Lecture 5: Cells: Structure & Function

There Are 2 Basic Types of Cells: Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic

Prokaryotic cells are more primitive, small and without organelles

o Bacteria, blue-green algae
Eukaryotic cells are more advanced, larger, contain organelles
o All higher species: animals, plants, fungi, protozoa
Our cells are of the eukaryotic type

The Cell Organelles are Found within the Cytosol

Cytosol is the liquid matrix of the cell- mostly water (cytosol + organelles except
nucleus = cytoplasm)
Contains salts, dissolved molecules, enzymes, etc.
____________ (energy metabolism: anaerobic) takes place in cytoplasm

The Cell Membrane Separates the Cytoplasm From the External World

Cell membrane is made of ___________ & _________

Barrier to movement of things in and out of the cell- hydrophobic molecules pass
through it more readily than hydrophilic ones
Specialized transport mechanisms: selectively move materials across the
membrane
Supported on inside by protein filaments (cytoskeleton)

The Cytoskeleton Determines the Shape of the Cell

Tubules are imbedded in the cytosol

Form a meshwork of fibers that:
o Give the cell shape
o Are used to transport structures within the cell (i.e., chromosomes in
mitosis)
o Are involved in movement of the whole cell
Three basic types of fibers:
o _______________ (made of tubulin)
o Intermediate filaments (made of several proteins)
o ________________ (made of actin)

The Nucleus Contains the Molecule of Heredity: DNA

Contains the DNA (genetic information)- DNA does not leave nucleus- it is an
archival copy of the genes
DNA is organized into chromosomes
Genes are encoded in the DNA; many genes on each chromosome
DNA associated with protein- protein turns genes on and off

Many repair mechanisms for DNA

Nucleus may contain 1 or more nucleoli (for making ribosomes)
RNA copy of gene is made in nucleus (transcription): messenger RNA
Nucleus is surrounded by 2 membranes (the nuclear envelope) with special pores
that let RNA out
Most cells contain 1 nucleus, but a few have more
o Some liver cells have multiple nuclei (polyploidy)
o Muscle cells are very long and have hundreds of nuclei
o Mature red blood cell has lost its nucleus

The Centrioles Organize the Mitotic Spindle for Cell Division

Centrioles are a pair of small structures found in the centrosome near the nucleus
Structure is similar to that of cilia (see below): contain a set of 9 triplet tubules
In animal cells they divide before cell division and help to organize the mitotic
spindle (made of tubulin)
Related to the basal bodies that are involved in organizing flagella

The Mitochondria are the Powerhouses of the Cell

Sites of cell respiration (Krebs cycle & electron transport)

o Require ______________
o Produce 36 ATPs/glucose molecule- major source of cell energy
Covered by 2 bilayer membranes
Typical cells have about 1000 mitochondria, but active cells like muscles will
have more.
Have small amounts of DNA

The diagram shows the internal structure of a mitochondrion

o Krebs cycle is located in the internal matrix
o NADH and FADH2 (produced by glycolysis and the Krebs cycle) deliver
their hydrogens and electrons to the electron transport chain (ETC)
o The ETC pumps hydrogen ions into the intramembrane space; this sets up
a pH gradient- pH 8 in the matrix and pH 7 in the intramembrane space

Hydrogen ions flow through a channel in the enzyme ATP synthase from
the intramembrane space to the matrix
This causes a shaft to rotate, and
Generates ATP in the matrix

Proteins are Made on the Ribosomes

Ribosomes are made in nucleolus, then leave nucleus and enter cytoplasm
Made of RNA and protein
Each has 2 subunits
Decode the genetic code and make protein (translation)
Some are free, but others attach to the endoplasmic reticulum, producing the
rough endoplasmic reticulum, RER
Proteins that are secreted by the cell or which go to other organelles are made on
the rough ER
o RER
RER is prominent in cells that are secreting hormones and enzymes: i.e., pancreas
cells

The Smooth ER Makes Lipids and Detoxifies Drugs

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum, SER, is made up of lipid membranes, has no

ribosomes
o Involved in lipid metabolism- makes cell membranes, steroid hormones,
etc.
o Liver smooth SER has enzymes that detoxify drugs (cytochrome P450
system)
o In muscle special smooth ER (sarcoplasmic reticulum) accumulates Ca
ions (trigger for muscle contraction)
Smooth ER can be seen best in cells that make lipid hormones (ovary, testes,
adrenal cortex) and in cells that detoxify drugs (liver)

