Physical Modelling as an Engineering Tool for Mining:

Theory and Practice

Castro, R
Orellana, L
Pineda, M
Laboratorio de Block Caving (BCL)
Advanced Mining Technology Centre
Universidad de Chile

Abstract
Mining is one of the disciplines that require more engineering resources given the important
decisions that may cost several millions of dollars to develop. Engineering tools for this purpose
include numerical, scaled models, and full scale tests. From all thee, the ones that have gained
more attention in the past years are numerical models and full scale trials. Physical modeling,
despite being the lowest cost approach, seems to have lost credibility in the last years due to the
over expectation of being reality (not a model).To clarify this, in this paper the fundamentals
and related applications for the use of physical scaled models for block caving applications is
presented. Applications include the study of the caved rock flow in caving mines and the
equipment performance for the design of novel draw systems. The results of the scaled models
are compared to mine data which allowed the role of physical modeling to be quantified. They
indicate that for engineering purposes physical modeling is a tool that could be confidently used
for decisions making purposes in caving engineering.

Introduction

This paper attempts to formally re-introduce scaled physical modeling into the mining
engineering community. This approach has been successfully used for several years in other
engineering disciplines including mining, but seems to have been abandoned in recent years.
Physical modeling continues to be used in other disciplines (especially in civil engineering) that
have use it for design purposes for several years to solve very complex problems (Langhaar,
1959). When analyzing the research that is taking place around the world there seem to be a
tendency to focus on the use of numerical modeling for problem solving in mining engineering.
There may be reasons for this, one is that the old generations went to the process of physical
modeling in some areas (e.g. in geomechanics) without plenty of success. The other reason is
that in the curriculum of mining engineers there is a lack of understanding of the fundamentals
of physical modeling. In this paper the theory as well as practical examples of the use of
physical modeling in mining engineering is presented. The scope of physical modeling is also
described not only qualitatively but with clear examples to justify the use of this approach, and
why there should be allowance for this technique in mining engineering programs.

Similitude analysis

Physical modeling follows the following steps:

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)

Similitude analysis.
Construction of the physical model and the extraction system.
Diagnosis and calibration of the model
Conduction of Experiments
Comparisons to full scale trials
Proposals for further studies and design.

The theory behind the use of scaled models is similitude analysis to understand the physics of
the system, and can be found in several text books (e.g. Langhaar, 1959). In summary, when a

system is reduced the basic idea is to preserve the geometry, velocities and the acting forces in
the scaled system (model) so that it is realistic with respect to the system under study
(prototype). Of course when scaling down systems there are distortions that are likely to occur
due to the presence of spurious forces that may affect the scaled system. The modeler should
then determine the conditions that are more realistic. This is determined by defining first the
ratio of the main forces acting in the prototype to define the constants. Theoretical analysis of
the forces that may be due to the scaled effect is then conducted. Table 1 shows the main
variable scales to be considered when gravity is the main acting force.
Table 1. Similitude analysis variables scaling parameters

Variable

Scale Factor

Length

!!

Area

!!!

Volume

!!!
!!

Time

!!

!/!

Weight

!!!

Stresses and material strength

!!
1

FrictionAngle

!/!

Velocity

Case Study 1: Design of a new materials handling system

A novel material handling system has been developed by the Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
Innovation (IM2) and CODELCO with the objective of increasing the production rate of
massive underground mining methods (Encina, Geister, Baez, & Steinberg, 2008). The system
is based on stationary plate feeders installed at the drawpoints. In this way, more than one
drawpoint could work at the same time, producing a significant increase in the rate of
extraction. In 2006 full scale trials were conducted at El Salvador Mine to evaluate the
feasibility of the system. The Block Caving Laboratory (BCL) was asked by IM2 to develop an
experimental plan to understand the fundamentals of gravity theory for design purposes for this
new material handling system.
3.1

Experimental Set Up

The experiments at scale were conducted in two stages in order to gain confidence in the
physical modeling work. It should be emphasized that this was required as both the geometry
and the equipment were scaled, and results were also available for the tests on the mine to
compare the physical modeling results and therefore adjust the parameters including the
material strength characteristics. The first model built was a 2D representation across the gallery
(Error! Reference source not found.). The geometric scale was 1:50, so the model represents
a 50 [m] extraction column of broken material (Alvarez, 2010; Orellana, 2011). The production
gallery dimensions were 4 x 4 [m x m] and the material size distribution was characterized by
crushed stone with D50 equal to 1.8 [cm] (!!" = 0.9 [m] mine scale) at laboratory scale.

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Deleted: Figu

Figure 1. Experimental set up for the 2D (left) and 3D model of flow (right).

The second stage was the construction of a 3D model of a drawpoint. The experimental plan
considered the evaluation of the system in a new mine (Orellana & Castro, 2011). The
methodology was similar to the 2D model including measurement of horizontal stresses to
further investigate the arching effect. The geometric scale was 1:50 so the model represents a 50
[m] extraction column of broken material. The experimental plan for both models aimed to
characterize the flow behavior of the new system in comparison to the LHD draw system. This
was done by conducting a series of tests varying different parameters that include the geometry
of the drawbell and drawpoint, the fragment size distribution (narrow, wide distribution and
fragment size), the strength of the material and the plate feeder configuration (speed and
geometry). The variables under analysis included the productivity (tons/cycle), hang ups
(frequency and type), stresses at the boundaries, the forces requirement to move the plate feeder
and the interferences.
3.2

Methodology

The methodology for the measurement of the variables included the flow geometry, interference
and equipment productivity. To establish a mechanistic model for flow, a number of
experiments were conducted considering the parameters indicated in Table 2.
Number

Parameter

Table 2. Parameters under study

Nomenclature

Range
of
experiment
(scaled values)
4m
3-4 m
53-58

1
2
3

Width of drawpoint
Height of drawpoint
Angle of the drawbell

Hg
Hh
a

4
6
5

Roughness of the drawbell

Distance between brow and drift
Material point load strength index
resistance (gravel to gypsum)
Material density (in-situ)
Height of draw
Characteristic fragment size

0 and 45
2.1-3.1 m

I50

0.21-21.62 MPa

Hc
D50

2.5 2.84 ton/m3

50 m
0.9 m

Cu=D60/D10

2.23 2.75

Wpf

1.85 m

6
7
9
10
11

Size distribution (coefficient of

uniformity)
Width of the plate feeder

12

3.3

Angle of the plate feeder

90 and 62

Results

The results obtained during the experiments could be divided into three. Those that correspond
to the flow geometry (due to the influence on recovery), operational interferences (hang ups)
and another set to the equipment performance during the tests (productivity per cycle). In terms
of flow the use of markers allowed the extraction zone to be determined. As noted in Figure 2,
the flow develops in the middle of the drawbell and grows as an ellipse as indicated in the
results when using granular materials. In terms of the hang up prediction, the hang ups were
classified according the geometry in four types shown in the following figure.

Hangups, material supported at the top of drawbell

Hangups, material forming an arch between the bottom of

drawbell and production gallery

Hangups, material supported at the bottom of drawbell

Hangups, material over the plate feeder forming a stable

structure

Figure 2. Hang up types noted during the experiments.

In terms of the equipment one of the reasons to conduct these experiments was to understand
the way that the plate feeder produced the flow. It was noted that the flow is through pushing of
the material at the base of the feeder (Figure 3, area 2). In this case the flow occurs in mass
(zone1) under the drawpoint, using more of the area below the drawbell. In this system there is
a no flow zone near the back of the feeder (zone 4). This is different than in a LHD system
where the draw occurs only near the brow.

Figure 3. Flow mechanisms for a plate feeder configuration

The quantitative results of the tests are summarized in Table 3. It is worth noting that in general,
the cinematic similitude was achieved and that the dynamic similitude (forces required by the
plate feeder) could be achieved by changing the strength of the material.
Table 3. Summary of results of measured variables
Stresses

Force in the plate

feeder
kN
(scaled to mine)

Gravity flow
pattern
(width of draw)

Coarser fragments
tend to arch over the
drawpoint.

Does not
influence.

Does not
influence. System
works at 11000
[kN].

The larger the

fragment size the
larger the flow
zone

Coarse
particle
distribution increase
the hang ups rate

Does not
influence.

Does not
influence. System
works kt 11000
[kN].

Coarse particle
distributions
increase the flow
zone width.

Different
weights of
extraction
column

The
system
required 3500 to
7000 [kN].

