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DeformationofRock

EENS1110

PhysicalGeology

TulaneUniversity

Prof.StephenA.Nelson

DeformationofRock

Thispagelastupdatedon11Feb2012
MountEverestisthehighestpeakonEarthat29,028feetabovesealevel.
Therockatthetopofthepeakisamarinelimestone,depositedontheseafloorabout450
millionyearsago!Thisisanamazingfactthatbegsthequestionhowdidthatrockgetthere?
Inthisdiscussionwewilltrytoanswerthatquestion.Thetopicswewillcoverinclude:
ReviewofStressandStrain
BrittleDeformationFaultsandJoints
DuctiledeformationFolds
MountainBuildingProcesses
StressandStrain
Westartourdiscussionwithabriefreviewoftheconceptsofstressandstrain.Recallthat
stressisaforceactingonamaterialthatproducesastrain.Stressisaforceappliedoveran
areaandthereforehasunitsofForce/area(likelb/in2).Pressureisastresswheretheforcesact
equallyfromalldirections.
Ifstressisnotequalfromall
directionsthenwesaythatthestress
isadifferentialstress.Threekindsof
differentialstressoccur.
1. Tensionalstress(or
extensionalstress),which
stretchesrock
2. Compressionalstress,which
squeezesrockand
3. Shearstress,whichresultin
slippageandtranslation.

Whenrocksdeformtheyaresaidtostrain.Astrainisachangeinsize,shape,orvolumeofa
material.Weheremodifythatdefinitionsomewhattosaythatastrainalsoincludesanykindof
movementofthematerial,includingtranslationandtilting.
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StagesofDeformation
Whenarockissubjectedtoincreasingstressitpassesthrough3successivestagesof
deformation.
ElasticDeformationwhereinthestrain
isreversible.

DuctileDeformationwhereinthestrain
isirreversible.

Fractureirreversiblestrainwhereinthe
materialbreaks.
Wecandividematerialsintotwoclassesthatdependontheirrelativebehaviorunderstress.
Brittlematerialshaveasmallorlargeregionofelasticbehaviorbutonlyasmallregion
ofductilebehaviorbeforetheyfracture.
Ductilematerialshaveasmallregionofelasticbehaviorandalargeregionofductile
behaviorbeforetheyfracture.

Howamaterialbehaveswilldependonseveralfactors.Amongthemare:
TemperatureAthightemperaturemoleculesandtheirbondscanstretchandmove,thus
materialswillbehaveinmoreductilemanner.AtlowTemperature,materialsarebrittle.
ConfiningPressureAthighconfiningpressurematerialsarelesslikelytofracture
becausethepressureofthesurroundingstendstohindertheformationoffractures.At
lowconfiningstress,materialwillbebrittleandtendtofracturesooner.
StrainrateAthighstrainratesmaterialtendstofracture.Atlowstrainratesmoretime
isavailableforindividualatomstomoveandthereforeductilebehaviorisfavored.
CompositionSomeminerals,likequartz,olivine,andfeldsparsareverybrittle.Others,
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likeclayminerals,micas,andcalcitearemoreductileThisisduetothechemicalbond
typesthatholdthemtogether.Thus,themineralogicalcompositionoftherockwillbea
factorindeterminingthedeformationalbehavioroftherock.Anotheraspectispresence
orabsenceofwater.Waterappearstoweakenthechemicalbondsandformsfilms
aroundmineralgrainsalongwhichslippagecantakeplace.Thuswetrocktendsto
behaveinductilemanner,whiledryrockstendtobehaveinbrittlemanner.
BrittleDuctilePropertiesoftheLithosphere
WeallknowthatrocksnearthesurfaceoftheEarthbehaveinabrittlemanner.Crustalrocks
arecomposedofmineralslikequartzandfeldsparwhichhavehighstrength,particularlyatlow
pressureandtemperature.AswegodeeperintheEarththestrengthoftheserocksinitially
increases.
Atadepthofabout15kmwereachapointcalled
thebrittleductiletransitionzone.Belowthis
pointrockstrengthdecreasesbecausefractures
becomeclosedandthetemperatureishigher,
makingtherocksbehaveinaductilemanner.At
thebaseofthecrusttherocktypechangesto
peridotitewhichisrichinolivine.Olivineis
strongerthanthemineralsthatmakeupmost
crustalrocks,sotheupperpartofthemantleis
againstrong.But,justasinthecrust,increasing
temperatureeventuallypredominatesandata
depthofabout40kmthebrittleductiletransition
zoneinthemantleoccurs.Belowthispointrocks
behaveinanincreasinglyductilemanner.

