Structure and Written Expression

STRUCTURE AND WRITTEN
EXPRESSION
The second section of the TOEFL test is the Structure and
Written Expression section. This section consists of forty
questions. The time to complete the forty questions in this
section is twenty-five minutes.
There are two types of questions in the Structure and Written
Expression section of the TOEFL test :
1. Structure ( questions 1 15 ) consist of fifteen sentences
in which part of the sentence has been replaced with a
blank. Each sentence is followed by four answer choices.
We must choose the answer that completes the sentence
in a grammatically correct way.
2. Written Expression ( questions 16 40 ) consist of
twenty-five sentences in which four words or groups of
words have been underlined. We must choose the
underlined word or group of words that is not correct.
THE STRUCTURE QUESTIONS
The questions in this section are multiple-choice questions in
which we must choose the letter of the answer that best
completes the sentence.
Example :
------------is taking a trip to New York.
( A ) They
( B ) When
( C ) The Woman
( D ) Her
STRATEGIES FOR THE STRUCTURE QUESTION
1.First study the sentence. Our purpose is to determine
what is needed to complete the sentence correctly.
2.Then study each answer based on how well it
completes the sentence. Eliminate answers that do not
complete the sentence correctly.
3. A. Locate the subject and the verb of the main clause.
If the subject or verb is missing or incomplete, look for it
1
in the answer choices. If the two sentence parts are not

missing or incomplete, proceed to step B.
B. Look for the object or the complement of the
sentence. If the object or the complement is needed but
is missing or incomplete, look for it in the answer choices.
If one of these parts is not needed or is not missing,
proceed to step C.
C. Look for a subordinate clause. If the subordinate
clause is needed and if it is missing a subject, a verb, or a
clause maker, look for the missing part in the answer
choices. If none of these sentences is missing, proceed to
step D.
D. Look for a phrase. If there is a modifying phrase and if
any part of the phrase is missing, look for it in the answer
choices.
3.Do not try to eliminate incorrect answers by looking
only at the answers. The incorrect answers are generally
correct by themselves. The incorrect answer are generally
incorrect only when used to complete the sentence.
4.Never leave any answer blank. Be sure to answer each
question even if you are unsure of the correct response.
5.Do not spend too much time on the Structure
questions. Be sure to leave adequate time for the Written
Expression questions.
1. Sentence with one clause

Some sentences in English have just one subject and verb, and it is
very important for us to find the subject and the verb in these
sentences.
We should be able to do the following in sentences with one subject
and verb:
1. be sure the sentence has a subject and a verb.
2. be careful of objects of prepositions and appositives when we
are looking for the subject.
3. be careful of present participles and past participles when we
are looking for the verb.
Skill 1: Be sure the sentence has a subject and a verb.

Example:
2
_______ was backed up for miles on the freeway.

(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
The
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
Yesterday
In the morning
Traffic
Cars
boy ______ going to the movies with a friend.
he is
he always was
is relaxing
will be
A simple sentence in English must have at

least one subject and one verb
Exercises 1 :
Indicate if the sentences are correct ( C ) or incorrect ( I ) !
1. Last week went fishing for trout at the nearby mountain lake.
(C/I)
2. A schedule of the days events can be obtained at the front
desk. ( C
/I)
3. A job on the day shift or the night shift at the plant available.
( C/ I )
Skill 2: Be careful of objects of prepositions.

An object of a preposition is a noun, pronoun, gerund or noun
clause that comes after a preposition, such as in, at, of, to,
behind, by, on, and so on, to form a prepositional phrase.
Example:
(After his exams) Tom will take a trip (by boat)
Example:
With his friend _______ found the movie theatre.
(A) has
(B) he
(C) later
(D) when
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A preposition is followed by a noun,

pronoun, gerund, or noun clause that is
called an object of the preposition.
If a word is an object of a preposition, it
is not the subject.
Exercise 2 :
1. The interview by radio broadcasters were carried live by the
station.
2. In the last possible moment before takeoff took his seat in
the cabin.
Skill 3: Be careful of appositives

Example:
Sally, the best student in the class, got an A on the
exam.
Example:
_______ , George, is attending the lecture.
(A) Right now
(B) Happily
(C) Because of the time
(D) My friend
______ , Sarah rarely misses her basketball shots.
(A) An excellent basketball player
(B) An excellent basketball player is
(C) Sarah is an excellent basketball player
(D) Her excellent basketball play
An appositive is a noun that comes before or after
another noun and is generally set off from the noun
with commas. If a word is an appositive, it is not
the subject. The following appositive structures are
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both possible in English.

S
APP
V
Tom, a really good mechanic, is fixing the car.
APP
S
V
A really good mechanic, Tom is fixing the car.
Skill 4: Be careful of Present Participles.

Example:
The
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
child _______ playing in the yard is my son.

now
is
he
was
A present participle is the ing form of the verb

The present participle can be:
1. part of the verb
2. an adjective
It is part of the verb when it is accompanied by some form
of the verb be. It is an adjective when it is not
accompanied by some form of the verb be.
1. The boy is standing in the corner.
2. The boy standing in the corner was naughty.
Skill 5: Be careful of Past Participle.

Example:
The packages _______ mailed at the post office will
arrive Monday.
(A) have
(B) were
(C) them
(D) just
A past participle often end in ed, but there are also many
irregular past participles. For many verbs, including ed
verbs, the simple past and the past participle are the same
and can be easily confused. The ed form of the verb can
be:
1. The simple past :
She painted this picture.
2. The past participle of a verb:
She has painted this picture.
3. An adjective:
The picture painted by Karen is now in a
museum.
II.
Sentence
clauses
with
multiple
Many sentences in English have more than one
clause.
Clause is a group of words containing a subject
and a verb.
Skill 6: Use coordinate connectors correctly
When we have two clauses in an English

sentence, we must connect the two clauses correctly. One
way to connect two clauses is to use and, but, or, so, yet
between the clauses.
Example:
Tom
Tom
Tom
Tom
Tom
is singing and Paul is dancing.

is tall, but Paul is short.
must write the letter, or Paul will do it.
told a joke, so Paul laughed.
is tired, yet he is not going to sleep.
Example:
A power failure occurred, ______ the lamps went out.
(A) then
(B)
so
(C)
later
(D) next
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Coordinate connectors: and, but, or, so, yet

S
V
Coordinate connector
She laughed,
but
wanted to cry
V
she
Skill 7: Use Adverb of Time and cause connectors

correctly
Example:
I will sign the check before you leave.
Before you leave, I will sign the check.
Example:
_______ was late, I missed the appointment.
(A) I
(B)
Because
(C)
The train
(D) Since he
Adverb Time and Cause Connectors

Time
Cause
after
as
as long
as
as soon
as
before
by the
time
S
V
Teresa went
raining
onc when
e
whenever
sinc while
e
until
as
because
in asmuch
as
adverb connector
inside
because
adverb connector
Because
inside
S
it
now that
since
V
it
V
S
V
was raining, Teresa
Skill 8: Use other adverb connectors correctly
was
went
Adverb clauses not only can express the ideas of time and
cause, but also can express contrast, condition, manner, and
place.
Example:
I will leave at 7:00 if I am ready.
Although I was late, I managed to catch the train.
Example:
You will get a good grade on the exam provided _____.
(A) studying
(B)
study
(C)
to study
(D) you study
Condition
if
in case
provided
providing
unless
whether
Other Adverb Connectors

Contrast
Manner
Place
although
as
where
even though in that
wherever
though
while
whereas
S
V
adverb connector
Bob went to school
even though
felt sick
adverb connector
Even though
school
V
he
V,
S
V
Bob felt sick, he went to
NOTE: A comma is often used in the middle of the

sentence with a contrast connector.
The Smith family arrived at 2:00, while the Jones family
arrived an hour later.
III. More Sentences with

Multiple Clauses
Skill 9: Use Noun Clause Connectors Correctly
A noun clause is a clause that functions as a
noun.
Because the noun clause is a noun, it is used in a

sentence as either an object of a verb, an object of a
preposition, or the subject of the sentence.
Example:
I know when he will arrive
I am concerned about when he will arrive
When he will arrive is not important
Example:
______ was late caused many problems.
(A) That he
(B)
The driver
(C)
There
(D) Because
Noun Clause
Connectors
Examples
what,
when, S
V
Noun connector
S
V
where, why, how I know
what
you
whatever,
did
whenever
whether, if
Noun connector S
V
V
that
What
you did was
wrong
Noun clause connectors were used to introduce noun subject

clause or noun object clauses
Skill 10: Use
Noun
Clause
Connector
Subjects
Correctly
In some cases a noun clause connector is not just a connector;
a noun clause connector can also be the subject of the clause
at the same time.
Example:
I do not know
verb
what is in the box. NC as object of
We are concerned about who will do the work NC

as object of preposition
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Whoever is coming to the party must bring a gift

NC as subject
Example:
______ was on television made me angry.
(A) It
(B)
The story
(C)
What
(D) When
Noun clause connector/subject : who
which
whoever
what
whatever
whichever
S
I
Noun connector/subject
know
what
V
happened
Noun connector/subject
What
happened
V
was great
Skill 11: Use Adjective Clause Connectors Correctly

An adjective clause is a clause that describe a
noun.
Because the clause is an adjective,

positioned directly after the noun that it describes.
it
is
Example:
The woman is filling the
table.
glass that she put on the
The glass that she put on the table contains milk.
Example:
The gift ______ selected for the bride was rather
expensive.
(A) because
(B)
was
(C)
since
(D) which we
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Adjective Clause Connectors

whom
which
that
for people
for things
for people or
things
adjective connector
I
like the book
recommended
S
which
adjective connectors
The book
which
was interesting
you
S
you recommended
Skill 12: Use Adjective Clause Connectors / Subjects

Correctly
In some cases an adjective clause connector is

not just a connector
An adjective clause connector can also be the

subject of the clause at the same time.
Example:
The woman is filling the glass that is on the table.
The glass that is on the table contains milk.
Example:
______ is on the table has four sections.
(A) The notebook
(B)
The notebook which
(C)
Because the notebook
(D) In the notebook
Adjective Clause Connector / Subjects

who
which
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that
(for people)
S
(for things)
(for people or
things)
adjective connector/subject
V
She needs a secretary
types for
S
who
adjective connector/subject
A secretary
invaluable
who
types fast is
IV. Sentences with Reduced

Clause
It is possible in English for a clause to appear in a
complete form or in a reduced form.
My friend should be on the train which is arriving

at the station now (adjective clauses)
Although it was not really difficult, the exam took

a lot of time (adverb clauses)
Skill 13: Use Reduced Adjective Clauses Correctly

Adjective clause can appear in a reduced form. In the reduced
form, the adjective clause connector and the be-verb that
directly follow it are omitted.
Example:
The woman who is waving to us is the tour guide.
The letter which was written last week arrived today.
The pitcher that is on the table if full of iced tea.
If there is no be-verb in the adjective clause, it is still possible
to have a reduced form.
Example:
appearing
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I dont understand the article which appears in todays

paper.
It should be noted that not all adjective clauses can appear in
reduced form. An adjective clause can only be reduced if the
connector is also a subject.
Example:
The woman that I just met is the tour guide (do not
reduce).
The letter which you sent me arrived yesterday (do not
reduce).
Some adjective clauses are set off from the rest of the
sentence with commas, and these adjective clauses can also
be reduced.
Example:
The president, who is now preparing to give a speech,
is meeting with his advisors.
The president, now preparing to give a speech, is
meeting with his advisors.
Now preparing to give a speech, the president is
meeting with his advisors.
Example:
______ on several different television programs, the
witness gave conflicting accounts of what had happened.
(A) He appeared
(B)
Who appeared
(C)
Appearing
(D) Appears
Reduced Adjective Clauses:
To reduced an adjective clause, omit the adjective

clause connector / subject and the be-verb.
If there is no be-verb, omit the connector/subject and

change the main verb to the-ing form.
Only
reduce
an
adjective
clause
if
connector/subject is directly followed by the verb.
If an adjective clause is set off with commas, the

reduced clause can be moved to the front of the
sentence.
13
the
Skill 14: Use Reduced Adverb Clause Correctly

In reduced form, the adverb connector remains, but the subject
and be-verb are omitted.
Example:
Althoug he is rather unwell, the speaker will take part
in the seminar.
When you are ready, you can begin your speech.
If there is no be-verb in the adverb clause, the subject is
omitted and the main verb is changed into the ing form.
Example:
feeling
Although he feels rather sick, the speaker will take part
in the seminar
giving
When you give your speech, you should speak loudly
and distinctly
Example:
When ______ , you are free to leave
(A) the finished report
(B)
finished with the report
(C)
the report
(D) is the report finished
It should be noted that not all verb clauses can appear in a
reduced form, and a number of adverb clauses can only be
reduced if the verb is in the passive form.
Example:
Once you submit your thesis, you will graduate (activedoes not reduce)
Once it is submitted, your thesis will be received
(passive does reduce)
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Reduced Adverb Clauses

Time
reduces in
Active
condition contras
t
after
if
before
unless
althoug
h
since
whether
though
once
if
until
unless
althoug
h
when
whether
though
place
manne
r
where
as
while
reduces in
Passive
wherev
er
whenev
er
To reduce an adverb clause, omit the subject and the

be-verb from the adverb clause
If there is no be-verb, then omit the subject and
change the verb to the ing form
Sentences with Inverted Subjects And Verbs
Subject and verbs are inverted in a variety of situation in English
Inverted Subjects and verbs occur most often in the formation of a
question
To form a question with a helping verb (be, have, can, could, will, would,
etc), the subject and helping verb are inverted
Example :
He can go to the movies

Can he go to the movies ?
She was sick yesterday
Was she sick yesterday ?
You told me the truth
Did you tell me the truth ?
The most common problems with inverted subjects and verbs on the TOEFL
test occur in the following situations :
1. With question words such as What, When, Where, Why, and How
2. After some place expressions
3. After negative expression
15
4.
5.
In some conditionals
After some comparisons
Skill 15
Invert The Subject and Verb with Question Words
There is some confusion about when to invert the subject and verb after
question words such as what, when, where, why, and how
The question words can have two very different functions in a sentence.
1. They can introduce a question, and in this case the subject and
verb that follow are inverted
Example : What is the homework ?
When can I leave ?
Where are you going ?
2. They can join together two classes, and in this case the subject and
verb that follow are not inverted.
Example : I do not know what the homework is
When I can leave, I will take the firs train
Do you know where you are going ?
In each of these examples there are two clauses joined by a
question word
Notice that the subjects and verbs that follow the question
words what, when, and where are not inverted in this case.
Example in the structure section of the TOEFL test
The lawyer
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
asked the client why it

did he do
did he
he did
did
The following chart lists the question words and their sentence patterns:
Inverted Subjects and Verbs with Question Words
who
what
when
where
why
how
When the question word introduces a question, the subject and verb are
inverted
Question
S
V ?
word
What
are
they ?
When the question word connects two clauses, the subject and verb that
follow are not inverted
Question
word
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know
what
they
are
Skill 16 : Invert the Subject and Verb with Place Expressions

After ideas expressing place, the subject and the verb sometimes invert in
English
This can happen with single words expressing place, such as here, there,
or nowhere
Examples :
Here
is the book that you lent me.
There
are the keys that I throught : I lost
Nowhere have I seen such beautiful weather.
The subject and verb can also be inverted after prepositional phrases
expressing place.
Examples :
In the closet
are the clothes that you want
Arround the corner
is Sams house
Beyond the mountains lies the town where you will live.
It is important to understand the subject and verb will invert after place
expressions at the beginning of a sentence only when the place expression
is necessary to complete the sentence.
Example :
In the forest are many exotic birds
( the subject birds and verb are are inverted because the place
expression in the forest is needed to complete the idea many exotic
birds are )
In the forest I walked for many hours
( the subject I and the verb walked are not inverted because the idea
I walked for many hours is complete without the place expression in
the forest; the place expression is therefore not needed to complete the
sentence )
Example in the structure section of the TOEFL test :
On the second level of the parking lot ..
(A) is empty
17
(B)
(C)
(D)
are empty
some empty stalls are
are some empty stalls
The following chart lists the sentence patterns used with place
expressions :
Inverted Subject and Verbs with Place Expressions
When a place expression at the front of the sentence is necessary to complete
the sentence, the subject and verb that follow are inverted
Place
(necessary)
In the classroom
were
S
some old desks
When a place expression at the front of the sentence contains extra

information that is not needed to complete the sentence, the subject and verb
that follow are not inverted.
Place
( extra )
In the classroom
S
I
V
Studied very hard
Skill 17: Invert the Subject and verb with Negatives
The subject and verb can also be inverted after certain negatives and
related expressions
When negative expressions, such as no, not, or never, come at the
beginning of a sentence, the subject and verb are inverted.
Example :
Not once did I miss a question
Never has Mr.Jones taken a vacation
At not time can the woman talk on the telephone
Certain word in English, such as hardly, barely, scarcely, and only, act
like negatives.
If one of these words comes at the beginning of a sentence, the subject
and verb are also inverted.
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Examples :
Hardly ever does he take time off.
( this means that he almost never takes time off)
Only once did the manager issue overtime paycheks.
(this means that the manager almost never issued overtime paycheks)
When a negative expression appears in front of a subject and verb in the

middle of a sentence, the subject and verb are also inverted. This happens
often with the negative words neither and nor.
Examples :
I do not want to go, and neither does Tom.
The secretary is not attending the meeting, nor is her boss
Example of the structure section of the TOEFL test :
Only in extremely dangerous situations.. stopped
(A) will be the printing presses
(B) the printing presses will be
(C) that the printing presses will be
(D) will the printing presses be
The following chart list the negative expressions and the sentence pattern
used with them:
Inverted Subjects and Verbs with Negatives
no
barely
not
hardly
never
only
neither
scarcely
nor
seldom
When a negative expression appears in front of a subject and verb (at the
beginning of a sentence or in the middle of a sentence ) the subject and verb
are inverted
Negative
expression
Rarely
Skill 18 :
were
they so happy
Invert The Subject and Verb with Conditionals
In certain conditional structure, the subject and verb may also be inverted
This can occur when the helping verb in the conditional clause is had,
should, or were, and the conditional connector if is omitted.
Examples :
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if he had taken more time, the results would have been better
Had he taken more time, the results would have been better.
I would help you if I were in a position to help
I would help you were I in a position to help
If you should arrive before 6:00, just give me a call
Should you arrive before 6:00, just give me a call
Example in the structure section of the TOEFL test :
The report
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
would have been accepted .in checking its accuracy

if more care
more care had been taken
had taken more care
had more care been taken
The following chart lists the conditional verbs that may invert and the
sentence patterns used with them :
Inverted Subjects and Verbs with Conditionals
had
should
were
When the verb in the conditional clause is had, should, or were, it is

possible to omit if and invert the subject and verb
( omitted if )
V
Were
S
he here, he would help
It is also possible to keep if. Then the subject and verb are not, inverted
If
If
S
he
V
were here, he would help
Skill 19 : Invert The Subject and Verb with Comparisons
An interted subject and verb may occur also after a comparison

There have been a number of inverted comparisons on TOEFL test, so we
should be familiar with this structure.
Example :
My sister spends more hours in the office than John
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My sister spends more hours in the office than John does

My sister spends more hours in the office than does John.
Example in the structure section of the TOEFL test:

The results of the current experiment appear to be more consistent thanthe
results of any previous tests.
(A) them
(C)
they were
(B) were
(D) were they
The following chart lists the sentence patterns used with comparisons :
Inverted Subjects and Verbs with Comparisons
The subject and verb may invert after a comparison
The following structures are both possible
S
We
were
We
were
performers
compariso
n
more prepared than
compariso
n
more prepared than
the other performers
were
S
were
the other
Note : A subject verb inversion after a comparison sounds rather formal
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THE WRITTEN EXPRESSION QUESTIONS

Each question in this section consists of one sentence in
which four words or groups of words have been underlined.
We must choose the underlined word or group of words that
is not correct
Example :
1) The final delivery of the day is the importantest.
A
B
C
D
2)
The books that I read was

A
B
C
interesting.
D
Strategies for The Written Expression Questions
First, look at the underlined words or groups of

words. We want to see if we can spot which of the four
answer choices is not correct. One of these segments
may be incorrect on its own.
If we have been
unable to find the error by
looking only at the four underlined expressions,
then read the complete sentence. Often
an
underlined expression is incorrect because of something
in another part of the sentence. Compare them to other
parts of the sentence.
Do not waste time looking for errors that are not
underlined. All errors occur in the underlined segments
of the sentences.
Do not waste time thinking about how to correct
Problem with Subject / Verb Agreement
If the subject of a sentence is singular, then the verb

must be singular.
If the subject of the sentence is plural, then the verb
must be plural.
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An s on a verb usually indicates that a verb is singular,

while an s on a noun usually indicates that the noun is
plural. (Do not forget irregular plurals of nouns, such as
women, children, and people).
Example : :
The boy walks to school.

The boys walk to school.
Skill 20 : Make Verbs Agree After Prepositional Phrases

Prepositional phrases can come between the subject and the
verb.
Make sure if the object of the preposition is singular and the
subject is plural, or if the object of the preposition is plural
and the subject is singular.
Example : :
The key to the doors is in the drawer.

The keys to the door are in the drawer.
Subject / Verb Agreement with the Prepositional

Phrases
S
( prepositional phrases )
V
When a prepositional phrases comes between the
Exercise 20 :
Indicate if the following sentences are correct (C ) or
incorrect (I ) !
1. The climbers on the sheer face of the mountain need to
be rescued (C / I ).
2. The interrogation, conducted by three police officers,
have lasted for several hours. ( C / I ).
3. The tenants in the apartment next to mine is giving a
party this evening ( C / I ).
Skill 21 : Make Verbs Agree After Expressions of
Quantity
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A particular agreement problem occurs when the subject is

an expression of quantity, such as all, most, or some,
followed by the preposition of.
In this situation, the subject ( all, most, or some ) can be
singular or plural, depending on what follows the
preposition of.
Example
All ( of the
book) was interesting
singular
All ( of the
books ) were interesting

plural
All (of the
information) was interesting
uncountable
Subject / Verb Agreement After Expressions of

Quantity
all
most
some
half
of the ( object )
When an expression of quantity is the subject, the

verb agrees with the object
Exercise 21 :
Indicate if the following sentences are correct (C) or incorrect
(I ) !
1. The witness saw that most of the fire in the hills was
extinguished ( C / I )
2. Some of the animals from the zoo was released into the
animal preserve. ( C / I )
3. All of the students in the class taught by Professor Roberts
is required to turn in their term papers next Monday. ( C / I
)
Skill 22 : Make Inverted Verbs Agree
We have seen that sometimes in English the subject
comes after the verb.
When the subject and verb are inverted, it can be difficult
to locate them, and it can therefore be a problem to make
them agree
Example : (Behind the house) were the bycycles I wanted.
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(Behind the houses) was the bycycle I wanted.
Subject / verb Agreement After Inverted Verbs

question
negative
place
V
condition ( no if )
comparison
After question words, negative expressions, place

expressions, conditions without if, and comparisons,
the verb agrees with the subject, which may be after
the verb.
Exercise 22 :
Indicate if the following sentences are correct (C ) or
incorrect (I ) !
1. Only once this morning were the letters delivered by the
campus mail service. ( C / I )
2. Around the corner and to the right is the rooms that have
been assigned to that program. ( C / I )
3. What in the world is the children trying to do ? ( C / I )
Skill 23 : Make Verbs Agree After Certain Words
Certain words in English are always grammatically singular,
even though they might have plural meanings.
Example : Everybody is going to the theater.
The following chart lists the grammatically singular words that
have plural meanings :
25
Subject / Verb Agreement After Certain Words

These words or expression are grammatically singular,
so they take singular verbs :
anybody everybody
nobody somebody
each ( + noun )
anyone everyone no onesomeone
every (+
noun)
Exercise 23 :
Indicate if the sentences are correct (C) or incorrect (I) !
1.
2.
3.
It is impossible to believe that somebody actually admire

that man ( C / I )
Each of the doctors in the building needs to have a
separate reception area ( C / I )
The president felt that no one were better suited for the
position of chief staff advisor ( C / I )
TOEFL Exercise :
Choose the letter of the underlined word or group of words that
is not correct. !
1. Each number in a binary system are
two symbols.
A
D
formed from only

B
C
2. Scientists at the medical center is trying to determine if

there is
A
B
C
a relationship between saccharine and cancer.
3. One the rim of the Kilauea volcano in the
Islands are
A
C
a hotel called the Volcano Hotel.
D
Hawaiian
B
Problems With Parallel Structure

In good English an attempt should be made to make that
language as even balanced as possible.
26
This balance is called parallel structure.

We can achieve parallel structure by making the forms of
words as similar as possible.
Example : I like to sing
I like to sing and to dance
C
I like dancing
I like singing and dancing C
I like to singing and dancing ( it is not parallel ) I
There are several situations in which we should be
particularly careful of parallel structure.
Parallel structures are required in the following
situations :
1. with coordinate conjunctions, such as and, but,
or
2. with paired conjunctions, such as both...and,
either...or,
neither...nor, not only...but also
3. with comparisons.
Skill 24 :
Conjuctions
Use Parallel Structure With Coordinate
The job of coordinate conjuctions (and, but, or) is to join

together equal expressions.
In other words, what is on one side of these words must be
parallel to what is on the other side.
Examples of two nouns joined by a coordinate conjunction :
I need to talk to the manager or the assistant manager.
She is not a teacher but a lawyer.
You can choose from activities such as hiking and

kayaking.
Examples of two verbs joined by a coordinate conjunction :
He only eats and sleeps when he takes a vacation.
She invites us to her home but never talks with us.
You can stay home or go to the movies with us.

Examples of two adjectives joined by a coordinate
conjunction :
My boss is sincere and nice.
The exam that he gave was short but difficult
Class can be interesting or boring

Examples of two phrases joined by a coordinate conjunction :
There are students in the classrom and in front of the

building.
The papers are on my desk or in the drawer.

27
The checks will be ready not at noun but at 1:00
Examples of two clauses joined by a coordinate conjunction :
They are not interested in what you say or what you

do.
I am here because I have to be and because I want to

be
Mr Brown likes to go home early, but his wife prefers to

stay late.
Parallel Structure with coordinate conjuction :

( same structure )
and
but
or
( same structure )
(same structure), (same structure)

structure )
Exercise 24 :
and
but
( same
or
Indicate if the sentences are correct (C) or incorrect ( I )
1. She held jobs as a typist, a house keeper, and in a
restaurant. ( C / I )
2. The report you are looking for could be in the file or on the
desk.. ( C / I )
3. She works very hard but usually gets below average
grades. ( C / I)
Exercise 25 :
Conjunctions.
Use
Parallel
Structure
With
Paired
The paired conjunctions both .............and, either........or,

neither............nor
and not only.....but also require
parallel structures.
Example :
I know both where you went and what you did.
Either Mark or Sue has the book.
The tickets are neither in my pocket nor in my purse.
He is not only an excellent student but also an outstanding
athlete.
He wants either to go by train or to go by plane.
28
He wants to go either by train or by plane.

