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UNIT I
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SIGNAL
Signal
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SIGNAL
even
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Fourier Series
The Fourier series represents a periodic signal in terms of
frequency components:
p 1
ik0n
x(n) = Xk e
k =0
ik0 t
x( t ) = Xk e
k =
Xk =
1 p 1
p n=0
x ( n )e ik 0n
1p
X k = x ( t )e ik 0 t dt
p0
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Fourier series
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UNIT II
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Fourier Transform
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H ( f ) = h (t )e 2ift dt
h (t ) = H ( f )e 2ift df
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p0
p p / 2
to aperiodic signals as well. The continuous-time Fourier
series is not defined for aperiodic signals, but we call the
formula
t
X() = x( t )e
dt
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Inverse Transforms
If we have the full sequence of Fourier coefficients for a periodic
signal, we can reconstruct it by multiplying the complex
sinusoids of frequency 0k by the weights Xk and summing:
p 1
ik0n
x(n) = Xk e
x( t ) = Xk eik0 t
k =
k =0
1
i
n
x(n) =
X()e
d
1
i
t
x( t ) =
X()e d
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X() =
it
it
i0
x
(
t
)
e
dt
=
(
t
)
e
dt
=
e
=1
X( ) = x(n)e
n =
in
= (n)e
in
=e
i0
=1
n =
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Laplace Transform
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Laplace Transform
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system
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Time Invariant
Linearity/Superposition:
If a system has an input that can be
expressed as a sum of signals, then the
response of the system can be expressed as
a sum of the individual responses to the
respective systems.
LTI
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Time-Invariance &Causality
If
X(n-k)
y(n-k)
Causality
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Convolution
The
Y(t)=x(t)*h(t)
Y[n]=x[n]*h[n]
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UNIT III
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Sampling theory
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Sampling theory
For
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Sampling theory
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Aliasing
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Z-transforms
discrete-time systems, z-transforms play
the same role of Laplace transforms do in
continuous-time systems
For
H [ z] =
n =
h[n ] z n
h[n] =
2 j R
H [ z ] z n +1dz
As
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Region of Convergence
Region
of the complex
z-plane for which
forward z-transform
converges Im{z}
Entire
plane
possibilities (z=0
is a special case and
may or may not be
Im{z}
included)
Four
Disk
Re{z}
Re{z}
Im{z}
Complement
of a disk
Im{z}
Re{z}
Intersection
of a disk and
complement
of a disk
Re{z}
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Z-transform Pairs
h[n]
= [n]
0
[n] z = [n] z = 1
Region of convergence:
entire z-plane
n
H [ z] =
n =
n =0
h[n] = [n-n1]1
H [ z ] = [n 1] z = [n 1] z n = z 1
n =
= an u[n]
h[n]
H [ z] =
a u[n] z
n
n =
a
= a n z n =
n =0
n =0 z
1
a
=
if
<1
a
z
1
z
n =1
Region of convergence:
entire z-plane
h[n-1] z-1 H[z]
Region of
convergence: |z|
> |a| which is
the complement
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of a disk
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Stability
Rule
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Inverse z-transform
c + j
1
f [n] =
F [z ]z n 1dz
2j c j
Yuk!
