Plant Biology Invasion Of Land

03/09/2011

General Adaptive Trends

Archegonium/antheridium
o Embryophyta (protected embryo)
Stomates
Vasculature (stellar anatomy)
Sporophyte dominance
Diploid
Impending spring Dormancy break
Bud break phenology
o Acer rubrum red maple
o Salix Nigra (willow)
Embryophyta invasion of land by other species caused the
protection of the species by embryos.
Tracheophytes Adaptive difference is the ability to distribute water
over longer distances
Mosses have traits that are similar to tracheophytes, have water
conducting vessels inside the organism for water conduction
Seedless vascular plants lycopods Heterospory - stellar anatomy
(horsetails)
Higher level of complexity for pathways that are used to transport
water. The ability to survive by the ability to transport water
through longer distances
The Ferns leptosporangial protective tubing outside the initial cell
creating a spore bearing body
Eusporangal - multiple cells play a role in the forming of the final
spore bearing structure creating periclinal and anticlinal divisions
which naturally result in sporogenous
Sporogenous cells under go meiosis to form the eventual spores.

Leptosporangial (order filicales)

Eusporangral
Ophioglassales
Morathales
Water ferns (exhibit heterospory)
o Marsileaea Salvinales
Development of ferns water relations in ferns and other
vascular/tracheal plants.
The outer cover which holds the spores in one place, which is a 3
dimensional structure.
The skin/coating of the cell protects the spore bearing body which is
inside the coating.
The annulus which sits inside the body dries out because of
relatively low humidity which causes the evaporaton of water away
from the annulus which dries out causing the body coating to get
tighter. the resultant is the loss of water and drying of the coat of
the outer layer and because of the evaporation of the water away
from the annulus causes gaps when the tensile is forced apart
causing the annulus to open out and the spores disperse into the
air. The spores are extremely small and are airborne, basically the
opening up of the annulus causes the spores to travel through air to
another moisture location for germination. The capability of spores
to remain dormant for longer periods of times is known to be of
scientific importance as it explains the formation of germination in
remote locations in the world.
Ferns tracheal/vascular plants
Root cell - High osmolarity draw water into the cell and once its
into the root cell it will be pushed up to the stem
o Root pressure plays a role in the growth of the stem and
because of the thickness and the osmolarity of water inside
the root cell
Evapotranspiration (pull) release of water vapour from inside the
cell to the outside, causing water movement. Humidity is a major
factor in the pull motion of water. Inside the leaf there is a path of
water that goes into the xylum, tensile strength causes a string of
water movement all the way down to the root soil. Evapuration
occurs at the top of the stem pulling water up to the stem from the
root.
Mechanical strength of the stem is the measurable factor which
describes the rate at which the water supply reaches the stem of
the plant from the root through xylem Scientific is inconclusive to
providing a measurable data to determine the levels of H20 present
at the stem or the root

Measurements of the tensile strength at the coat is vital in

determining the ability of the strength of water flow
Inside tree very fine water strands causes small popping noise
once an ultrasound device was attached to the tree showing the
water bubbles popping as the tensile strength of the coat popped to
release water.
The snappy sounds is the water strands breaking and causes the
transport of water reaching from the conductive pathways that lead
from the root cell to the stem the breakage of the water tense
pathways causes the death of a tree because of lack of ability for
the water to reach the stem from the root cell.
The tensile pull of the water relies heavily upon the evaporation of
the structure and the tensile strength and is strong enough to pull
that strand all the way up to the leaves

Seeded Vascular Plants

Heterospores represents the difference between a
microgametophyte sperm for motile fern or pollen for non motile
fertilization and megagametophyte
Megagamtophyte
Diploid 2n sporophyte embedded inside the sporophyte is the
structure of a gametophyte which includes haploid cells and egg
cells which will be fertilized by the microgametophyte
Fertilization
Diploid embryo occurs inside the haploid megagametophyte
concept of sporophytic which forms a gametophyte through meiosis
which is fertilized to form another diploid embryo which is
embedded into the gametophyte which is embedded into the
sporophyte which turns into the seed.
Leaf Anatomy
Micrphylls
Megaphylls
Sporophyte Domination
Heterospory Micro & megaspores
Gymnosperms (Seeded Vascular Plants)
Heterospory Seed Seed parasitic on surrounding
megagametophyte parasitic on surrounding sporophyte
Tracheophytes vascular system that pulls water up larger distances
Evolutionary concepts
Embryophyta stellar anatomy
Prostele