DeformationinProgress
Onlyinafewcasesdoesdeformationofrocksoccurataratethatisobservableonhumantime
scales.Abruptdeformationalongfaults,usuallyassociatedwithearthquakesoccursonatime
scaleofminutesorseconds.Gradualdeformationalongfaultsorinareasofupliftor
subsidencecanbemeasuredoverperiodsofmonthstoyearswithsensitivemeasuring
instruments.
EvidenceofPastDeformation
Evidenceofdeformationthathasoccurredinthepastisveryevidentincrustalrocks.For
example,sedimentarystrataandlavaflowsgenerallyfollowthelawoforiginalhorizontality.
Thus,whenweseesuchstratainclinedinsteadofhorizontal,evidenceofanepisodeof
deformation.

Sincemanygeologicfeaturesareplanarinnature,weawaytouniquelydefinetheorientation
ofaplanarfeaturewefirstneedtodefinetwotermsstrikeanddip.
Foraninclinedplanethestrikeisthecompassdirectionofanyhorizontallineontheplane.
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Thedipistheanglebetweenahorizontalplaneandtheinclinedplane,measuredperpendicular
tothedirectionofstrike.

Inrecordingstrikeanddipmeasurementsonageologicmap,asymbolisusedthathasalong
lineorientedparalleltothecompassdirectionofthestrike.Ashorttickmarkisplacedinthe
centerofthelineonthesidetowhichtheinclinedplanedips,andtheangleofdipisrecorded
nexttothestrikeanddipsymbolasshownabove.Forbedswitha900dip(vertical)theshort
linecrossesthestrikeline,andforbedswithnodip(horizontal)acirclewithacrossinsideis
usedasshownbelow.

Forlinearstructures,asimilarmethodisused,thestrikeorbearingisthecompassdirection
andanglethelinemakeswithahorizontalsurfaceiscalledtheplungeangle.