Different
materials affects
geometry the
flow zone

Does not
influence. System
works at 11000
[kN].

Does not
influence

Does
not
influence. System
works at 11000
[KN].

Does not
influence

Parameter

Productivity
(tons/cycle)

Hang up frequency
# hang up/1000 ton
(scaled)

Fragment
size

The smaller the fragment

size the smaller (-50%)
the smaller the tons per
cycle (-49%).

Fragment
distribution

Material
strength

Narrow size distribution

materials (dm = 1 cm; 0.5
[m]) produced more tons
per
cycle
when
compared to a wide
distribution (dm = 1.8
cm;0.9 m).
For
the
range
of
materials analyzed there
is an influence of around
40% on tons/cycle.

Different material
tests show the same
type of hang-ups but
with
different
proportion
of
occurrence.

Angle of
drawbell

Does not influence

Does not influence

It was observed
that
vertical
stress
was
modified.

Drawpoint
geometry

A decrease in the section

area (-27%) meant a
reduction on production
rate (-71%).

The result shows

that hang-ups rate
increase 4 times.

Does not
influence

Width of
the feeder

An increase on a 27 % in
area the production per
cycle in 29%

Does not influence

Does not
influence

Angle of
feeder

Does not influence

Does not influence

Does not
influence.

Does not
influence. System
works at 11000
[kN].
The experimental
test show that its
possible to reduce
the
energy
required to 9000
Kk (18 % of

Does not
influence

Does not
influence

cycles).

Case Study 2: Design of a new production level al Goldex

Goldex Mine is exploited by a novel mining method that combines the efficiency of sublevel
stoping drilling and blasting and an extraction similar to a block cave with one extraction level
located at the base of the stope (Frennete, 2010). At the request of the Agnico-Eagle Mines
Limited Goldex Project management, the BCL was asked to provide physical modeling in order
to understand the flow mechanism governing muck flow at the Eastern Primary Stope to
improve ore recovery and minimize dilution. The principal concerns lied in the fact that the
footprint is smaller than the projection of the ore body, generating concerns about the mobility
of the ore located at the footwall of the stope. In addition theres no notion of the predominant
phenomena governing the flow, and the mixing profile due to extraction. Section 609 was
chosen to be analyzed as a function of the amount of reserves located in the footwall wedge. A
limit equilibrium analysis was also conducted for the different sections of the ore body.
4.1

Experimental Set Up

The model consists of four dismountable plexiglass walls that delineate the final geometry of
the stope for the Section 609 block of the mine. The dimensions of the model are 1.6 m height x
1 m length x 0.25 m width. The base of the assembly incorporates the extraction system (11
drawpoints and the drawbell geometry where each one has a shovel installed). These shovels are
linked to a servomechanism that gives an electrical impulse that is controlled by an in-house
built software that allows varying the rate of extraction.

Figure 4. (Right) Physical Model. (Left) Drawpoints Level 76 and apex through section 609.

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In this model 5 experiments were run(Table 4).

Experiment

Table 4. Experiments for Goldex flow study

Draw strategy
Objective

Uniform draw

To determine the potential failure of the broken rock located at the

FW of the main stope and to quantify primary ore recovery when
drawing from level 76.

Isolated raw

To determine isolated flow zone diameter for design of the new

extraction level.

Uniform draw

To determine the potential failure of the broken rock located at the

FW of the main stope and to quantify primary ore recovery when
drawing from level 76 and from the proposed new level 73.

Uniform draw

This experiment is a duplicate from experiment 3, in order to

quantify the experimental error and results accuracy.

Uniform draw

This experiment simulates continuous dilution entry at the top of

the stope. The aim is to quantify potential dilution entry
mechanism and ore recovery