He wants to go by either train or plane.
He wants either to go by train or by plane (it is not parallel, so
it is not correct)
The following chart outlines the use of parallel structure with
paired conjuction:
Parallel Structure with Paired Conjuctions
both
either
structure)
neith
er
not
and
( same structure
)
or
nor
but
also
(same
Exercise 25 :
Indicate if the sentences are corect ( C ) or incorrect ( I ) !
1. According to the syllabus, you can either write a paper or
you can take an exam. ( C / I )
2. It would be both noticed and appreciated if you could
finish the work before you leave .( C / I )
3. She would like neither to see a movie or to go bowling. ( C
/I)
Skill 26 : Use Parallel Structure With Comparisons
When we make a comparison, we point out the similarities or
differences between two things, and those similarities or
differences must be in parallel form.
We can recognize a comparison showing how two things are
different from the er ............ than or the more ......
than
Example :
My school is farther than your school.
To be rich is better than to be poor.
What is written is more easily understand
spoken.
than what is
A comparison showing how two things are the same might

contain as ..... as or expressions such as the same as or
similar to.
29
Example :
Their car is as big as a small house.
Renting those apartments cost about the same as
leasing them.
The work that I did is similar to the work that you
did.
The following chart outlines the use of parallel structures with
comparisons :
Parallel Structure With Comparisons
(
same
( same structure )
more .......
than
- er ....... structure
than
less ......
than
as ..... as
the
Exercise 26 :
Indicate if each sentence is correct ( C ) or incorrect ( I ) !
1
2
3
His research for the thesis was more useful than hers. ( C /
I)
Dining in a restaurant is more fun than to eat at home. ( C
/I)
I want a new secretary who is as efficient as the previous
one. ( C / I )
TOEFL Exercise
Choose the letter of the underlined word or group of words
that is not correct!
1. Fire extinguishers can contain liquefied gas, dry chemicals,
or watery.
A
B
C
D
2. The U.S. Congress cosists of both the Senate as well as the
House of
A
B
C
D
Representative .
30
3.The prison population in this state, now at an all time high,

is higher than
A
B
C
any state.
D
Problems With Comparative And Superlatives :

Skill 27 : Form Comparatives And Superlatives Correctly
The comparative is formed with either er or more and
than
In the comparative, -er is used with short adjectives such as
tall, and more is used with longer adjectives such as
beautiful.
Example : Bob is taller than Ron.
Sally is more beautiful than Saron.
The superlative is formed with the, either -est or most, and
sometimnes in, of, or a that- clause.
In the superlative, -est is used with short adjectives such as
tall , and most is used with longer adjectives such as
beautiful.
Example : Bob is the tallest man in the room
Sally is the most beautiful of all the women at the party.
The spider over there is the largest one that I have ever
seen.
The fastest runner wins the race (no in, of, or that )
The following chart outlines the possible forms of comparatives
and superlatives:
The form of comparatives and superlatives
Comparative :
Superlative :
in, of, that
more (long adjective)

(short adjective) + er
the
most (long adjective)

(short adjective + est )
31
than
maybe
Exercise 27 :
Indicate if the sentences are correct (C ) or incorect ( I ) !
1. Oxygen is abundanter than nitrogen. (C/ I )
2. The directions to the exercise say to choose the most
appropriate response. ( C / I )
3. The lesson you are stadying now is the most importantest
lesson that you will have. (C / I )
Skill 28 : Use Comparatives and Superlatives Correctly
The comparative and superlative have different uses, and we
should understand these different uses to answer such
questions correctly !
The comparative is used to compare two equal things.
Example :
The history class is larger than the math
class.
Mary is more intelligent than Sue.
The superlative is used when there are more than two items to
compare and we want to show the one that is the best, the
biggest, or in some way the most outstanding.
Example : The history class is the largest in the school.
Mary is the most intelligent of all the students in

the class.
The following chart outlines the uses of comparatives and
superlatives :
The uses of comparatives and superlatives
The comparative is used to compare two equal
things.
The superlative is used to show which one of many is
in some way the most outstanding.
Exercise 28 :
32

1. Harvard is probably the most prestigious university in the
United States. ( C / I )
2. Rhonda is more hard working of the class. ( C / I )
3. The engineers hired this year have more experience than
those hired last year. ( C / I )
Skill 29 :
Use The Irregular er, -er Structure Correctly
An irregular comparative structure that has been appearing

frequently on the TOEFL test consists of two parallel
comparatives introduced by the.
Example : The harder he tried, the further he fell behind.
The older the children are, the more their parents
expect from them
In this type of sentence, the and the comparison can be
followed by a number of different structures.
Example : The more children you have, the bigger the
house you need
The ou work, the more you accomplish
The greaterharder y the experience, the higher the
salary
The following chart outlines this irregular -er, -er structure :
The -er, -er structure
The -er
structure)
(same structure), The
more
-er
(same
more
This type of sentence may or may not include a verb

Exercise 29 :
Indicate if the sentences are correct ( C ) or incorect ( I ) !
1.
The hotter the food is, harder it is to it . ( C / I )

33
2.
The
the
3. The
(C/I
warmer the weather, the greater the attendance at

outdoor concert . ( C / I )
more you say, the worst the the situation will be.
)
TOEFL Exercise
Choose the letter of the underlineed word or group of words
that is not correct !
1. Certain types of snakes have been known to survive fasts
more as a year
A
B
C
D
long .
2.
The grizzly bear, which can grow up to eight feet tall,
has been called a
A
B
C
a more dangerous animal of North America.
D
3. Claimate, soil type, and availability of water are the most
critical factors
A
B
than selecting the best type of grass for a lawn..
C
D
Problems With The Form Of The Verb
It is common in the Written Expression Question on the
TOEFL test for the verbs to be formed incorrectly.
Therefore, we should be familiar with the following verb
forms :
Base
Form
walk
hear
cook
sing
come
begin
Present
Present Participl
e
walk (s)
walking
hear (s)
hearing
cook (s)
cooking
sing (s)
singing
come (s) coming
begin (s) beginning
Past
Past
Participle
walked
heard
cooked
sang
came
began
walked
heard
cooked
sung
come
begun
Skill 30 : After Have use The Past Participle
34
Whenever we see the verb have in any of its forms (have,

has, having, had), be sure that the verb that follows it is in
the past participle form.
Example : They had walked to school.
We have seen the show.
He has taken the test.
Having eaten, he went to school.
She should have done the work.
We should be sure that if we have a subject and a past
participle, we also have the verb have.
This problem is particularly common with those verbs ( such as
sing, sang, sung) that change from present to past to past
participle by changing only the vowel.
Example : My friend sang the choir. / My friend has sung the
choir.
He became angry at his friend. / He has become angry at
his friend.
The boat sank in the ocean. / The boat has sunk in the
ocean.
The following chart outlines the use of verb forms after have.
Verb forms after have
Have + past participle
Exercise 30 :
1. The young girl drunk a glass of milk . ( C / I )
2. Befor she left, she had asked her mother for permission.
(C/I )
3. Having finished the term paper, he began studying for the
exam .( C / I )
Skill 31 : After Be, Use The Present Participle or Past
Participle
The verb be in any of its forms (am, is, are, was, were, be,
been, being) can be followed by another verb. This verb
should be in the present participle or the past participle
form..
Example :
35
1.
2.
3.
4.
We are doing our homework..

The homework was done early.
Tom is taking the book..
The book was taken by Tom..
The following chart outlines the use of verb forms after be:
Be + ( 1 ) present
participle
( 2 ) past
participle
Verb forms after be
Exercise 31 :
1.
2.
3.
At 12:00 Sam is eat his lunch. ( C / I )

We are meeting them later today. ( C / I )
The message was took by the receptionist. ( C / I )
Skill 32 : After will, would, or other modals, use the

base form of the verb.
Whenever we see a modal, such as will, would, shall,
should, can, could, may, might, or must we should be sure
that the verb that follows it is in its base form..
Example :
The boat will leave at 3:00.
The doctor may arrive soon.
The students must take the exam.