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Example
Ratio
z 2 + 2z +1
X [ z] =
3
1
z2 z +
2
2
1 + 2 z 1 + z 2
X [ z] =
3
1
1 z 1 + z 2
2
2
1 + 2 z 1 + z 2
X [ z] =
1 1
1
1 z 1 z
2
X [ z ] = B0 +
A1
A2
+
1 1 1 z 1
1 z
2
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Example (cont)
2
1 2 3 1
z z + 1 z 2 + 2 z 1 + 1
2
2
z 2 3z 1 + 2
Find
B0 by
polynomial division
5 z 1 1
1 + 5 z 1
X [ z] = 2 +
1 1
1
1 z 1 z
2
1 + 2 z 1 + z 2
A1 =
1 z 1
1 + 2 z 1 + z 2
A2 =
1
1 z 1
2
=
z 1 = 2
in terms of
B0
1+ 4 + 4
= 9
1 2
Solve
=
z 1 =1
Express
1+ 2 +1
=8
1
2
for A1 and A2
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Example (cont)
Express
Use
9
8
+
1 1 1 z 1
1 z
2
1
x[n] = 2 [n] 9 u[n] + 8 u[n]
2
With
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Z-transform Properties
Linearity
a1 f1 [n] + a2 f 2 [n] a1 F1 [z ] + a2 F2 [z ]
Right
shift (delay)
f [n m] u[n m] z m F [z ]
m
f [n m] u[n ] z F [z ] + z f [ n]z n
n =1
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Z-transform Properties
Convolution definition
Take z-transform
Z-transform definition
Interchange summation
Substitute r = n - m
Z-transform definition
f1 [n] f 2 [n] =
f [m] f [n m]
1
m =
= f1 [m] f 2 [n m] z n
n = m =
f [m] f [n m]z
1
m =
m =
n =
f1 [m] f 2 [r ]z (r + m )
r =
m
= f1 [m]z f 2 [r ]z r
m=
r =
= F1 [z ]F2 [z ]
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UNIT IV
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Introduction
Y (z ) = X (z )H (z ).
( )
Y (e j ) = X (e j )H (e j )
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X (e ) = X (e ) e
Consider
, then
magnitude
jX ( e j )
and
H (e ) = H (e ) e
jH ( e j )
Y (e j ) = X (e j ) H (e j )
phase
Y (e j ) = X ( e j ) + H ( e j )
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System Function
General
formN of LCCDE
a y[n k ] = b x[n k ]
k
k =0
k =0
k
k
a
z
Y
(
z
)
=
b
z
k
k X (z )
k =0
Compute
k =0
the z-transform
M
H (z ) =
Y (z )
=
X (z )
k
b
z
k
k =0
N
k
a
z
k
k =0
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Location
M
frequency response
1 and phase
zeros
:
c
,
c
,...,
c
.
(
)
1
c
z
1
2
M
k
b0
H (z ) =
a0
k =1
N
1
(1 d z )
k
poles : d1 , d 2 ,..., d N .
k =1
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Second-order System
Suppose
To
1
3
y[n ] + y[n 1] y[n 2] = x[n ] + 2 x[n 1] + 2 x[n 2]
4
8
Can
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of LTI system:
h[n] <
n =
This
condition
is
identical
to
the
condition
n
that
h
[
n
]
z
< when z = 1.
n =
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If the system is causal, it follows that h[n] must be a rightsided sequence. The ROC of H(z) must be outside the
outermost pole.
Right-sided
(causal)
Im
Re
Im
1 Re
Left-sided
(anti-causal)
Two-sided
(non-causal)
Re
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The
5
y[n 1] + y[n 2] = x[n ]
2
H ( z) =
5 1 2
z +z
2
1
=
1
(1 z 1 )(1 2 z 1 )
2
1
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H i (z )
, if
H (z )
G ( z ) = H ( z ) H i ( z ) = 1 g [n ] = h[n ] hi [n ] = [n ]
1
1
j
Hi ( z) =
H i (e ) =
H ( z)
H ( e j )
The ROCs of H ( z ) and H i ( z
must
) overlap.