Figure 5. Experimental plan scheme

4.2

Results

The experimental plan and the obtained results can be classified as 4 main cases, due to the
observed governing mechanism of the caved rock flow. The cases are listed below and
presented in Figure 8:
Case 1: The extraction is performed by drawing only from the main extraction level (Level 76).
This case doesnt include dilution.When drawing from the main extraction level it was observed
that the flow developed upwards towards the hanging wall as this represents a lower strength
path for the movement to develop. Since the drawpoints are sufficiently close together, there is
an evident interaction between them and it results in a vertical massive flow as wide as the
footprint width of the extraction level. The vertical massive flow doesnt mobilize the footwall
in these conditions. Nevertheless, the ore located at the footwalls surface is able to flow by the
rilling mechanism from the FW to the HW direction.
Case 2: The extraction is performed by drawing from the main extraction level (Level 76) and
then drawing from level 76 and level 73 (proposed new level as a result of the IDZ experiment)
simultaneously. This case doesnt include dilution. When drawing both from level 76 and level
73, a fraction of the material located at the FW is mobilized. Still there is a passive zone located
at the FW that is not mobilized by drawing from level 73 and that will be able to flow by rilling.
Case 3: The extraction performed by drawing from the main extraction level (Level 76). Once
the subsidence is achieved, the refill starts simulating entry dilution at the stope. When the

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uniform extraction from level 76 begins the flow stream quickly propagates vertically up to the
stope surface as observed in the previous experiments. As soon as the flow breakthrough the
surface the dilution is mobilized. As seen from the experiments without dilution, the extraction
from level 76 results in a vertical massive flow as wide as the footprint of the extraction level.
This vertical flow shows preferential movement towards the HW. The vertical massive flow
doesnt mobilize the footwall in these conditions. Dilution entry for the drawpoints is mainly
influenced by the cave profile during the first part of the extraction. Since this cave profile
develops faster towards the HW, dilution entry for the drawpoints located near the HW is
reported earlier.
Case 4: The extraction performed by drawing from the main extraction level (Level 76) and
then drawing from level 76 and level 73 simultaneously. Once the flow breaks through to
surface, the refill starts simulating entry dilution at the stope. Continuing extraction from level
76 and starting draw from level 73, the flow mechanism due to extraction from level 73
generates lateral movement of the broken rock. The mobilized zone due to the extraction from
level 73 generates an early connection with the low density zone due to extraction from level 76
causing lateral dilution entry at level 73 starting from the HW towards the FW. Lateral dilution
is therefore the phenomenon that will determine the closure of the extraction for the drawpoints
located at level 73.

Figure 6. Conceptual scheme of the experimental results for the studied cases

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Using the information obtained from the labeled markers, it can be obtained the final ore
recovery for the studied cases. These results are listed in Table 5 which was used to define the
requirement of a new level for the mine.

Deleted: 8

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Deleted: Tabl

Table 5. Summary of results for the experimental plan

Experiment

Case

Extraction

With dilution

Estimated Ore Recovery

Experiment 1 and 3

Level 76

No

100%

Experiment 3 and 4

Level 76 and 73

No

100%

Experiment 5

Level 76

Yes

54% (100% dilution)

Experiment 5

Level 76 and 73

Yes

68% (100% dilution)

Experiment

Level 76 73 and 65

Yes

85% (100% dilution)

Conclusions
Physical modeling is an old technique that has been used for several years in other
engineering disciplines. In this paper the theory and practical examples of the technique are
presented. The results so far have indicated that physical modeling is an effective tool for
engineering design at least in the cases studied. As more knowledge is gained, the more it
would advance the mining engineering discipline.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Codelco and Agnico Mine for providing funding for the
research. This research has been conducted as part of the Conicyt project through the
Advanced Mining Technology Center at the University of Chile.

References

Castro, R. Pineda, M. (2012). Draw control at Goldex mine. Internal report to Agnico-Eagle,
Laboratorio de Block Caving, Universidad de Chile.
Frennete , P. (2010) The Goldex mine mining method. Proceeding of Caving 2010 Conference,
Perth, 20-22 April pp. 253-266.
Langhaar, H. (1959). Dimensional analysis and theory of models. John Wiley Sons (Eds)
Alvarez, P., (2010). Modelamiento fsico de la minera continua. Engineering Thesis,
Universidad de Chile
Orellana, M. (2011). Numerical modelling of the continuos mining system. Master in Mining
Eng. Thesis , University of Chile, Santiago, Chile.
Orellana, L., & Castro, R., (2011). Modelamiento fsico de la minera continua fase II. Internal
Report to IM2.
Encina,V., Geister, F., Baez, F., & Steinberg, (2008). Mechanised continuous drawing system:
a technical answer to increase production capacity for large block caves mines in proceeding of
MassMin2010, p. 553-562.