The following chart outlines the use of verb forms after
modals :
Verbs Forms After Modals
Modal + base form of the verb
Exercises 32 :
1. The salesclerk might lower the price. ( C / I )
2. The television movie will finishes in a few minutes. ( C / I )
36
3. Should everyone arrive by 8:00 ? ( C / I )

TOEFL Exercise
Choose the letter of the underlined word or group of words that
is not correct !
1. Helium has the most low boiling point of all substances.
A
B
C
D
2. There is twenty-six bones in the human foot, fourteen of
them in the toes.
A
B
C
D
3. Extension of the countdown hold to fourteen hours was
order to give
A
B
crews more time to repair wiring and clear away
equipment.
C
D
Problem With The Use Of The Verb
Skill 33 :
Present
Know When
To Use The Past With The
Many different problems in using the correct verb tense are

possible in English
If a sentence has both a past tense and a present tense, the
sentence is incorrect.
Example : He took the money when he wants it ( incorrect)
The Above example can be corrected in several ways,
depending on the desired meaning.
Example : He took the money when he wanted it
He takes the money when he wants it
It is necessary to point out, however, that it is possible for a
logical sentence in English to have both the past and the
present tense.
Example : I know that he took the money yesterday
37
When we see a sentence on the TOEFL test with both the

past and the present tense, we must check the meaning of
the sentence carefully to see if it is logical in English.
The following chart outlines the use of the past tense with the
present tense in English.
1
2
3
Using The Past With The Present

If we see a sentence with one verb in the past and one
verb in the present, the sentence is probably incorrect
However, it is possible for a correct sentence to have both
past and present together
If we see the past and present together, we must check
the meaning to determine whether or not the sentence is
correct
Exercises 33 :
Indicate if the sentences are correct ( C ) or incorrect. ( I ) !
1. I tell him the truth when he asked me the question. ( C / I )
2. I understand that you were angry. ( C / I )
3. When he was a child, he always goes to the circus. ( C / I )
Skill 34 : Use Have and Had Correctly
Two tenses that are often confused are the present perfect
(have + past participle ) and the past perfect (had + past
participle)
The present perfect ( have + past participle) refers to the
period of time from the past until the present
Example : Sue has lived in Los Angeles for ten years.
The past perfect (had + past participle) refer to a period of
time that started in the past and ended in the past,
before something else happened in the past.
Example :
Sue had lived in Los Angeles for ten years

when she moved to San Diego
Because the present perfect refers to period of time from the

past until the present, it is not correct in a sentence that
indicate past only.
38
Example :
At the start of the nineteenth century,

Thomas Jefferson has become president of the
US
became
Everytime Jim worked on his car, he has
improved it
impr
oved
Because the past perfect begins in the past and ends in the
past, it is generally not correct in the the same sentence
with the present tense.
Example :
Tom had finished the exam when the teacher

collects
the
paper
collected
The following chart outlines the uses of the present perfect and
the past perfect :
Using (have + past participle) and (had + pas participle)
Tense
Form
Meaning
Use
Presen
t
have + past
past up to now
not with a past
Perfec
participle
tense **
t
Past
had + past
Before past up not with a present
Perfec
participle
to past
tense
t
** Except when the time expression since is part of the
sentence (see skill 35)
Exercises 34 :
1. I have always liked the designs that are on the cover. ( C /
I)
2. Because her proporsal had been rejected, she is depressed.
(C/ I)
3. The students have registered for classes before the
semester started. ( C/I )
39
Skill 35 : Use The Correct Tense With Time Expressions

Often in Written Expression questions on the TOEFL test there
is a time expression that clearly indicates what verb tense is
needed in the sentence.
Examples :
We moved to New York in 1980.
We had left there by 1990.
We have lived in San Francisco since 1999.
Some additional time expressions that clearly indicate the
correct tense are ago, last and lately
Examples :
She got a job two years ago.
She started working last week.
She has worked very hard lately.
The following chart lists time expressions that indicate the
correct verb tense :
Using Correct Tenses With Time Expression
Past Perfect
Simple Past
Present Perfect
by ( 192 0)
( two years ) ago

last ( year )
in ( 1920 )
since (1920 )
lately
Exercises 35 :
1. The phone rang incessantly lat night . ( C / I )
2. They have
finished contacting everyone by 4:00
yesterday .( C / I )
3. The pilgrims have arrived in the New World in 1612. ( C / I )
Skill 36 : Use The Correct Tense With will and would
Certain combinations of verbs are very common in English.
One is the combination of the simple present and will
Example : I know that they will arrive soon.
I knew that he would arrive.
40
It is certain that he will graduate.

It was certain that he would graduate.
The present should be used with will and the past should used
with would, they generally should not be mixed.
Example :I know that he would arrive soon incorrect
It was certain that he will graduate incorrect
The following chart outlines the use of tenses with will and
would :
Using Correct Tenses With will and would
Verb
Meaning
Use
do not use with
will
after the present
past
would
after the past
do not use with
present
Note : There is different modal would that is used to make
polite requests. This type of would is often used with
the present tense
Example : I would like to know if you have a pencil that I
could borrow.
Exercises 36 :
1. He knew that he will be able to pass the exam. ( C/ I )
2. I think that I will leave tomorrow . ( C / I )
3. Paul did not say when he will finish the project. ( C / I )
TOEFL Exercise
1. To determine an objects force, the mass and speed of the
object must be
A
B
C
measure.
D
2. The most common time for tornados to occur are in the
afternoon or
41
A
B
C
or evening on a hot, humid spring day.
C
3. Automakers Nissan and Ford and several aerospace
research facilities in
A
Great Britain are working lately to apply active noise
cancellation to entire
B
C
D
cars and plane.
Problem With Passive Verbs

The difference between an active and a passive verb is that
the subject in a active sentence does the action of the verb,
and the subject in a passive sentence receives the action
of the verb.
To convert a sentence from active to passive, two changes
must be made.
1. The subject of the active sentence becomes the object of
the passive sentence, while the object of the active
sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence.
2. The verb in the passive sentence is formed by putting the
helping verb be in the same form as the verb in the active
sentence and than adding the past participle of this verb.
Example : Margaret wrote the letter
S
The letter was written

S
by Margaret
O
Skill 37 : Use The Correct Form of the Passive

General Pattern :
42
Active
Passive
S + V + O
S + be + V3 +
by Agent
Note : In the scientific text, a sentence is often written in a

passive form because the important idea is not who did
something but what is done
43
Formating The Passive

ACTIVE : (a)
The reserach workers face the sample

problems.
PASSIVE : (b) The sample problems are faced by the

research workers
Form of the passive : be + past participle

In the passive, the object of an active verb
becomes the subject of the passive verb: the
sample problems in (a) becomes the subject of
the passive verb in (b)
(a) and (b) have the same meaning
ACTIVE : (c )
An accident happened
PASSIVE : (d)
(none)
Only transitive verbs (verbs that are followed by

an object) are used in passive. It is not possible
to use verbs such as happen, sleep, come,
and seem (intransitive verbs) in the passive
Active
Passive
Simple Present
Present Progresive
being conducted
Present Perfect
been conducted
Simple Past
Past Progresive
being conducted
Past Perfect
Mary conducts a research.

A research is conducted
Mary is conducting a research.
by Mary
Mary has conducted a research.
by Mary
Mary conducted a research.
A research was conducted
Mary was conducting a research.
by Mary
Mary had conducted a research.
44
by Mary
A research is
A research has
by Mary
A research was
A research had
THE PASSIVE FORM OF MODALS AND SIMILAR EXPRESSIONS
THE PASSIVE FORM : modal + be + past participle

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
The professor of Fluid dynamics will be invented to the International Conference in ITS.
Flowcharting cant be restricted by a particular program on any particular.
The components should be restored in one box to avoid damage.
Synthetic polymers may be used to increase flammability.
This theory had better be applied to the next experiment.
This research ought to be completed before June 1st .
The program has to be conducted in proper working order.
The plenary is supposed to be held after dinner.
THE PAST-PASSIVE FORM : modal + have been + past participle
(i)
(j)
(k)
The final report of steel acrh should have been sent last week bridge design .
This harbour must have been constructed over 200 years ago.
The road ought to have been asphalted two days ago.
45
46
Exercises 37 :
1.
2.
3.
The boy had never be stung by a bee ( C / I )

The suits were hung in the closet when they were
returned from the cleaners ( C / I )
Money is lending by the credit union to those who want to
buy homes (C/I )
Skill 38 : Recognize Active and Passive Meanings
When there is no object (with or without by after a verb,

we must look at the meaning of the sentence to determine
if the verb should be active or passive.
Example : We mailed the package at the post office.
The letter was mailed by us today before noon.
The letter was mailed today before noon.
To determine that such a sentence is incorrect, we must

study the meaning of the subject and the verb.
We must ask ourselves if the subject does the actin of the

verb (so an active verb is needed) or if the subject
receives the action of the verb (so a passive verb is
needed).
The following chart outlines the difference in meaning

between active and passive verbs :
Active and Passive Meanings
Active
Passive
The subject does the action of the

verb
The subject receives the action of
the verb
Exercises 38 :
1.
2.
3.
The car parked in a no-parking zone. ( C / I )