Siphonestele
Eustele

Secondary meristems
Vascular cambium dividing cells which differentiate into xylem
which brings more water to the leaves at the top of the plants
Secondary meristem plays a key role in term of dominance
terrestrial species
Dioecious 2 Root & Soil
Male & female plant organs
Ginkgo Biloba Structure associated with the species is a strand
lethargy soft feel
Ginkgos emerge in spring and the biloba means the 2 lobes present
in the leafs and are very resistant to air pollution and harsh
environments imposed on species due to pollution by mankind
They exist in eastern Asian countries and no presence in wild
ecosystems
They are diecious meaning have both male and female versions
The female has a seed being formed and the male has the
macrosporangia
Ginkgo biloba short shoot bearing male strobili. The leaves have
not reached mature size
Female version of the plant is avoided because of the nature of the
seed plant that is produced which is small, approximately the size
of a ping pong ball which is a leather coating and inside the seed is
the most disgusting slimy substance which smells awful
Gnetales Anticipate the appearance of flowers on plants called
angiosperms
Angiosperms have flowers
Coniferals (conifers)
o Monoecious group male and female are on the same plant
o Fruit & woody cone
Pinaceae Pine family
Taxodiaceae Genus associated known as Sequoia
Cupressaceae Genus associated known as Thuja
Taxaceace Genus associated known as Taxus species - taxol
o Needle like leaves fascicles at the root of the needle like
structures

Taxol affect on mammal cell growth resulted inhibitory anti

cancer drug actually used to essentially biosynthetically used to
treat cancer patients

Angiosperms flowering plants 100 million years ago

Species Diversity Bryophytes : 22, 500 species
Pteridophyta : 9000
Gymnosperms : 750
Angiosperms : 220, 000 Explosive Diversity Explosive biomass
Angiosperms
Explosive Biomass of the angiosperms is described as aggressive
vegetative growth
Kudzu
Speak in southern accent, became a threat because of over growth
exemplifies invasive species through aggressive growth factors and
violent expansion of biomasses
What is a flowering plant?
The flower is the important part of flowering a plant.
Continuity of species the flowers, the trees, the birds, and the bees
are all vehicles of transport which aids the explosive diversity of vegetative
flower plant explosion. Fertilization methods through gametes fusion. The
embryo sac between gametes and egg cell which creates a diploid
sporophyte progeny, there is also a triploid structure which is formed by one
pollen and 2 nuclei.
Life of the plant reproduction
Micro Gametogenesis male component
Pollen Mother cell is a diploid which goes through Meiosis 1 and 2 to
form 4 haploid spores in a tetrad structure. The tetrad structure will
disintegrate allowing for the free release of the spores into the
atmosphere or through a vehicle to transport to another species
The exine skin of the exterior is a really tough body of the
protective wall which contain the spore structures inside which will
eventually allow the cell growth of the spores inside the cell but the
permeability of the exine coating is strictly permeable and the
transport of the pollen from one species to another is carried out by
a vehicle. The spores remains dormant until ideal germination
environment which is protected by the tough exine exterior.

Cytoplasmic changes actually involve the haploid nuclei undergoing

mitosis to produce 3 nuclei : two sperm generative nuclei meaning
they are going to fuse with the nuclei on the female side and the 3 rd
nuclei is called the vegetative nuclei.
Membrane bound structures inside the two generation nuclei formed
through the haploid germination process means during the entire
maturation processs from the microspore the parent cell structure is
membrane bound inside the two generative nuclei
Pollen Mitosis Sperm cells and vegetative nucleus
Angiosperms Flowering Plants The life of a plant reproductive
biology
Microgametogenesis (pollen)
Megagametogenesis (ovule) Formation of nucellus (2n Parental)
Creation of megasporocyte Meiosis 1 ---Meiosis 2 Tetraspores
(haploid) 3 spores degenerate --- monosporic most common
leads to Bisporic or Tetrasporic
I the fern formation of bonafide gametophyte which is a vegetative
structure
Mitosis one cell splits into 2 cells which gather at opposite polar
locations which leads to 2 more cells being formed at the opposite
polar locations which leads to 8 cells in the final form of the
gametophyte
Microphyte include egg cell within the center of the micrphyte and
the 2 cells adjacent to the centralized egg cell are called synergid
cells
2 cells on the side are called antipodal cells
the 2 central nuclei fuse together to form a diploid
one of the nuclei fuse with the egg cell to form a zygote in a diploid
state
from the pollen in the micrgametophyte and the ovule from the
megagametophyte forms a triploid called endosperms
The life of a plant
Co-evolution pin and thrum morphology structure show the
different conformation of stigma and anthers. The different morph
structure promotes inbreeding growth patterns resulting in weaker
offspring. This is referred to as the physical mechanism that defines
the growth
A plant does not rely solely on morphology to survive, there are other
mechanisms associated with this process which insure avoiding inbreeding
within the population
Gametophytic System vs Sporophytic System
o Compatibility vs incompatibility

Incompatibility Gametophytic/Sporophytic
o Gametophytic Games major control of the system
o Sporophytic Genetically parental control of the system
Darwin and Mendel used gametophytic and sporophytic
experimentation to determine the different control variabilities
The genetics control to maximize the ability to outcross the species
to provide a stronger offspring

The Life Of A Plant

Micro/Megagametogensis
o Pollination/Self Outcrossing/Icompatibality
gametophytic/sporophytic
Gametophytic
o Hermaphrodite (most common 90%) Male and Female on
same flower
Bisexual plants
o Monoecious (5%) separate male and female. Flowers on same
plant
o Dioecious (2%) separate male and female plants
Humans got sex chromosomes XX, XY
Dioecious : male, staminate and female pistillate on different
individuals.
Bisexual : Male and female on same plant hermaphrodite : female
and male flowers on same plant
Monoecious: separate male and female flowers
An X linked Gene with a degenerate Y linked homologue in a dioecious
plant
Most flowering plants are hermaphroditic having flowers with both
male and female parts. Less then 4 percent of placent species are
dioecious with individual of speerate sexes, mane of these species
have chromosome miediated sex determination. The taxonomic
distribution of separate sexes and chromosomal sex determination
systems in the flowering plants indicates that plant sex
chroomsomes have evolved recently through replicated independent
events, contrasting with the ancient origins of mammalian and
insect chromosome. Here we show a gene encoding a male specific
protein is linked to the X chromosome in the dioeciously plant silene
latifolia and that it has a degenerate Y linked locus has degenerated
as a result of nucleotide detection and the accumulation of
repetitive sequences.

Succesful Fertilization has occurred

Diploid cell Zygote
Normally one of the first things that occurs in the development of
embryo, cellular division relies upon formation of asymmetries, humans have
head and feet and are asymmetrical structure. In the case of plants the
initial creature of axis is the first cellular division which results in the
appearance of an asymmetric two cell state
The 2 divisions are called apical cell which is the top of the cell and
the basal cell which Is the bottom part of the cell closely linked to
the root
Apical cell = stem cell
Basal cell = root cell
The continued division will create a greater division of asymmetrical
distribution and create a basal cell and apical cells and subsequent divisions
will occur in the apical cell followed by the development of more advanced
cell parts within the final form of the plant. The divisions continue to form
the epidermis of the cell through the division of only the apical cell. The
basal cell is only divided into 2 regions but the apical cell goes through
further divisions to include the epidermis structure called the protoderm
Assymetic polarity development crucial for the development of
embryo of higher plants
Protoderm is eventually the epidermis of the organism which is
formed through cellular division of the apical cell
The embryo resides in the seeds which further enhances and forms
into the plant
Through further cellular division and germination process the embryo
turns into a heartstage which is one step prior to the completion of the
germination stage where the final product is created known as the plant
The heart stage has an apical structure captured through the
cellular division of the apical cell and includes the cotyledon juvenile
leaves and included between the cotyledons includes the apical
meristem towards the end of the heart stage includes the root apex
Formation of the heart stage cotyledon and apical structure occurs
after roughly 10 days of germination fertilization stage
Zygote (parental sporophyte) survival key for further germination
Active cellular division germinate and survive is through the
parental zygote (sporophyte)
To survive the zygote needs to protect itself from the harsh
environments surrounding it. One critical way plants defend themselves is
the presence of water to actively metabolize, photosynthesize, active
respiration, reproduce. Through water the zygote will shut down the
metabolic processes and will desiccate itself

