III.

CONTROLVOLUMERELATIONSFORFLUIDANALYSIS
Fromconsiderationofhydrostatics,wenowmovetoproblemsinvolvingfluidflow
withtheadditionofeffectsduetofluidmotion,e.g.inertiaandconvectivemass,
momentum,andenergyterms.
Wewillpresenttheanalysisbasedonacontrolvolume(notdifferentialelement)
formulation,e.g.similartothatusedinThermodynamicsfortheFirstLaw.

BasicConservationLaws:
Eachofthefollowingbasicconservationlawsispresentedinitsmostfundamental,
fixedmassform.Wewillsubsequentlydevelopanequivalentexpressionforeach
law that includes the effects of the flow of mass, momentum, and energy (as
appropriate)acrossacontrolvolumeboundary.Thesetransformedequationswill
bethebasisforthecontrolvolumeanalysesdevelopedinthischapter.
ConservationofMass:
Definingmasthemassofafixedmasssystem,themassforacontrolvolumeV
isgivenby:

m sys

dV

sys

Thebasicequationforconservationofmassisthenexpressedas:

dm
dt

0
sys

Thetimerateofchangeofmassfor
thecontrolvolumeiszerosinceat
thispointwearestillworkingwith
afixedmasssystem.

LinearMomentum:

III1

DefiningPsys asthelinearmomentumofafixedmass,thelinearmomentum
ofafixedmasscontrolvolumeisgivenby:

III2

Psys = mV = V dV
sys

where: V isthelocalfluidvelocityand dV isadifferentialvolumeelement

inthecontrolvolume.
Thebasiclinearmomentumequationisthenwrittenas:

dP
F dt

sys

d mV

dt

sys

MomentofMomentum:
Defining H asthemomentofmomentumforafixedmass,themomentof
momentumforafixedmasscontrolvolumeisgivenby:

H sys = r V dV
sys

where r is the moment arm from an inertial coordinate system to the

differentialcontrolvolumeofinterest.Thebasicequationisthenwrittenas:

dH
sys

Msys = r F dt
Energy:

Defining E sysasthetotalenergyofanelementoffixedmass,theenergyofa
fixedmasscontrolvolumeisgivenby:

E sys

e dV

sys

III3

whereeisthetotalenergyperunitmass(includeskinetic,potential,and
internalenergy)ofthedifferentialcontrolvolumeelementofinterest.
Thebasicequationisthenwrittenas:
W
d E
Q
d t

sys

(Note:writtenonaratebasis)

Itisagainnotedthateachoftheconservationrelationsaspreviouslywritten
applyonlytofixed,constantmasssystems.
However,sincemostfluidproblemsofimportanceareforopensystems,we
musttransformeachoftheserelationstoanequivalentexpressionforacontrol
volumewhichincludestheeffectofmassenteringand/orleavingthesystem.
ThisisaccomplishedwiththeReynoldsTransportTheorem.
ReynoldsTransportTheorem
Wedefineageneral,extensiveproperty(anextensivepropertydependsonthe
sizeorextentofthesystem), B sys,where:

B sys

dV

sys

Bsyscouldbetotalmass,totalenergy,totalmomentum,etc.ofasystem.
andB sysperunitmassisdefinedas or

dB
dm

Thus, isthereforetheintensiveequivalentofB sys

Applyingageneralcontrolvolumeformulationtothetimerateofchangeof
B sys,weobtainthefollowing(seetextfordetaileddevelopment):

III4

dB

dV + e e Ve dA e i i Vi dA i
dt sys t cv
Ae
Ai

Systemrate
ofchange
ofB

Rateof
changeof
Binc.v.

RateofB
leavingc.v.