The physics exam began just a few minutes ago .( C / I )
Everything to organize the picnic has already done .( C / I )
TOEFL Exercise
46
47
1. Particular issues that concern teenagers were covering in
the half-hour
A
B
C
D
program.
2. Electrical impulses may also picked up by the optic
nerve.
A
B
C
D
3. Workers training for a specific job have a strong
possibility of being
A
B
C
replace by a machine.
D
Problems with Nouns
Skill 39 : Use The Correct Singular or Plural Noun
A problem that is common in Written Expression questions
of the TOEFL test is a singular noun used where a plural
noun is needed, or a plural noun used where a singular
noun is needed.
Example : On the table there were many dishes.
The Lab assistant finished every test.
In written expression of the TOEFL test, we should watch
very carefully for key words, such as each, every, a,
one, and single that indicate that a noun should be
singular.
We should also watch carefully for such key words as
many, several, both, various, and two (or any other
number except one) that indicate that a noun should be
plural.
The following chart lists the key words that indicate to us
whether a noun should be singular or plural :
Key Words for Singular and Plural Nouns
For singular Nouns
each
every
single
both
two
many
a
For Plural Nouns
47
one
48
several
various
Exercises 39 :
1.
The outomotive shop stocked many part for the various

types of Hondas .
(C/I)
2. Every receipt must be removed from the cashiers drawer
and tallied (C /I )
3. The salesclerk demonstrated various additional way that
the machine could be used. ( C / I )
Skill 40 :
Nouns
Distinguish Countable and Uncountable
In English nouns
uncountable.
Countable Nouns :- Nouns that can be counted, such as :

book, pencil
- Can come in quantities of one, two, or
a hundred,
etc
Uncountable Nouns:
are
classified
as
countable
or
Nouns that cannot be counted,

because they come in some
indeterminate qauntity or mass,
such as milk, happiness etc
Are often liquid items, such as
water, oil, shampoo.
Can also refer to abstract ideas,
such as security, friendship, or
hope.
It is important for us to recognize the difference between

countable and uncountable nouns when we come across
such key words as much and many
Example :He has seen many foreign films
He didnt have much fun at the movies
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The following chart lists the key words that indicate to us
whether a noun should be countable or uncountable :
Key words for Countable and Uncountable Nouns
For Countable
Nouns
many
fewer
For Uncountable
Nouns
much
less
number
amount
few
little
Exercises 40 :
1.
He received little notice that the bill would have to be paid

in full . ( C / I )
2. The police had fiew opportunities to catch the thief who
had committed a large amount of crimes . ( C / I )
3. You will have fewer problems with your income taxes if
you get professional help. ( C / I )
Skill 41 : Recognize Irrefgular Plurals of Nouns
Many nouns in English have irregular plurals.

The irregular forms that are the most problematic are
plural forms that do not and in s.
Example :
Different criteria
performers.
were used to evaluate the
The following chart lists the irregular plurals that you should
become familiar with :
Irregular Plurals
Vowel change
Add -en
Same as
singular
- is - es
Ends in a
man / men
foot / feet
goose / geese
woman / women tooth / teeth
mouse / mice
child / children
ox / oxen
deer / deer
salmon / salmon
trout / trout
fish / fish
sheep / sheep
analysis / analyses diagnosis / diagnoses synthesis /
syntheses
axis / axes
hypothesis / hypotheses
crisis / crises
parenthesis / parentheses
thesis /
theses
bacterium / bacteria
datum / data
creterion / criteria
curriculum / curricula
phenomenon /
phenomena
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- us -i
alumnus / alumni fungus / fungi

stimuli
bacillus / bacilli
nucleus / nuclei
syllabi
cactus / cacti
radius / radii
stimulus /
syllabus /
Skill 42 : Dishtinguish The Person From The Thing
Nouns in English can refer to persons or things.

Sometimes in the written expression questions on the
TOEFL test the person is used in the place of thing, or the
thing is used in place of the person.
Example :
Ralph Nader is an authorization in the field of
consumer affairs (incorrect)
Ralph Nader is an outhority in the field of consumer
affairs (correct)
There are many job opportunities in accountant .
(incorrect)
There are many job opportunities in accounting.
(correct)
Exercises 42 :
1. In the evening he relaxes in front of the fire and writes
long poets. ( C / I )
2. Service in the restaurant was slow because one cook had
called in sick.( C / I )
3. The sculpture worked from sunrise until sunset on his
new project. ( C / I )
TOEFL Exercises
that is not correct!
1. Temperature indicates on a bimetallic thermometer by
the amount that the
A
B
C
D
bimetallic strip bends.
2. Many of the food consumed by penguins consists of fish
obtained from the
A
B
C
D
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ocean.
3. Before the newspaper became widespread, a town crier
has walked
A
B
C
throughout a village or town singing out the news.
Problems With Pronouns

Pronouns are words, such as he, she, or it, that take the
place of Nouns.
The following pronoun problems are the most common on
the TOEFL test :
1 distinguishing subject and object pronouns
2 distinguishing possessive pronouns and possessive
adjectives
3 checking pronoun reference for agreement
Skill 43 : Distinguish Subject and Object Pronouns
We should
pronouns
be able to recognize subject and object
Subject
Object
me
you
you
he
him
she
her
It
it
we
us
they
them
A subject pronoun is used as the subject of a verb

An object pronoun can be used as the project of a
verb or the project of a preposition.
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52
Example
:
Sally gave the book to John
She gave it to him
Him and the girl are going shopping (incorrect)
The gift was intended for you and I (incorrect)
Exercise 43 :
1. The worst problem with it is that he can not afford it .
(C/I)
2. They saw Steve and I at the movies last night after class.
(C/I)
3. Perhaps you would like to go to the seminar with they
and their friends. ( C / I )
Skill 44 : Distinguish
Pronouns
Possessive
Adjectives
and
Possessive adjectives and pronouns both show who or

what owns a noun.
A possessive adjective describes a noun : it must be
accompanied by a noun
Example :
- They lent me their
book.
A possessive pronoun takes the place of a noun : it can

not be accompained by a noun
Example :
- They lent me theirs
Incorrect examples of Pronoun :

Example : - Each morning they read theirs newspapers
- Could you give me your ?
The following chart outlines the possessives and their uses :

Possessive
Possessive Pronouns
Adjectives
my
mine
your
yours
his
his
her
hers
its
our
ours
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their
must be a
ccompanied by a
noun
theirs
cannot be
accompained by a noun
Exercise 44 :
1.
If she borrows your coat, then you should be
able to borrow her. ( C/I )
2. Each pot and pan in her kitchen has its own place on the
shelf. ( C / I )
3. Mary and Mark invited theirs parents to see their new
apartment.(C / I )
Skill 45 : Check Pronoun Reference for Agreement
We should check each of pronouns and possessives for

agreement.
Example :
The boys will cause trouble if you let them
correct
The boys will cause trouble if you let him
incorrect
Everyone must give his name
correct
Everyone must give their name
incorrect
Exercise 45 :
1. If a person really wants to succeed, they must always
work hard .( C / I )
2. If you see the students from the math class, could you
return their exam papers to them.( C / I )
3. Some friends and I went to see a movie, and afterwards
we wrote a critique about them.( C / I )
TOEFL Exercise
Choose the letter of the underlined words or group of words
1. The latest medical report indicated that the patients
temperature was near
A
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normal and their lungs were partially cleared.
B
C
D
2. Most oxygen atoms have eight neutrons, but a small
amount have nine or
A
B
C
D
ten.
3. When Paine expressed his belief in independence, he
praised by the
A
B
C
public.
D
Problem with Adjectives and Adverbs
Often adverbs are formed by adding ly to adjectives,

and these ly adverbs are very easy to recognize.
The following examples show adverbs that are formed by
adding -ly to adjectives :
Adjective
recent
public
evident
Adverb
recently
publicity
evidently
However there are many adverbs in English that do not

end in ly .These adverbs can be recognized from their
meanings.
They can describe when something happens (often,
soon, later)
How something happens ( fast, hard, well )
Where something happens ( here, there,
nowhere )
There are three skills involving adjectives and adverbs

that will help us on the written expression section of the
TOEFL test :
knowing when to use adjectives and adverbs
using adjectives rather than adverbs after linking
verbs
positioning adjectives and adverbs correctly
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55
Skill 46 : Use Basic Adjectives and Adverbs Correctly
Adjectives and adverbs have very different uses.

Adjectives have only one job : they describe nouns or
pronouns
She
is a beautiful woman
adjective
She
noun
is beautiful
pronoun
adjective
Adverb do three different things. They describes verbs,

adjectives, or other adverbs.
She
sings
beautifully
verb
She
adjective
is
beautifully
adverb
She
is
dressed
adjective
a truly beautifully
dressed
adverb
adjective
adverb
woman
noun
woman
noun
The following chart outlines the important information that we

should remember about the basic use of adjectives and
verbs :
Basic Use of Adjectives and Adverbs
Adjectives
Adjectives describe nouns or pronouns
Adverbs
Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, or

other adverbs
Exercise 46 :
Indicate if the sentences correct ( C ) or incorrect ( I ) !
1. The mother was pleasant surprised when her daughter
came to visit. ( C / I )
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2. The salespeople frequently visit the East Coast for trade
shows. ( C / I )
3. He was driving an expensively sports car. ( C / I )
Skill 47 : Use Adjectives after Linking Verbs
Generally an adverb rather than an adjective will come

dirrectly after a verb because the adverb is describing
the verb.
She
spoke
nicely
verb
adverb
However, we must be careful if the verb is a linking

verb.
A linking verb is followed by an adjective rather than an
adverb.
She
looks
subject
nice
adjective
We should be sure to use an adjective rather than an

adverb after a linking verb.
The adjective that goes with the linking verb does not
always directly follow the lingking verb.
He
seems
subject
unusually
adverb
nice
adjevtive
The following chart list commonly used linking verbs and

outlines the different uses of adjectives and adverbs after
regular verbs and linking verbs :
Adjectives and Adverbs after Verbs
( Subject ) + (regular verb ) + ( adverb )
A regular verb is followed by an adverb. The adverb describes
the verb
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( Subject ) + (lingking verb ) + ( adjective )

A lingking verb is followed by an adjective. The adjective
describes the subject
(subject) + (lingking verb) + (adverb) + (adjective)

It is possible that a linking verb is followed by an adverb and
an adjective. The adverb describes the adjective and the
adjective describes the subject
Linking verbs :
appear
fell
seem
be
look
smell
become
prove
taste
Exercise 47 :
1. The parents seem angrily about the childs report card. ( C /
I)
2. The speaker talked knowingly about prehistoric fossils. ( C /
I)
3. After she drank the lemonade, the cake tasted too sweetly
to her. ( C / I )
Skill 48 :Position Adjectives and Adverbs Correctly
There are two common errors of position adjectives and

adverbs that we should bewere of :
the position of adjectives with the nouns they
describe
the position of adverbs with objects
Examples :
The information important is on the first page .
(I)
noun
adjective
He has taken recently an English course .