Proteins are Finished off and Routed in the Golgi Apparatus

Golgi apparatus is a set of stacked membranes compartments found near the

nucleus
o Compartments have different functions
Golgi finishes proteins: adds sugar molecules to side groups, protects proteins
from breakdown
Packages proteins into vesicles for secretion or internal use
Sorts proteins & routes them to the right destination: some go to mitochondria,
others to lysosomes, some to cell membranes, etc.
Golgi is found in all cells but is especially well developed in cells that secrete
materials:
o Plasma cells: secrete antibodies
Pancreatic acinar cells: secrete digestive enzymes

Lysosomes Digest Materials within the Cell

Small vesicles surrounded by membranes

Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes that break down proteins, lipids, etc
Break down defective cell parts so they can be recycled
Also digest food brought into cell by phagocytosis
Involved in apoptosis (programmed cell death)
Require an acid pH inside (~4.5)

Peroxisomes Deal with Reactive Oxygen Molecules Such as Peroxides

Contain the enzyme, catalase, which converts hydrogen peroxide to O2 and water
Another enzyme, urate oxidase, sometimes forms crystals within the peroxisome
Important in fat metabolism

Cilia and Flagella Allow Cells to Move

Eukaryotic cilia & flagella are whiplike projections from the cell
o Have same internal structure: 9 pairs of tubules arranged in circle,
surrounding a central pair of tubules (called the 9 + 2 structure)

o
o
o
o
o
o
o

o
o

Beat repetitively (a bending motion) and cause cell to move (or move
fluids along a surface of cells)
Bending caused by a contractile protein, dynein
Enclosed within the cell membrane
Made of at least 200 different proteins
Some biologists call them undulipodia
Differences between cilia & flagella:
Flagella much longer (50-200 microns length) than cilia: cells with
flagella usually have only 1 or 2
Cilia are short(5-10 microns length); ciliated cells usually have
hundreds
Flagella in the body: sperm
Cilia in the body:
Respiratory tract lining: move mucus
Fallopian tube lining: move egg cells
Spinal canal lining: help move cerebrospinal fluid

Microvilli Increase the Surface Area of Cells

Projections of cell surface: form the brush borders of cells

Sometimes confused with cilia, but much smaller (1 micron length) and with a
different structure
Projections are supported by cytoskeletal filaments- mostly the protein actin
Used to increase the surface are for faster absorption or secretion of materials
o Absorptive cells with microvilli: intestinal epithelium
o Secretory cells with microvilli: choroid plexus cells of brain- secrete
cerebrospinal fluid
Specialized microvilli, called stereocilia (misnamed), are found on the surface of
the hair cells of the inner ear
o The stereocilia respond to sound vibrations and are involved in hearing

Defective Cell Organelles are Responsible for Some Diseases

Examples:
o a) Lysosomal storage diseases such as Tay-Sachs: lipids accumulate in
lysosomes because they cannot be broken down
o b) Cilia paralyzed by tobacco smoke and other pollutants cannot move
mucus. Mucus accumulates in the lungs, impairing respiration
o c) Lacticacidosis- can be produced by abnormal mitochondria with
defective aerobic metabolism. In this situation lactic acid can accumulate
in the blood.

There Are About 250 Types of Specialized Cells in the Body

Cells specialize by turning genes on and off and by structural modifications

Examples of specialized cells:
o Red blood cells:
Specialized for carrying O2 to the tissues
Loaded with __________ : O2 carrying protein
Have lost their nuclei and mitochondria
o Nerve cells
Specialized for transmitting electrical impulses
Have long axons- may be a meter or more in length
Have specialized Na and K channels for generating electricity
Only a single nucleus in the cell body- requires a special axonal
transport mechanism to deliver proteins made in the cell body to
the ends of the cell
o Muscle cells
Specialized for producing force by contraction
Have special contractile proteins- actin & myosin, arranged in a
sarcomere

Very long cells: often attached to 2 bones

Formed by fusion of many smaller cells; contain many nuclei
Insulin-secreting cells (beta cells of pancreas)
Gene for making the insulin hormone is turned on
Contain large amounts of rough endoplasmic reticulum- needed for
secretion

Cell Diagram: