FAILURE ANALYSIS
Mechanical Properties of
Materials
The minimum force (load ) at which a permanent dimensional changes will
result in the material used,
The maximum force (load) the material can withstand without breaking,
How flexible or rigid the selected material is? How resistant the material is
against impacts or sudden /rapid loading?
How easily the material can be stretched, bent or generally shaped by
applying external forces (loads)?
How hard the material is?
How strong the material would be , if the nature of loading or working
temperature is varied?
1
Fig. 1
Deformation of Materials
Elastic Deformation
The dimensional or shape changes in a material disappear if
the applied external force is removed.
F
Plastic Deformation
In this case the applied external force brings about a
permanent dimensional change in the material and the
material will not regain its initial dimensions even if the force
is removed.
F
F
original
Fig. 2
37
Fig 3
Plastic Deformation (Atomic Scale)
F
F
F
Fig 4
Tensile Test
grip / jaw
test
piece
F
gauge length(L0)
CYLINDRICAL
Cross Section
diameter
or
RECTANGULAR
Cross Section
thickness
width
Fig 5
38
Load-Extension graph
D
UTF
a
d
(N)
Extension (mm)
Fig. 6
TS
L f L o L
Lo
Lo
D
F
S
T
C
E
S
(MPa)
Strain
Fig. 7
F
Ao
Eq. 1
L f L o L
Lo
Lo
= Strain
= Stress
Eq. 2
The unit used to express stress is called Pascal (Pa) which is a force of
1 N applied over an area of 1 m2 (Pa = N/m2). 1 MPa= 106 Pa, 1 GPa=109
Pa, 1GPa=103 MPa
Eq. 3
8
Fig. 8
39
Material
Yield Strength(MPa)
Youngs Modulus(GPa)
Aluminum Alloys
35-600
60-80
Copper Alloys
70-1000
100-110
Steels
200-1700
110-115
Tungsten Alloys
900-1800
300-450
Nylon
40-120
2-3.5
PVC
30-40
1.5-2.5
Epoxies
25-80
1-6
Alumina
2000-5000*
200-350
SiC
5000-9000*
400-500
Diamond
>9000*
900-1000
* compressive strength (data extracted from the book by M.F.Ashby, materials selection in mechanical
design,pergamon press,1992.)
Fig. 9
(Figs. 1-9: R. Ghomashchi, 1999)
40
nd
Fig. 10: Stress-Strain graph for Brass and Materials with and without a distinct yield point (Callister Book)
(CallisterBook)
Eq. 5
=ln
Eq. 6
) (Eq. 7)
the True stress-Strain Curve, =
42
Fig.13: Engineering stress-strain behaviour for iron at three temperatures (Callister book)
Fig 14: The effect of temperature on the modulus of elasticity for various materials. (Kalpakjian book)
(Eq. 8)
(Eq.9)
(Eq. 10)
m = strain rate sensitivity exponent
10
44
Compression
Forging, rolling, extrusion compression loading (ho and h are initial
and instantaneous height of work piece)
(Eq. 11)
(Eq. 12)
In plane strain compression test (used to simulate rolling) the width
remains constant and the yield strength in plane strain (`y) is;
1.15
(Eq. 13)
45
(Eq. 15)
(Eq. 16)
46
(Eq. 17)
= distance of the specimen surface to its neutral axis
M and I = bending and inertia moments of the cross-section respectively.
The value of () is half of the thickness for symmetrical specimens such as rectangular or
cylindrical geometry.
The equation may be employed for both three and four point bend tests. (M) and (I) vary for
either test.
For three point bend test; (W= width and t = thickness of sample)
1- Rectangular test piece
Eq. 18
2- Cylindrical test piece
Eq. 19
47
(Eq. 22)
48
49
Impact test
To study the toughness (KJ/m2) of materials and determine the nature of failure (ductile or
brittle) at the working temperature. Also to measure the Ductile-To-Brittle Transition
Temperature DBTT.
1- Charpy (metric standard)
PointofImpact
www.twi.co.uk/content/jk71.html
Pointof
Impact
50
(Callister Book)
51
52