(I)
Adv
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object
58
Recently he has taken an English course.
(C)
He has recently taken an English course.
(C)
He has taken an English course recently.
(C)
The following chart outlines the key points that we should

remember about the position of adjectives and adverbs :
The Position of Adjectives and Adverbs
A one-word adjective comes before the noun
Adjectives
it describes. It does not come directly after.
An adverb can appear in many positions. It
Adverbs
cannot be used between a verb and its object.
Exercise 48 :
Indicate if the sentences correct ( C ) or incorrect ( I ) !
1. The store opened with a sale fantastic. ( C / I )
2. The pharmacist has always filled out order quickly. ( C / I )
3. The political candidates expressed their opposing views.
(C/I)
TOEFL Exercise
1.
The Colorado River reaches their maximum
height during April and May.
A
B
C
D
2.
Plant proteins tend to have few amino acids than
proteins from animals
A
B
C
sources.
D
3.
The Viking spacecraft has landed on Mars in July of
1976.
A
B
C
D
MORE PROBLEMS WITH ADJECTIVES
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59
This section deals with a few problems that are related only to
adjectives :
1 ly adjectives
2 predicate adjectives
3 ed and -ing adjectives
Skill 49 : Recognize ly adjectives
Generally when a word ends in -ly in English, it is an
adverb.
However, there are a few words ending in ly that are
adjectives, and these -ly adjectives can cause confusion
in the written expression section of the TOEFL test.
The manager turned in his weekly

adj
The following chart lists common

appear in English :
report
noun
-ly adjectives that can
-ly adjectives
costly
early
friendly
kindly
likely
lively
lonely
manly
daily
hourly
monthly
nightly
quarterly
weekly
yearly
lovely
northerly
easterly
southerly
westerly
Exercise 49 :
1. Federal taxes are yearly taxes which must be paid every
April.( C / I )
2. At the fashion show, the new seasonally fashions will be
shown. ( C / I )
3. Do you want to go to the early movie or the lately movie ? (
C/I)
Skill 50 : Use Predicate Adjectives Correctly
Certain adjectives appear only in the predicate of the

sentence.
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60
They appear after a linking verb such as be, and they

cannot appear directly in front of the nouns that they
describe.
The snake on the rock was alive
(c)
The alive snake was lying on the rock ( i )
The following chart lists some common predicate adjectives

and the coresponding forms that can be used in front of the
noun :
Predicate Adjectives
alike
like, similar
alive
live, living
alone
lone
afraid
frightened
asleep
sleeping
A predicate adjective appears after a linking
verb such as be. It cannot appear directly in
front of the noun that it describes
Exercise 50 :
1. The two brothers do not look at all alike. ( C / I )
2. My friend brought the alive lobster to my house and
expected me to cook it. (
C/I)
3. Are you going to be lone in the house tonight ? ( C / I )
Skill 51 : Use ED and ING Adjectives Correctly
Verb forms ending in -ed and -ing can be used as
adjectives.
The verbal adjectives cleaned and cleaning come from
the verb to clean.
The woman cleans the car.

verb
The cleaning woman worked on the car.

adjective
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The woman put the cleaned car back in the
garage.
adjective
Verbal adjectives ending in -ed and an -ing can be

confused in the written expression section of the TOEFL
test
The cleaning car ...............
(the cleaning car is not correct because a car
cannot do the action of cleaning)
The cleaned woman .....
(the cleaned woman is not correct because a
woman cannot receive the action of the verb
clean )
The following chart outlines the key information that we

should remember about -ed and -ing adjectives :
-ED and -ING Adjectives
active It does the action of ......the happily playing
ing
the verb
children...... (The
children play)
passiv It receives the
.....the frequently
ed
e
action of the verb
played record....
(Someone plays the
record )
Exercise 51 :
1. The teacher gave a quiz on the just completing lesson. ( C /
I)
2. There is a fascinating movie at the theater tonight. ( C / I )
3. They thouhgt that it had been a very satisfied dinner. ( C /
I)
TOEFL Exercise
1. Factor analysis is used to discover how many abilities are
involve in
A
B
C
D
intelligence test performance.
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2. One of the early orders of marine mammals, manatees
have evolved more than
A
B
fifty million years ago from land animals.
C
D
3. Dolphins and chimps are like in that they have been shown
to have language
A B
C
D
skills.
Problems with Articles
Articles are very difficult to learn, because there are :

many rules
many exeptions
many special cases
Nouns in English can be either countable or uncountable.

If a noun is countable, it must be either singular or plural.
There are two types of articles :
definite (specific )
indefinite (general )
Article
Indefinite
(General)
Definite
(specific)
Countable
Singular
Nouns
a dollar
an apple
the dollar
the apple
Countable
Plural
Nouns
-- dollars
-- apples
the dollars
the apples
Uncountable
Nouns
---money
-----juice
the money
the juice
Skill 52 : Use Articles with Singular Nouns
We can see from the chart that if a noun is either

countable plural or uncountable, it is possible to have
either the definite article the or no article (indefinite).
With all countable singular nouns, however we must have

an article (unless we have another determiner such as
my or each ).
Example :
I have money (uncountable no article needed)
I have
books (countable plural no article
needed )
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63
I have a book (countable singular article needed)
should remember about articles with singular nouns :
Articles with Singular Nouns
A singular noun must have an article (a, an, the ) or
some other determiner such as my or each. ( A plural
noun or an uncountable noun may or may not have an
article ).
Exercise 52 :
1. She is talking trip with friends. ( C / I )
2. In my yard there are flowers, trees, and grass. ( C / I )
3. The manager sent memo to his employees. ( C / I )
Skill 53 : Distinguish A and AN
The basic difference between a and an is that a is used in

front of consonants and an is used in front of vowels ( a,
e, i , o, u ) :
a book
an orange
a man
an illness
a page
an automobile
There are two exceptions to this rule : u and h. When u is

pronounced like the consonant y ( as in usual ), it is
preceded by the article a rather than an.
When h is not pronounced ( as in honor ), it is

preceded by the article an rather than a .
Pronounce the following examples :
a university
an unhappy man
honor
a unit
an understanding
a hospital
a heart
an
an herb
The following chart outlines the key information about the

use of a and an :
A
and
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AN
64
A
AN
A
is used in front of a singular noun with a
consonant sound
AN
is used in front of a singular noun with a
vowel sound
Be careful of nouns beginning with H or U. They may have

a vowel or a consonant sound.
Exercise 53 :
1. The dishwasher quit his job because he was making only
four dollars a hour. (
C/I)
2. It was an unexpected disappointment to receive a rejection
letter from the
University. ( C / I )
3. It is raining, so you should bring a umbrella. ( C / I )
Skill 54 : Make Articles Agree with Nouns
The definite article (the) is used for both singular and
plural nouns.
The use of the indefinite article is different for singular
and plural nouns
Example :
He saw a new movie.
He saw new movies.
( singular )
( plural )
They traveled to a nearby mountain.

They traveled to nearby mountains.
Do you have another book ?

Do you have other books ?
( singular )
( plural )
( singular )
( plural )
The following chart states the key point for us to remember

about the agreement of articles with nouns :
Agreement of Articles with Nouns
We should never use a or an with a plural Noun
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65
Exercise 54 :
1. She went to school in a local community. ( C / I )
2. The doctor used an other pills. ( C / I )
3. It is necessary to have a farm or land of your own . ( C / I )
Skill 55 : Distinguish Specific and General Ideas :
With countable singular nouns it is possible to use either

the definite or the indefinite article, but they have
different meaning.
The definite article is used to refer to one specific noun :
Example :
Tom will bring the book tomorrow.
( There is one specific book that Tom will bring
tomorrow.)
He will arrive on the first Tuesday in July.
( There is only one first Tuesday in July .)
He sailed on the Pacific Ocean.
( There is only one Pacific Ocean .)
The definite article is used when the noun could be one of

several different different nouns.
Tom will bring a book tomorrow.
( Tom will bring any one book.)
He will arive on a Tuesday in July.
( He will arrive on one of four Tuesdays in July.)
He sailed on an ocean.
(He sailed in any one of the worlds oceans.)
should understand about specific and general ideas :
Specific and General Ideas
Articl
e
Meaning
A or
An
general
idea
The
specific
idea
Uses
Use when there are many , and
we do not know which one it is.
Use when there are many, and we
do not care which one it is.
Use when it is the only one
Use when there are many , and
we know which one it is.
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66
Exercise 55 :
1. He took a trip on a Snake River. ( C / I )
2. Ill meet you at the library later. ( C / I )
3. The ball hit a child on a head. ( C / I )
TOEFL Exercise
1. Operas can be broadly classified as either comedies or they
are tragedies.
A
B
C
D
2. Tungsten has the highest melting point of all metals, and for
this reason it is
A
often use in equipment that must withstand high
temperatures.
A
B
C
3. Whereas there are forty- three ant species in Great Britain,
the same amount of
A
B
C
ant species can be found in a single tree in Peru.
D
Problem with Prepositions
Prepositions can be used in two ways :

in a literal way
in an idiomatic way
In the literal use, the preposition means exactly what we

expect.
Example :
The boy ran up the hill.
( The boy went in the direction up rather than down.
)
She went in the house.

