Chapter 1: Temperature

Measurement

Process Control & Instrumentation

by Moaz Waqar

Temperature: Temperature is a measure of the thermal energy in a body, which

is the relative hotness or coldness of a medium and is normally measured in degrees
using one of the following scales; Fahrenheit (F), Celsius or Centigrade (C), Rankine
(R), or Kelvin (K).

Heat: Heat is a form of energy; as energy is supplied to a system the vibration

amplitude of its molecules and its temperature increases. The temperature increase
is directly proportional to the heat energy in the system.

Specific heat: Specific heat is the quantity of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of a given weight of a material by 1.

Thermal Conductivity:

Thermal conductivity is the flow or transfer of heat

from a high temperature region to a low temperature region.

Chapter 1: Temperature
Measurement

Process Control & Instrumentation

by Moaz Waqar

Temperature Measuring devices:

There are several methods of measuring temperature that can
be categorized as follows:
1. Expansion of a material to give visual indication, pressure, or
dimensional change
2. Electrical resistance change
3. Semiconductor characteristic change
4. Voltage generated by dissimilar metals
5. Radiated energy

Q 1: What temperature in Kelvin corresponds to 115F?

Q 2: What is the heat required to raise the temperature of a 1.5 kg
mass 120C if the specific heat of the mass is 0.37 cal/gC?
Q 3: A furnace wall 12 ft2 in area and 6-in thick has a thermal
conductivity of 0.14 BTU/h ft F. What is the heat loss if the furnace
temperature is 1100F and the outside of the wall is 102F?
Q 4: How much heat is transferred from a 25 ft 24 ft surface by
convection if the temperature difference between the front and
back surfaces is 40F and the surface has a heat transfer rate of 0.22
BTU/h ft2F?

Q 5: The radiation constant for a furnace is 0.23 108 BTU/h ft2F4,

the radiating surface area is 25 ft2. If the radiating surface
temperature is 750F and the room temperature is 75F, how much
heat is radiated?

Q 6: Calculate the length and volume for a 200 cm on a side copper

cube at 20C, if the temperature is increased to 150C.

Chapter 1: Temperature
Measurement

Process Control & Instrumentation

by Moaz Waqar

Temperature Measuring devices:

There are several methods of measuring temperature that can
be categorized as follows:
1. Expansion of a material to give visual indication, pressure, or
dimensional change
2. Electrical resistance change
3. Semiconductor characteristic change
4. Voltage generated by dissimilar metals
5. Radiated energy

Chapter 1: Temperature
Measurement

Process Control & Instrumentation

by Moaz Waqar

1. Liquid Expansion Thermometers

i)

Mercury in Glass

Principle: Mercury expands linearly with temperature

Construction: The device consisted of a small bore graduated glass tube
with a small bulb containing a reservoir of mercury.
Working: As temperature increases, mercury expands and the level of
mercury indicates the temperature.
Range: The operating range of the mercury thermometer is from 30 to
800F (35 to 450C).
Advantages: Relatively low cost, highly accurate method, linear.
Disadvantages: Toxicity of mercury, ease of breakage, high response time,
non-digital output.

ii) Liquid in glass:

Range: -300 to 600F (170 to 330C).

Chapter 1: Temperature
Measurement

Process Control & Instrumentation

by Moaz Waqar

2. Bimetallic Strips
Principle: metals are pliable and different metals have different coefficients
of expansion
Construction: Bimetallic strips are usually configured as a spiral or helix for
compactness and can then be used with a pointer and a scale. Its one end is
fixed and other end is free to move.
Working: As temperature increases, spiral tries to open itself up and the
free end moves the pointer to indicate the temperature
Range: 180 to 430C
Advantages: Relatively low cost, highly rugged
Disadvantages: Relatively inaccurate, slow to respond, hysteresis, nondigital output.

Chapter 1: Temperature
Measurement

Process Control & Instrumentation

by Moaz Waqar

3. Pressure-Spring Thermometers
Principle: Fluid expands with increasing temperature and exerts pressure if
constricted
Construction: It has a metal bulb made with a low coefficient of expansion
material with a long metal tube, both contain material with a high
coefficient of expansion; the bulb is at the monitoring point. The metal tube
is terminated with a spiral Bourdon tube pressure gage (scale in degrees).
Working: As the temperature in the bulb increases, the pressure in the
system rises, the pressure rise being proportional to the temperature
change. The change in pressure is sensed by the Bourdon tube and
converted to a temperature scale
Advantages: Relatively low cost, highly rugged, low maintenance cost,
remote indication
Disadvantages: slow to respond, non-digital output

Chapter 1: Temperature
Measurement
3. Pressure-Spring Thermometers
i) Liquid Filled
Range: 130 to 315 oC
Iii) Gas filled
Range: 270 to 760 oC

Process Control & Instrumentation

by Moaz Waqar

Chapter 1: Temperature
Measurement

Process Control & Instrumentation

by Moaz Waqar

4. Resistance Temperature Devices

Principle: The electrical resistance of pure metals is positive, increasing
linearly with temperature
Construction: Resistance temperature devices (RTD) are wire-wound
resistors.
Working: In a resistance thermometer the variation of resistance with
temperature is given by RT2 = RT1 (1 + Coeff. [T2 T1])
where RT2 is the resistance at temperature T2 and RT1 is the resistance at
temperature T1
Range: 170 to 780C for platinum, -180 to 300 oC for nickel
Sensitivity: 0.004/oC for platinum. 0.005/oC
Response Time: 0.5 to 5 seconds
Advantages: Relatively low cost, highly rugged, low maintenance cost, linear
Disadvantages: slow to respond, relatively low sensitivity