One of the final steps that occurs and is the part of the pre plant
separation is known lipid deposition and protein deposition
The 2 steps leading to desiccation are known as protein deposition
and lipid deposition storage of vital ingredients before desiccation
Desiccation packaged of protein and lipids to survive once it leaves
the parent sporophyte for eventual germination and prior to germination and
instead it desiccates and enters the state of deep dormancy to protect itself.
Final stages of embryogenesis Carbohydrates, lipid, protein
deposition leads to desiccation which leads to dormancy. The key to reach
the dormancy state is the loss of water which is the essential natural
resource for life
Water and salt balance are the most important factors that support
vital germination and fertilization processes
Removal of water leads to desiccation and dormancy by slowing
everything down, the ability for an organism to survive such as mosses have
adapted so well to the loss of water leads to dormancy levels which slows
down metabolic activities and respiration rates. The dormant and desiccated
state is an alive state jus requires water and air for it to return back to
normal state. A seed maintains itself in a dormant state and it is key for it to
survive in a dormant state under harsh conditions
Plant seeds in the ground and germination procedure begins and
the cold winter and cold harsh environment takes over and the
seeds remain dormant and desiccated state until the ideal
conditions are reached for maximum and optimum growth factors
No seeds would germinate in November, ideal conditions for
germination is spring around March 18, 2011
Dormancy and desiccated state becomes crucial for the survival of
plant seeds under harsh conditions
Desiccation = dormancy
Possible Exam Question
Zygote embryogenesis what is the process of zygote
embryogenesis?
Apical merestem What are the important stages for seed survival?
Asymmetric division
Protoderm formation
Desiccation
Heart shape embryo
Protein/lipid/carbohydrate deposition actual amounts are varied
depending upon the seed
Important stages for seed survival

Life of the plant

Inferior ovary
Biomechanics: the flight of the maple seed
The seed remains in the air as long as possible to spread out to
invade every likely atmosphere where germination could take over
the world
Maple have to spread throughout the northern region to expand
Some examples of types of processes that can occur in terms of the
seed and fruit development
Fruits fleshy, dry fruit
In some instances the variances can be quiet remarkable,
strawberries are unusual because the seed are embedded outside of
the fruit
The strawberries survive through the animal consumption of the
seeds located on its exterior
beans are often kept in a large bean dispensing structure. In wild
types the pot opens up and the seeds are dispersed
There are different types of mechanisms that are associated with
the seeds
Seed coat
A coat extremely permeable to oxygen, water
Environmental protection
An Embry Apical cell matures into the plant
Food storage seeds divided into oil, starch, protein
Food storage included into the endosperm, cotyledons
Storage of food is anticipated in successful germination of the seed
An ideal example is cucumber outer seed coat which is quiet
strong. Inner component is called cotyledon and the basement cell
is called radicle
Seed bank
Dormant seeds residency for extended periods of time waiting for
the right conditions to germinate
For seeds to remain dormant for longer periods of time is explained
by the atmospheric conditions of the climate in which the seeds are
situated
The discovery of dorment locus seeds was recorded by scientists
about 100 years ago
Lotus embryo Extreme example of dormancy
Waxy coated cells on the exterior of the seeds that protects the
dormancy state of the cell.

A Schloratic layer which densely packed together combined with the

overall thickness is remarkable in a sense that it provides protection
and also helps maintain dormancy state
The parenchyma which seperates the outer coat from the inner coat
The foot storage is within the cotyledons which are located within
the embedded embryo inside
Oxygen levels inside the embryo will react with crucial components
inside the embryo such as DNA
The Nil respiration minimize oxidative damage which can react
harshly with DNA inside the embryo
Alphanes
Therophyte which germinates in mid to late fall
Seed dormancy and dormancy break
Environmental cues temperature
o Light
o Hormones
o Water
Degree days
Degree days are the sum of degrees below 18
80% germination
78 days
52 days embryo
heat capacity of soil
cold-duration-senson
seed coat is inhibitory
soil soil temperature
o January 22

o September 22
Question
At what month would the soil emperature at a depth of 2.5cm be
warmest in Toronto
A none of the below
B January
Break of dormancy
Temperature optimal for germination accumulated cold
degree-days
Light light induction/photo period
Fluctuating temperature may be required
Accumulated cold northern or southern temperate conditions and the
abiity to measure the accumulated cold.
Apple seeds intact seeds at 50% germination 64 days
At 80% germination 78 days
Seed coat removed 43 day
Seeds require specific germination levels for optimal conditions
North to South vary according to altitude.
Ecotype individual species will vary based on its environment and a
lot of variation exists
After years the mechanisms for the variations based on
environmental conditions are still not fully identified and researched
Depending upon the time of year in particular case mid july or
December, research shows maximum germination occurs in
December in order for it to be mature by spring
The requirements that exist for germination to occur is dependent
on the environment