( She went into rather than out of the house. )
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In the idiomatic use, the preposition appears in an

idiomatic expression, that is, it is meaning in this
expression has nothing to do with the literal meaning.
Example :
I call up my friend.
( To call up someone means to telephone
someone .)
He succeeded in passing the course.
( The word in is has nothing to do with the meaning
of into or inside, it is simply idiomatic that the
word in is used after the verb succeed . )
There are two common types of problems with
prepositions that we should expect :
incorrect prepositions
omitted prepositions
Skill 56 : Recognize Incorect Prepositions
Sometimes an incorrect preposition is given in a sentence

in written expression section on the TOEFL test.
Example :
The game was called, on because of rain .
( incorrect )
( to visit )
The game was called off because of rain .

( correct )
( canceled )
I knew I could count in you to do a good job.

( incorrect )
I knew I could count on oyu to do a good job.
( correct )
Exercise 56 :
1. After school many students participate in sports. ( C / I )
2. I know I can rely in you to be here on time. ( C / I )
3. If you need more light to read, turn on the lamp next to
you. ( C / I )
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Skill 57 : Recognize When Prepositions Have Been
Omitted
Sometimes a necessary preposition has been omitted

from a sentence in written expression questions on the
TOEFL test :
Example :
Can you wait me after the game ?
( incorrect )
Can you wait for me after the game ?
( correct )
I plan attending the meeting ?
( incorrect )
I plan on attending the meeting ?
( correct )
Exercise 57 :
1. If you take this job, it will be necessary to deal other
departments.( C / I )
2. Each child took one cookie from the plate.( C / I )
3. In the discussion, Rob sided the rest . ( C / I )
TOEFL Exercise
1. The body depends in food as its primary source of energy.
A
B
C D
2. Regular programming was interrupted to broadcast a
special news bulletins.
A
B
C
D
3. Sulfa drugs had been used to treat bacterial infection until
penicillin becomes
A
B
C
widely available.
D
Problems with Usage
In English certain groups of words have similar uses, the

following problems are the most coomon :
1 when to use make and do
2 when to use like, unlike, and alike
3 when to use other, another, and others
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69
Skill 58 : Distinguish Make
and Do
Make and do can be confused in English becuase their

meaning are so similar
Make
often has the
idea of
creating
or
constructing.
The following expressions show some of the possible uses
of make :
She likes to make her own clothes.
Would you like to make a cake for dessert ?
If you make a mistake, you should correct it.
He was unable to make a response to the threat.
Do often has the idea of completing or performing.

The following expressions show some of the possible uses
of do :
Example :
This morning she did all the dishes.
The students are doing the assignments.
The janitors did the work they were assigned.
You can do your laundry at the laundromat.
Exercise 58 :
1. The biology student did several mistakes in the lab report. (
C/I)
2. I hope that you will be able to do me a favor this afternoon.
(C/I)
3. No matter what job she has, she always makes her best.
(C/I)
Skill 59 :Distinguish Like, Alike, and Unlike
Like, alike and unlike are easily confused because they

look so similar and they have many different uses.
There are several structures with like, alike and unlike
that we should be familiar with.
The adjective alike and like (see Skill 50 )
Example :
John and Tom are alike.
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(Alike as a predicate adjective means similar,
describing John and Tom )
John and Tom worked in a like manner.
( Like as adjective form means similar )
The prepositions like and unlike, which have apposite

meanings must be followed by objects.
Example :
John is ( like Tom )
( Like as preposition means Tom and John are
similar )
John is (unlike Tom. )
( Unlike as preposition means Tom and John are
not similar )
The preposition like and unlike can also be used at the

beginning of a sentence
Example :
(Like Tom), John is tall.
( Like as a preposition means that Tom is tall. )
Unlike Tom, John is tall
(Unlike as preposition means that Tom is not tall )
The following chart outlines the structures and meanings
of sentences with like, alike and unlike :
Gramma
r
like adjective
alike adjective
like
unli
ke
like , alike, and unlike

Meani
Use
ng
similar
similar
prepositio
similar
n
differen
prepositio
t
n
As an adjective, like is used before a

noun
As an adjective, alike is used after
linking verb
Both prepositions are followed by
objects.
They can both be used in many
positions, including at the beginning
of the sentence.
Exercise 59 :
1. The two routes you have chosen for the trip are like.( C / I )
2. The science books this semester are like the books used
last semester. ( C / I )
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3. Alike the restaurant where we usually eat, this new
restaurant has early-bird
Specials. ( C / I )
Skill 60 : Distinguish Other, Another, and Others
To decide how to use each of them correctly, we must

consider three things:
1 if it is singular or plural
2 if it is definite ( the ) or indefinite (a, an )
3 if it is an adjective ( it appears with a noun ) or a
pronoun ( it appear by itself )
Singular
I have another book.
Indefini
(adjective)
te
I have another.
(pronoun)
I have the other book.
(adjective)
Definite
I have the other.
(pronoun)
Plural
I have other books
(adj)
I have others. (pron)
I have the other
books (adj)
I have the others
(pro)
Exercise 60 :
1. It is essential to complete the first program before working
on the others.(C/I)
2. The waitress will bring you the another bowl of soup if yoy
want. ( C / I )
3. You should pack another pair of shoes in case that pair gets
soaked. ( C / I )
TOEFL Exercise
1. Titania, photograped by Voyager 2 in 1986, has
significantly fewer craters
A
B
C
than another moons of Uranus.
D
71
72
2. The author Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald is better know as F.
Scott Fitzgerald.
A
B
C
D
3. The result of the failure to plan for the feture is that a child
from an urban
A
B
area must be took to the cauntry to see nature.
C
D
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Structure and Written Expression

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Structure and Written Expression

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STRUCTURE AND WRITTEN

in the answer choices. If the two sentence parts are not

1. Sentence with one clause

Skill 1: Be sure the sentence has a subject and a verb.

_______ was backed up for miles on the freeway.

A simple sentence in English must have at

Skill 2: Be careful of objects of prepositions.

A preposition is followed by a noun,

Skill 3: Be careful of appositives

both possible in English.

Skill 4: Be careful of Present Participles.

child _______ playing in the yard is my son.

A present participle is the ing form of the verb

Skill 5: Be careful of Past Participle.

Many sentences in English have more than one

Clause is a group of words containing a subject

Skill 6: Use coordinate connectors correctly

When we have two clauses in an English

is singing and Paul is dancing.

Coordinate connectors: and, but, or, so, yet

Skill 7: Use Adverb of Time and cause connectors

Adverb Time and Cause Connectors

Skill 8: Use other adverb connectors correctly

Other Adverb Connectors

NOTE: A comma is often used in the middle of the

III. More Sentences with

A noun clause is a clause that functions as a

Because the noun clause is a noun, it is used in a

When he will arrive is not important

Noun clause connectors were used to introduce noun subject

Skill 10: Use

what is in the box. NC as object of

We are concerned about who will do the work NC

Whoever is coming to the party must bring a gift

Skill 11: Use Adjective Clause Connectors Correctly

Because the clause is an adjective,

glass that she put on the

The glass that she put on the table contains milk.

Adjective Clause Connectors

Skill 12: Use Adjective Clause Connectors / Subjects

In some cases an adjective clause connector is

An adjective clause connector can also be the

Adjective Clause Connector / Subjects

IV. Sentences with Reduced

My friend should be on the train which is arriving

Although it was not really difficult, the exam took

Skill 13: Use Reduced Adjective Clauses Correctly

I dont understand the article which appears in todays

To reduced an adjective clause, omit the adjective

If there is no be-verb, omit the connector/subject and

If an adjective clause is set off with commas, the

Skill 14: Use Reduced Adverb Clause Correctly

Reduced Adverb Clauses

To reduce an adverb clause, omit the subject and the

He can go to the movies

Invert The Subject and Verb with Question Words

asked the client why it

Skill 16 : Invert the Subject and Verb with Place Expressions

When a place expression at the front of the sentence contains extra

Skill 17: Invert the Subject and verb with Negatives

When a negative expression appears in front of a subject and verb in the

Invert The Subject and Verb with Conditionals

would have been accepted .in checking its accuracy