wlneswnt (=wlneswents)

Whither are you fleeing, full of wounds?

Wr paukreddhs (=pau kreddhnt

You, man of little faith (=little trusting man)

A Tentative Syntax of Modern Indoeuropean

I see some ships

Tewom adwsontm modnei chel

I want you present at the meeting

They appointed him chairman of the board

Ins n kputins werjont/nmnjont

They name(d) them the headless

I think you are a fool

Glkim tewom qeis

I consider you (to be) intelligent

Regm tewom dhs/ wortes

Ill make you a king

Apo kmtom stwt liteses metrm

The hotel was separated one hundred

We walked during two days

Of destination of the subject

They arrive to Paris

It went up to the sky

Of point of view relating a particle

Platnm qelnt ambh

They circulated around the square

Chapter A1: The substantive and the cases

Of kinship: Family relation

Gorlos, Marijs sns, twe koiljeti

Charles, the son of Mary says hello to you

Dghterm lubhj d mosjo-two

I am in love with your mates daughter

The fathers house