RateofB
enteringc.v.

transientterm convectiveterms
where:Bisanyconservedquantity,e.g.mass,linearmomentum,momentof
momentum,orenergy.
Wewillnowapplythistheoremtoeachofthebasicconservationequationsto
developtheirequivalentopensystem,controlvolumeforms.
ConservationofMass
Forconservationofmass,wehavethat:
B=m

and

Fromthepreviousstatementofconservationofmassandthesedefinitions,
ReynoldsTransportTheorembecomes:

dm
dt

sys

dV + e Ve dAe i Vi dAi 0
t cv
Ae
Ai

or

dV + e Ve dAe i Vi dAi 0
t cv
Ae
Ai

Rateofchange
ofmassinc.v.,

Rateofmass
leavingc.v.,

Rateofmass
enteringc.v.,
III5

=0forsteadystate

e
m

i
m

III6

Thiscanbesimplifiedto
d m

d t

e m
i 0
m
cv

Notethattheexitandinletvelocities,Ve andVi,arethelocalcomponentsof
fluidvelocitiesattheexitandinletboundariesrelativetoanobserverstanding
on the boundary. Therefore, if the boundary is moving, the velocity is
measuredrelativetotheboundarymotion. Thelocationandorientationofa
coordinate system for the problem is not considered in determining these
velocities.
Also,theresultof Ve dAe and Vi dAi istheproductofthenormal
velocitycomponenttimestheflowareaattheexitorinlet,e.g.

Ve,n dA e

Vi,n dA i

and

SpecialCase:Forincompressibleflowwithauniformvelocityovertheflow
area,thepreviousintegralexpressionssimplifyto:
V d A AV
m

ConservationofMassExample
Wateratavelocityof7m/sexitsa
stationarynozzlewithD=4cmandis
directedtowardaturningvanewith=40,
assumesteadystate.
Determine:
a.Velocityandflowrateenteringthec.v.
b.Velocityandflowrateleavingthec.v.

III7


a.FindV1and m

Recallthatthemassflowvelocityisthenormalcomponentofvelocity
measuredrelativetotheinletorexitarea.
Thus,relativetothenozzle,V(nozzle)=7m/sandsincethereisnorelative
motionofpoint1relativetothenozzle,wealsohaveV1=7m/sans.
Fromthepreviousequation:
V d A AV =998kg/m3*7m/s**.042/4
m
1 =8.78kg/sans.
m

2
b.FindV2and m

Determinetheflowratefirst.
Sincetheflowissteadystateandnomassaccumulatesonthevane:
1 = m
m
2 , m 2 =8.78kg/s

ans
.

Now:

m 2 =8.78kg/s=AV)2

SinceandAareconstant,V2=7m/sans.
KeyPoint:Forsteadyflowofaconstantarea,incompressiblestream,the
flowvelocityandtotalmassflowarethesameattheinletandexit,even
thoughthedirectionchanges.
oralternatively:
FlexibleHoseConcept:Forsteadyflowofanincompressiblefluid,the
flowstreamcanbeconsideredasanincompressible,flexiblehoseandifit

III8

entersac.v.atavelocityofV,itexitsatavelocityofV,evenifitis
redirected.

III9

ProblemExtension:
Lettheturningvane(andc.v.)now
movetotherightatasteadyvelocityof
2m/s(othervaluesremainthesame),
performthesamecalculations.
Therefore:
Given:Uc=2m/sVJ=7m/s
Foranobserverstandingatthec.v.inlet(point1)
V1=VJUc=72=5m/s
1 =1V1A1=998kg/m3*5m/s**.042/4=6.271kg/s
m

Note:Theinletvelocityusedtospecifythemassflowrateisagainmeasured
relativetotheinletboundary,butnowisgivenbyVJUc.
Exit:
1 = m
m
2 =6.271kg/s,Again,sinceandAarecons.,V2=5m/s

Again,theexitflowismosteasilyspecifiedbyconservationofmass
concepts.
Note:Thecoordinatesystemcouldhavebeenplacedeitheronthemoving
cartorhavebeenleftoffthecartwithnochangeintheresults.
KeyPoint:Thelocationofthecoordinatesystemdoesnotaffectthe
calculationofmassflowratewhichiscalculatedrelativetothe
flowboundary.ItcouldhavebeenplacedatGeorgiaTech
withnochangeintheresults.
III10

Reviewmaterialandworkexamplesinthetextonconservationofmass.

III11

LinearMomentum
Forlinearmomentum,wehavethat:

B P = mV

=V

and

Fromthepreviousstatementoflinearmomentumandthesedefinitions,
ReynoldsTransportTheorembecomes:

d mV
dt

or
F

sys

V dV + V e Ve dAe V i Vi dAi
t cv
Ae
Ai

V dV
t cv

e
V d m

Ae

=theofthe
=therateof
externalforceschangeof
actingonthec.v. momentum
inthec.v.

=body+point+
distributed,e.g.
(pressure)forces

=0for
steadystate

i
V d m

Ai

=therateof
momentum
leavingthe
c.v.

=therateof
momentum
enteringthec.v.

andwhere V isthevectormomentumvelocityrelativetoaninertialreference
frame.
KeyPoint:Thus,themomentumvelocityhasmagnitudeanddirectionand
ismeasuredrelativetothereferenceframe(coordinatesystem)beingusedfor
i and m
e ,isascalar,as
theproblem.Thevelocityinthemassflowterms,m
notedpreviously,andismeasuredrelativetotheinletorexitboundary.
Alwaysclearlydefineacoordinatesystemanduseittospecifythevalueofall
inletandexitmomentumvelocitieswhenworkinglinearmomentumproblems.
III12

Forthe'x'direction,thepreviousequationbecomes:

Fx

Vx d V
t cv

e
Vx , e d m

Ae

i
Vx , i d m

Ai

Note that the above equation is also valid for control volumes moving at
constant velocity with the coordinate system placed on the moving control
volume. Thisisbecauseaninertialcoordinatesystemisanonaccelerating
coordinatesystemwhichisstillvalidforac.s.movingatconstantvelocity.
Example:
Awaterjet4cmindiameterwithavelocity
of7m/sisdirectedtoastationaryturning
vanewith=40.Determinetheforce,F,
necessarytoholdthevanestationary.

GoverningEquation:

Fx

Vx d V
t cv

Vx,e d m e

Ae

Vx,i d m i

Ai

Sincetheflowissteadyandthec.v.isstationary,thetimerateofchangeof
momentumwithinthec.v.iszero.Also,withuniformvelocityateachinletand
exitandaconstantflowrate,themomentumequationbecomes:
e Ve m
i Vi
Fb m

Notethatthebrakingforce,Fb,iswrittenasnegativesinceitisassumedtobe
inthenegativexdirectionrelativetopositivexfromthecoordinatesystem.

III13

Fromthepreviousexampleforconservationofmass,wecanagainwrite:

m V d A AV =998kg/m3*7m/s**.042/4
1 =8.78kg/sandV1=7m/s
m

andfortheexit:
2 =8.78kg/sandV2=7m/sinclined40abovethehoizontal
m

Substitutinginthemomentumequation,weobtain:
Fb=8.78kg/s*7m/s*cos408.78kg/s*7m/s
andFb=14.4kgm/s2orFb=14.4Nans.
Note: Sinceourfinalanswerispositive,ouroriginalassumptionoftheapplied
forcebeingtotheleftwascorrect.Hadweassumedthattheapplied
forcewastotheright,ouranswerwouldbenegative,meaningthatthe
directionoftheappliedforceisoppositeofwhatwasassumed.

ModifiedProblem:
Nowconsiderthesameproblembutwith
thecartmovingtotherightwithavelocity,
Uc,=2m/s.Againsolveforthevalueof
brakingforce,Fb,necessarytomaintaina
constantcartvelocityof2m/s.
Note:Thec.s.fortheproblemhasnow
beenplacedonthemovingcart.The
momentumvelocitieswillbeevaluated
relativetothiscoordinatesystemlocated
III14

onthemovingcart.

III15

Thetransientterminthemomentumequationisstillzero.Withthecoordinate
systemonthecart,themomentumofthecartrelativetothecoordinatesystemis
stillzero.Thefluidstreamisstillmovingrelativetothecoordinatesystem,
however,theflowissteadywithconstantvelocityandthetimerateofchangeof
momentumofthefluidstreamisthereforealsozero.Thus:
Themomentumequationhasthesameformasforthepreviousproblem
(however,thevalueofindividualtermswillbedifferent).