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All-pass System
A
z a
H Ap (Z ) =
1 az 1
pole : a = re j
zero : 1 / a* = r 1e j
j
e
a
1
a
*
e
j
H Ap (e j ) =
=
e
j
j
1 ae
1 ae
H Ap (e j ) = 1
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Mc
*
k
1
z dk
( z e )( z ek )
H Ap (z ) =
1
* 1
k =1 (1 ek z )(1 ek z )
k =1 1 d k z
real poles
Causal/stable:
complex poles
ek , d k < 1
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z-plane
M r = 2 and M c = 1
0.8
4
3
3
4
Re
0.5
& conjugate
pole : re j reciprocal
zero : r 1e j
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Minimum-Phase System
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UNIT V
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Example
y[n] = a1y[n 1] + a2y[n 2] + b0x[n]
Block
diagram representation of
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systems with
rational system
function can be
represented as
constant-coefficient
difference equation
The implementation of
difference equations
requires delayed
values of the
input
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Direct Form I
N
a y[n k ] = b x[n k ]
General form of difference equation
y[n] a y[n k ] = b x[n k ]
k
k =0
k =0
k =1
Alternative
k =0
equivalent form
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Direct Form I
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k
b
z
k
H(z ) =
Transfer
k =0
N
1 ak z k
function
can
be written as
k =1
1
k
(
)
(
)
(
)
H z = H2 z H1 z =
bk z
N
k k = 0
1 ak z
k =1
M
k
(
)
(
)
(
)
V z = H1 z X z = bk z X(z )
k =0
Direct Form
I Represents
1
V(z )
Y (z ) = H2 (z )V (z ) =
N
k
1 ak z
k =1
v[n] =
b x[n k ]
k
k =0
N
y[n] =
a y[n k ] + v[n]
k
k =1
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Alternative Representation
order of cascade
LTI
systems
H(z ) = H (z )H (z ) = b z
1
az
Replace
1
k =0
k =1
1
X(z )
W(z ) = H2 (z )X(z ) =
N
k
1 ak z
k =1
Y (z ) = H1 (z )W(z ) = bk z k W(z )
k =0
k =1
M
y[n] =
b w[n k ]
k
k =0
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w[n] =
a w[n k ] + x[n]
k
k =1
M
y[n] =
b w[n k ]
k
k =0
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Direct Form II
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Notational differences
A
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Example
Representation
flow graphs
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Determination of System
Function from Flow Graph
w1 [n] = w4 [n] x[n]
w2 [n] = w1 [n]
w3 [n] = w2 [n] + x[n]
w4 [n] = w3 [n 1]
y[n] = w2 [n] + w4 [n]
W1 (z ) = W4 (z ) X(z )
W2 (z ) = W1 (z )
W3 (z ) = W2 (z ) + X(z )
W4 (z ) = W3 (z )z 1
Y (z ) = W2 (z ) + W4 (z )
X(z ) z 1 1
W2 (z ) =
1 z 1
X(z )z 1 (1 )
W4 (z ) =
1 z 1
Y (z ) = W2 (z ) + W4 (z )
Y (z )
z 1
H(z ) =
=
X(z ) 1 z 1
h[n] = n 1u[n 1] n +1u[n]
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M2
(1 f z ) (1 g z )(1 g z )
k
H(z ) = A
k =1
N1
k =1
N2
(1 c z ) (1 d z )(1 d z )
k
k =1
k =1
M1
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Example
(1 + z
1 + 2z + z
1
H(z ) =
1 0.75z
(1 + z )
1
+ 0.125z
(1 0.5z
)(1 + z )
)(1 0.25z )
1
(1 + z )
1
(1 0.5z ) (1 0.25z )
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H(z ) =
Ckzk
k =0
NP
H(z ) =
C z
k
k =0
NP
NP
Ak
Bk 1 ek z 1
+
+
1
1
1 dk z 1
k =1 1 ck z
k =1 1 dk z
)(
NS
e0k + e1k z 1
+
1
a2k z 2
k =1 1 a1k z
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Partial
Example
Fraction Expansion
1 + 2z 1 + z 2
18
25
H(z ) =
=
8
+
1 0.75z 1 + 0.125z 2
1 0.5z 1
1 0.25z 1
Combine
) (
poles to get
7 + 8z 1
H(z ) = 8 +
1 0.75z 1 + 0.125z 2
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Transposed Forms
Linear
Transposing:1 az
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Example
Transpose
Both
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Tapped
delay line
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H(z ) =
h[n]z
n=0
MS
(b
0k
+ b1k z 1 + b2k z 2
k =1
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h[M n] = h[n]
h[M n] = h[n]
n = 0,1,..., M
n = 0,1,..., M
(type I or III)
(type II or IV)
y[n] =
=
M / 2 1
k =0
k =0
k = M / 2 +1
M / 2 1
k =0
k =0
M / 2 1
k =0
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for even M
Structure
for odd M
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