Chapter 1: Temperature
Measurement

Process Control & Instrumentation

by Moaz Waqar

5. Thermistors
Principle: The electrical resistance of semiconductors decrease with
increase in temperature.
Construction: Thermistors are a class of metal oxide (semiconductor
material). They can be formed as discs, beads, rods and discs.
Range: -50 to 300 oC
Sensitivity: 0.1/oC
Response Time: 0.5 to 5 seconds
Advantages: Low cost, highly rugged, low maintenance cost, avaialble in
different size, shapes and values, quite high sensitivity
Disadvantages: slow to respond, non-linear

Chapter 1: Temperature
Measurement

Process Control & Instrumentation

by Moaz Waqar

5. Themocouples
Principle: An emf is produced proportional to the temperature.
Construction: Two wires of different metals/alloys are joined/twisted
together at one end, whereas other two ends of wires are used to measure
the emf/voltage.
Working: Seebeck Effect is responsible for the generation of emf.
= (T2-T1) = Emf produced = Seebeck Constant (V/K) T2,T1 = junction
temperatures in K. emf produced can be then calibrated for temperature
output using standard devices.
Response Time: 10 ms 20s
Advantages: Highly accurate, higher temperatures can be measured, linear
Limitations: Compensation is required, wire resistance, decalibration,
thermal shunting.

Type

Temperature Range

Seebeck Coefficient

(oC)

(mV/K)

-270 to 1260

0.04

Nickel Chromium / Nickel

Alumel
Iron - Constantan

-210 to 1200

0.051

Chromel - Constantan

-270 to 1000

0.06

Copper - Constantan

-270 to 400

0.04

Nichrosil - Nisil

-270 to 1300

0.038

Pt (10% Rh) Pt

-50 to 1760

0.011

Pt (30% Rh) Pt (6% Rh)

0 to 1700

0.008

Pt (13% Rh) - Pt

-50 to 1760

0.012

Composition

Properties

Inexpensive, accurate and

reliable
Inexpensive, low life at
high temperatures
Strong signal, higher
accuracy
Stable at low
temeratures, used in
ultra-low temperature
freezers
Same as K type
Stable at high
temperature, accurate
Used for very high
temperature
measurements
Expensive, stable at high
as well as low
temperatures

Chapter 1: Temperature
Measurement

Process Control & Instrumentation

by Moaz Waqar

5. Themocouples
Seebeck effect:
As mentioned earlier, this effect describes that when two junctions Jh and JC
of two different conductors are placed at higher and lower temperatures
T2 ( ) and T1 ( ) respectively, electromotive force is generated in the
loop, consequently a current (conventional) is generated from cold
junction to hot junction.
Peltier Effect:
This effect describes that when a current is passed through two junctions Jh
and JC of two different conductors, heat is generated at Jh and heat is
absorbed at JC. It is actually a reverse state of Seebeck effect.
Thomson Effect (Lord Kelvin effect):
This effect describes that a current carrying conductor having a temperature
gradient or a temperature change at two different points either gives out
heat or absorbs heat which depends on the type of material.

Chapter 1: Temperature
Measurement

Process Control & Instrumentation

by Moaz Waqar

5. Themocouples
Law of intermediate metals:
If a third wire is inserted in to the junction which has a homogenous
temperature along its length, then it does not pose any difference on the
emf produced i.e. the results remain unaltered by the insertion of this new
wire.
Law of homogeneous metals:
If a thermocouple consists of junctions made up of conductor of one
material only, there would be no emf produced no matter how large is the
temperature difference between the junctions. It also describes that there
would be no emf produced if the temperature at the two junction is same
even if the junctions are made up of two different type of conductors.
Law of intermediate temperature:
A thermocouple A with one junction at T1 and other at T2 gives an emf E1,
and another thermocouple with one junction at T2 and other at T3 gives a
value E2. This law states that if a thermocouple with one junction at T1 and
other at T3 gives emf E3 which would always be equal to E1 + E2.

Chapter 1: Temperature
Measurement

Process Control & Instrumentation

by Moaz Waqar

6. Pyrometers
Principle: All bodies above 0 K emit radiation
Construction:
Range: 650 to 1800C
Advantages: Temperature can be measured from a distance, no upper limit
Disadvantages: Not suitable for low temperatures, cannot be used in the
presence of light absorbing or scattering medium.

Chapter 1: Temperature
Measurement
6. Pyrometers
Total Radiation Pyrometer
Radiation from the target falls on
the concave mirror, which can be
moved back and forth to focus
radiation on the radiation receiver.
Thermocouple is attached to the
receiver, emf is calibrated to a
temperature scale
-Use of concave mirror
-non-linear, not suitable for lower
than 650 C.

Process Control & Instrumentation

by Moaz Waqar

Chapter 1: Temperature
Measurement
6. Pyrometers
Selective Radiation Pyrometer
Disappearing
filament
optical
pyrometer utilizes the photometric
principle of comparison of the
intensity of incoming radiation at a
particular wave band of that of a
lamp. An image of the target is
superimposed on a heating
tungsten filament. Brightness of
lamp is calibrated to corresponding
temperature.
-Not lower than 650 C.
-More accurate
-Red filter

Process Control & Instrumentation

by Moaz Waqar