Fb m e Ve m i Vi
m 1 =1V1A1=998kg/m3*5m/s**.042/4=6.271kg/s= m 2
Nowdeterminethemomentumvelocityattheinletandexit.Withthec.s.on
themovingc.v.,thevaluesofmomentumvelocityare
V1=VJUc=72=5m/s

andV2=5m/sinclined40.

Themomentumequation(xdirection)nowbecomes:
Fb=6.271kg/s*5m/s*cos406.271kg/s*5m/s
andFb=7.34kgm/s2orFb=7.34Nans.
Question:Whatwouldhappentothebrakingforce,Fb,iftheturninganglehad
been>90,e.g.130?Canyouexplainbasedonyourunderstandingofchange
inmomentumforthefluidstream?
Reviewandworkexamplesforlinearmomentumwithfixedandnon
accelerating(movingatconstantvelocity)controlvolumes.
AcceleratingControlVolume

III16

Thepreviousformulationappliesonlytoinertialcoordinatesystems,i.e.fixed
ormovingatconstantvelocity(nonaccelerating).

III17

Wewillnowconsiderproblemswithacceleratingcontrolvolumes. Forthese
problemswewillagainplacethecoordinatesystemontheacceleratingcontrol
volumethusmakingitanoninertialcoordinatesystem.
For coordinate systems placed on an accelerating control volume, we must
accountfortheaccelerationofthec.s.bycorrectingthemomentumequationfor
thisacceleration.Thisisaccomplishedbyincludingthetermasshownbelow:
F

acv d mcv

cv

V d V
t cv

e
V d m

Ae

i
V d m

Ai

integralsumof
thelocalc.v.(c.s.)
accel.*thec.v.mass
Theaddedtermaccountsfortheaccelerationofthecontrolvolumeandallows
theproblemtobeworkedwiththecoordinatesystemplacedontheaccelerating
c.v.
Note:Thus,allvector(momentum)velocitiesarethenmeasuredrelativetoan
observer(coordinatesystem)ontheacceleratingcontrolvolume.Forexample,
thevelocityofarocketasseenbyanobserver(c.s.)standingontherocketis
zeroandthetimerateofchangeofmomentumiszerointhisreferenceframe
eveniftherocketisaccelerating.
AcceleratingControlVolumeExample
Aturningvanewith=60accelerates
fromrestduetoajetofwater
(VJ=35m/s,AJ=.003m2).Assuming
themassofthecart,mc,is75kgand
neglectingdragandfrictioneffects,find:
a.Cartaccelerationatt=0.
b.Ucf(t)
III18

III19

Startingwiththegeneralequationshownabove,wecanmakethefollowing
assumptions:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Fx=0,nofrictionorbodyforces.
Thejethasuniformvelocityandconstantproperties.
Theentirecartacceleratesuniformlyovertheentirecontrolvolume.
Neglecttherelativemomentumchangeofthejetstreamthatiswithinthe
controlvolume.
Withtheseassumptions,thegoverningequationsimplifiesto:
e U x,e - m
U
- ac mc =m
i x,i
Wethushavetermsthataccountfortheaccelerationofthecontrolvolume,for
theexitmomentum,andfortheinletmomentum(bothofwhichchangewith
time).
massflow:
Aswiththepreviousexampleforamovingcontrolvolume,themassflowterms
aregivenby:
m i m e m AJ(VJUc)

Notethatsincethecartaccelerates,Ucisnotaconstant,butratherchangeswith
time.
momentumvelocities:
Ux,i=VJUcUx,e=(VJUc)cos
Substituting,wenowobtain:
acmc=AJ(VJUc)2cosAJ(VJUc)
Solvingforthecartacceleration,weobtain:

III20

 AJ 1 cos VJ Uc
ac
mc

III21

Substitutingforthegivenvaluesatt=0,i.e.Uc=0,weobtain:

ac(t=0)=24.45m/s2=2.49gs
Note:Theaccelerationatanyothertimecanbeobtainedoncethecartvelocity,
Uc,atthattimeisknown.
Todeterminetheequationforcartvelocityasafunctionoftime,theequation
fortheaccelerationmustbewrittenintermsofUc(t)andintegrated.
dUc AJ 1 cos VJ Uc

dt
mc

Separatingvariables,weobtain:
Uc (t )

t
A J 1 cos
dUc
dt
2
mc
VJ U c 0

Completingtheintegrationandrearrangingtheterms,weobtainafinal
expressionoftheform:

Uc
V bt
= J
VJ 1+VJ b t

where

A J 1 cos
mc

Substitutingforknownvalues,weobtain:VJb=.699s1
Thus,thefinalequationforUcisgiveby:

Uc
0.699t
=
VJ 1+0.699t
III22

III23

Thefinalresultsarenowgivenasshownbelow:
t
(s)
0
2
5
10
15
?

Uc/VJ
0.0
.583
.757
.875
.912
1.0

Uc
(m/s)
0.0
20.0
27.2
30.6
31.9
35

ac
(m/s2)
24.45
4.49
1.22
0.39
.192
0.0

Uc vs t
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0

10

15

20

t(s)

Notethatthelimitingcaseoccurswhenthecartvelocityreachesthejetvelocity.
Atthispoint,thejetcanimpartnomoremomentumtothecart,theacceleration
isnowzero,andtheterminalvelocityhasbeenreached.
Reviewtextexampleonacceleratingcontrolvolumes.

MomentofMomentum(angularmomentum)

Formomentofmomentumwehavethat:
B H rxmV

and

rxV

Fromthepreviousequationformomentofmomentumandthesedefinitions,
ReynoldsTransportTheorembecomes:

III24

r xV d V
t cv

=theofall
external
moments
acting
onthec.v.

e
r xV d m

Ae

=therateof
changeofmom
entofmomentum
inthec.v.=0
forsteadystate

i
r xV d m

Ai

=therateof
momentof
momentum
leaving
thec.v.

=therateof
momentof
momentum
entering
thec.v.

Forthespecialcaseofsteadystate,steadyflowanduniformpropertiesatany
exitorinlet,theequationbecomes:
M m e r x V e m i r xVi

Formomentofmomentumproblems,wemustbecarefultocorrectlyevaluate
themomentofallappliedforcesandallinletandexitmomentumflows,with
particularattentiontothesigns.
MomentofMomentumExample:
Asmalllawnsprinkleroperatesas
indicated.Theinletflowrateis9.98
kg/minwithaninletpressureof30
kPa.Thetwoexitjetsdirectflowat
anangleof40abovethehorizontal.
Fortheseconditions,determinethe
following:
a.jetvelocityrelativetothenozzle

160mm

D=5mm
J

b.torquerequiretoholdthearm
stationary
c.frictiontorqueifthearmis
rotatingat35rpm
d.maximumrotationalspeedifwe
neglectfriction.
III25

R=160mm,DJ=5mm,Therefore,foreachofthetwojets:
QJ=0.5*9.98kg/min/998kg/m3=.005m3/min
AJ=.00252=1.963*105m2
VJ=.005m3/min/1.963*105m2/60sec/min
VJ=4.24m/srelativetothenozzleexitans.
b.torquerequiredtoholdthearmstationary
Firstdevelopthegoverningequationsandanalysisforthegeneralcaseofthearm
rotating.

Vcos
J

Withthecoordinatesystematthe
centerofrotationofthearm,a
generalvelocitydiagramforthecase
whenthearmisrotatingisshownin
theadjacentschematic.

R
+

Takingthemomentaboutthecenterofrotation,themomentoftheinletflowis
zerosincethemomentarmiszerofortheinletflow.
Thebasicequationthenbecomes:
To 2 m e RVJ cos R

Notethatthenetmomentumvelocityisthedifferencebetweenthetangential
componentofthejetexitvelocityandtherotationalspeedofthearm.Alsonote
thatthedirectionofpositivemomentswastakenasthesameasforVJand
oppositeofthedirectionofrotation.
Forastationaryarm:R=0.Wethusobtainforthestationarytorque:
III26

To=2QJRVJcos
kg
m 3 1min
m
To 2 * 998 3 .005
.16m * 4.24 cos 40 o
m
min 60sec
s
To=0.0864Nmclockwise.

ans.

Aresistingtorqueof.0864Nmmustbeappliedintheclockwisedirectionto
keepthearmfromrotatinginthecounterclockwisedirection.
c.At=30rpm,calculatethefrictiontorque,Tf

30

rev
rad 1min
rad
2

min
rev 60sec
sec

kg
m 3 1min
m
rad
To 2 * 998 3 .005
.16m 4.24 cos 40o .16m *
m
min 60sec
s
sec

To .0685 Nm

ans.

Note:Theresistingtorquedecreasesasthespeedincreases.
d.Findthemaximumrotationalspeed.
Themaximumrotationalspeedoccurswhentheopposingtorqueiszeroandall
themomentofmomentumgoestotheangularrotation.Forthiscase,
VJcosR=0

VJ cos
4.24m / s cos 40
rad

20.3
193.8 rpm
R
.16 m
sec

Reviewmaterialandexamplesonmomentofmomentum.

III27

ans.

EnergyEquation(ExtendedBernoulliEquation)
Forenergy,wehavethat

B E = e dV

and

e u

cv

1 2
V gz
2

Fromthepreviousstatementofconservationofenergyandthesedefinitions,
ReynoldsTransportTheorembecomes
W
d E
Q
d t

sys

e d V ee eVe d Ae ei i Vi d Ai
t cv
cv
cv

Afterextensivealgebraandsimplification(seetextfordetaileddevelopment),
weobtain

P1 P2
g

Press.drop
from12,
intheflow
direction

V22 V12
2g

Press.drop
dueto
acceleration
ofthefluid

z 2 z1

Press.drop
dueto
elevation
change

h f,12

hs

Press.drop
dueto
frictional
headloss

Press.drop
dueto
mechanical
workbyfluid

Note:thisformulationmustbewrittenintheflowdirectionfrom12tobe
consistentwiththesignofthemechanicalworktermandsothathf,12isalwaysa
positiveterm.Alsonotethefollowing:

Thepoints1and2mustbespecificpointsalongtheflowpath,
Eachtermhasunitsoflineardimension,e.g.ft.ormetersandz2z1is
positiveforz2abovez1.

III28

Thetermhf,12isalwayspositivewhenwrittenintheflowdirectionand
forinternal,pipeflowincludespipeorductfrictionlossesandfittingor
pipingcomponent(valves,elbows,etc.)losses.

Thetermhsisnegativeforpumpsandfans,hp(i.e.pumpsincreasethe
pressureintheflowdirection)andpositiveforturbines,+ht(turbines
decreasethepressureintheflowdirection).

Forpumps:

hp

ws
g

Where:ws=theusefulworkperunitmasstothefluid

Therefore:

ws = g hp

Where:

f
W

and:

W p

ws
W f m

and

Q g hp

=theusefulpowerdeliveredtothefluid

W f

and

p isthepumpefficiency

Waterflowsat30ft/sthrougha1000
ftlengthof2in.diameterpipe.The
inletpressureis250psigandtheexit
is100fthigherthantheinlet.
Assumingthatthefrictionallossis
givenby18V2/2g:
Determinetheexitpressure.

100ft
1
250psig

Given:V1=V2=30ft/s,L=1000ft,Z2Z1=100ft,P1=250psig

III29

Also,sincethereisnomechanicalworkintheprocess,theenergyequation
simplifiesto:

III30

P1 P2
Z2 Z1
g

hf

P1 P2
30 2 ft 2 / s 2
100 ft 18
g
64.4 ft / s 2

351.8 ft

P1P2=62.4lbf/ft3351.8ft=21,949psf=152.4psi
P2=250152.4=97.6psigans.
ProblemExtension
Apumpdrivenbyanelectricmotorisnowaddedtothesystem.Themotor
delivers10.5hp.Theflowrateandinletpressureremainconstantandthepump
efficiencyis71.4%,determinethenewexitpressure.
Q=AV=(1/12)2ft2*30ft/s=0.6545ft3/s
Wf=pWp=Qghp
hp