Light dependence of germination of a seed

In the form that should be familiar to you in the context of the
term action potential
Spectrolight requirements are a primary factor which under lies the
action potential capacity
Spectroqualities are studied to determine the most optimal
conditions for % germination
Red light is optimal condition for percent germination
Inhibition occurs at 800nm spectrometer wave length
Dark ---- Light -----24 hrs period to determine the spectrometer,
typical indogenous and extogenous conditions to observe what
happens in the process of germination
Far Red light occurs in the dark which signals the optimal conditions
for growth
RL +or equal to 100%
FR equal or less then 5%
RL-FR yielded there was no germination that occurred which
signaled more questions then answers
Photo reversibility
Ability to reverse a procedure by light treatment
RL-FR-RL-FR the last treatment has the photo reversibility affect
Linear tetrapyrolle
In sunlight natural conversion from red light to far red light form
o If you turn off the light the dark reversion will occur from far
red light to the red light form
Sunlight is going to produce far red light growth and dark reversion
will result as a final product.
Far red light pigment process produces seed germination
Question for exam
Which of the following pigments undergoes photo reversion with
either red light or far red light

Which process is used by plants to identify the equinor?

Light sensing phytochrome linear tetrapyrole conjugated
Flaroproteins
Photosynthetic pigments

A lnear tetrapyrole conjugated to protein (apoprotein + pigments =

chromo protein
Two forms red light absorbing Pr
Pr red absorbing light
PFR far red absorbing
RL red light causes conversion to PFR shine farther red light to PFR will
be converted into PR form
Light sensing Transduction Signal Pathways
In general sunlight can have a dominant Red light component causes
conversion from PR to PFR form. The sunlight pushes PR to PFR form and if
further Red light is shined on the PFR then the pigment is converted to PR
Sun rises at PFR and sets at PFR and during the night time the PFR
goes through slow reversion process into the PR form and it allows the plant
to measure the night length. The plant measures the night time through the
conversion of PFR to PR through night. The plant counts the length of night
and as the night shortens which spring approaching and the shorter night
length will cause the activation of the dormant or activating sequence
depending on optimal environmental conditions. Multiple different genes
tuned to different aspects of light sensing mechanisms. Modifying light to
revert the pigment process from PFR to PR. Red light going through dark
period goes to FR. Another experiment and the dark period is extended to a
longer period of time reaches FR. In between stimulus and output exists a
blackbox. There may be hints of what may lay inside the blackbox but it is
not guaranteed. A lot of times there are signal transduction pathways which
go through an object after stimulation is applied. Dark reversion gives way
for signal transduction pathways which occur inside the protein cell.
Hormones involved in break of dormancy

As a compound nucleic acid will inhibit synapses and make the plant
grow younger. Gibberellin GA1 breaker will cause germination where as ABA
acid will induce ceasing growth by reducing activity. Hazel seeds Corylus GA
at Cold temperature at 5 degrees Celsius germinate and seeds at 20 degrees
do not germinate and no cold treatment exists. Ash Fraxinus Americanium
seed germination, seeds of the Ash are being examined under the
circumstances with GA and interaction with ABA. Seed germination NO ABA,
NO GA gives 78% germination and with GA present and ABA absent 81%
germination. GA absent and ABA present gives 7% germination. GA present
and ABA present gives 63% Germination. GA controls the breaker and the
growth factors of the seed and the ABA inhibits the growth process. The
seed growth can be measured to learn the germination process of the seed.
The interplay between the two GA and ABA factors should be clear in terms
of the affect on germination. Some of the hormones have been discovered in
the 1900s and were identified later in the years and some of them were
identified later in the decade. Usually what happens with the studies is that
hormones are poured into the seeds to see the rate of reaction, the
experiments are subject to uncertainty. GA breaker of dormancy and inducer
of germination and ABA induces dormancy and breaker of germination.
Inbibes water (metabolic activity) radicle emgergence. The use of the term
radical differentiates between the initial root and the growing root of the
plant. The equivalent of the seed root. The emergence of the radicle is
absolutely crucial with the germination of the seed. During spring as rain
makes its way down the extension of the radicle (root) is extended to begin
the germination process through the absorption of water. Radicle Emergency
is known as the anchoring of the plant. The soil