.714 *10.5hp * 550 ft lbf / s / hp

62.4lbm / ft 3 * .6545 ft 3 / s

101 ft

Thepumpaddsaheadincreaseequalto101fttothesystemandtheexitpressure
shouldincrease.
Substitutingintheenergyequation,weobtain:
P1 P2
30 2 ft 2 / s 2
100 ft 18
g
64.4 ft / s 2

101 ft 250.8 ft

P1P2=62.4lbf/ft3250.8ft=15650psf=108.7psi
P2=250108.7=141.3psigans.
III31

Reviewexamplesfortheuseoftheenergyequation

III32

KineticEnergyCorrectionFactor
Uptothispoint,thevelocityusedinthekineticenergytermoftheenergyequation
hasbeenthemassaveragevelocityobtainedfromthedefinitionofflowrate,
AV
m

However,sinceVvariesovertheflowareaandthekineticenergytermvarieswith
thesquareofthevelocity,usingthisdefinitionofVmaynotresultinanaccurate
evaluationofthekineticenergytermfortheflow.
Thisproblemcanbecorrectedthroughtheuseofthekineticenergycorrection
factor,,definedforincompressibleflowfrom

1
1
u 3d A Vav3 A
2
2
3

Solvingforweobtain

1 u
=
d A
A Vav

Forfullydevelopedlaminarflow,=2andforturbulentpipeflow,avaluefrom
1.04to1.11.Usingthekineticenergycorrectionfactor,theenergyequation
becomes

P1 P2
g

V22 V12
2g

z 2 z1

h f,12

hs

Whilesubsequentanalysesandexamplesinthesenoteswillcontinuetousethe
energyequationomittingthekineticenergycorrectionfactor(=1),studentsare
remindedtousedthistermwhereappropriateforpipeflowanalyses.

III33

TheBernoulliEquation
TheBernoulliequationisanequationthatiscloselyrelatedtotheenergyequation
andisusefulintheanalysisofmanyflows.Themostcommonapplicationisfor
steady,incompressible,frictionlessflowbetweentwopointsalongastreamline.
Fortheseconditions,Bernoullisequationbecomes
P1 V12
P2 V22

g z1

g z 2 const

2
wheretheconstantisthesamealongaspecifiedstreamline.Differentstreamlines
mayhavedifferentBernoulliconstants.Bernoullisequationcanalsobewrittenas
P2 P1 V22 V12

gz 2 z 1 0

2
StudentsmustbecarefulnottomisuseBernoullisequation.Inparticular,donot
usetheBernoulliequationforflowswithanyorallofthefollowing:
1. frictionbetweenpoints1and2
2. shaftworkbetweenpoints1and2
3. heattransferbetweenpoints1and2
4. significantcompressibilityeffectsbetween1and2
HydraulicandEnergyGradeLines
Hydraulicandenergygradelinesarelinesthatprovideaveryhelpfulvisual
representationofwhatishappeningtokeyflowandenergyequationparameters
betweenpointsintheflow.Theyaredefinedasfollows:
energygradeline(EGL)alinethatshowsthevariationoftheheightofthetotal
Bernoulliconstant,
P
V
ho
2 z
g 2g

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TheEGLhasaconstantheightforsteady,frictionless,incompressibleflowwithno
heattransferorshaftwork.

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Forgeneralflows,theEGLwilldecreaseslowlyinthedirectionofflowdueto
friction,increaseacrossapumpanddecreaseacrossaturbineduetoshaftwork.
hydraulicgradeline(HGL)alinethatshowsthevariationsintheheightofthe
elevationandpressurehead,z+P/ortheEGLminusthevelocityhead.
Fig.3.17shownbelowshowshydraulicandenergygradelinesforfrictionlessflow
inavariableareaduct.NotethatwhiletheEGLremainsconstantintheabsenceof
friction,shaftworkorheattransfer,theHGLincreasesinvelocityheadintheflow
direction.

Fig.3.17Hydraulicandenergygradelinesfor
frictionlessflowinaduct

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