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FractureofBrittleRocks
Aswehavediscussedpreviously,brittlerockstendtofracturewhenplacedunderahigh
enoughstress.Suchfracturing,whileitdoesproduceirregularcracksintherock,sometimes
producesplanarfeaturesthatprovideevidenceofthestressesactingatthetimeofformationof
thecracks.Twomajortypesofmoreorlessplanarfracturescanoccur:jointsandfaults.
Joints
Aswelearnedinourdiscussionofphysicalweathering,jointsarefracturesinrockthatshow
noslippageoroffsetalongthefracture.Jointsareusuallyplanarfeatures,sotheirorientation
canbedescribedasastrikeanddip.Theyformfromasaresultofextensionalstressactingon
brittlerock.Suchstressescanbeinducedbycoolingofrock(volumedecreasesastemperature
decreases)orbyreliefofpressureasrockiserodedabovethusremovingweight.
Jointsprovidepathwaysforwaterandthuspathwaysforchemicalweatheringattackon
rocks.Ifnewmineralsareprecipitatedfromwaterflowinginthejoints,thiswillformavein.
Manyveinsobservedinrockaremostlyeitherquartzorcalcite,butcancontainrareminerals
likegoldandsilver.Theseaspectswillbediscussedinmoredetailwhenwetalkabout
valuablemineralsfromtheearthinacoupleofweeks.
Becausejointsprovideaccessofwatertorock,ratesofweatheringand/orerosionareusually
higheralongjointsandthiscanleadtodifferentialerosion.
Fromanengineeringpointofview,jointsareimportantstructurestounderstand.Sincethey
arezonesofweakness,theirpresenceiscriticalwhenbuildinganythingfromdamsto
highways.Fordams,thewatercouldleakoutthroughthejointsleadingtodamfailure.For
highwaysthejointsmayseparateandcauserockfallsandlandslides.
Faults
Faultsoccurwhenbrittlerocksfractureandthereisanoffsetalongthefracture.Whenthe
offsetissmall,thedisplacementcanbeeasilymeasured,butsometimesthedisplacementisso
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largethatitisdifficulttomeasure.
TypesofFaults
Aswefoundoutinourdiscussionofearthquakes,faultscanbedividedintoseveraldifferent
typesdependingonthedirectionofrelativedisplacement.Sincefaultsareplanarfeatures,the
conceptofstrikeanddipalsoapplies,andthusthestrikeanddipofafaultplanecanbe
measured.Onedivisionoffaultsisbetweendipslipfaults,wherethedisplacementismeasured
alongthedipdirectionofthefault,andstrikeslipfaultswherethedisplacementishorizontal,
paralleltothestrikeofthefault.Recallthefollowingtypesoffaults:
DipSlipFaultsDipslipfaultsarefaultsthathaveaninclinedfaultplaneandalong
whichtherelativedisplacementoroffsethasoccurredalongthedipdirection.Notethat
inlookingatthedisplacementonanyfaultwedon'tknowwhichsideactuallymovedor
ifbothsidesmoved,allwecandetermineistherelativesenseofmotion.
NormalFaultsarefaultsthatresultfromhorizontaltensionalstressesinbrittle
rocksandwherethehangingwallblockhasmoveddownrelativetothefootwall
block.

Horsts&GrabensDuetothetensionalstressresponsiblefornormalfaults,they
oftenoccurinaseries,withadjacentfaultsdippinginoppositedirections.Insuch
acasethedowndroppedblocksformgrabensandtheupliftedblocksformhorsts.
Inareaswheretensionalstresshasrecentlyaffectedthecrust,thegrabensmay
formriftvalleysandtheupliftedhorstblocksmayformlinearmountainranges.
TheEastAfricanRiftValleyisanexampleofanareawherecontinentalextension
hascreatedsucharift.ThebasinandrangeprovinceofthewesternU.S.(Nevada,
Utah,andIdaho)isalsoanareathathasrecentlyundergonecrustalextension.In
thebasinandrange,thebasinsareelongatedgrabensthatnowformvalleys,and
therangesareupliftedhorstblocks.

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HalfGrabensAnormalfaultthathasacurvedfaultplanewiththedipdecreasing
withdepthcancausethedowndroppedblocktorotate.Insuchacaseahalf
grabenisproduced,calledsuchbecauseitisboundedbyonlyonefaultinsteadof
thetwothatformanormalgraben.

ReverseFaultsarefaultsthatresultfromhorizontalcompressionalstresses
inbrittlerocks,wherethehangingwallblockhasmoveduprelativethe
footwallblock.

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AThrustFaultisaspecialcaseofareversefaultwherethedipofthefaultislessthan
45o.Thrustfaultscanhaveconsiderabledisplacement,measuringhundredsof
kilometers,andcanresultinolderstrataoverlyingyoungerstrata.

StrikeSlipFaultsarefaultswheretherelativemotiononthefaulthastakenplace
alongahorizontaldirection.Suchfaultsresultfromshearstressesactinginthecrust.
Strikeslipfaultscanbeoftwovarieties,dependingonthesenseofdisplacement.Toan
observerstandingononesideofthefaultandlookingacrossthefault,iftheblockonthe
othersidehasmovedtotheleft,wesaythatthefaultisaleftlateralstrikeslipfault.If
theblockontheothersidehasmovedtotheright,wesaythatthefaultisarightlateral
strikeslipfault.ThefamousSanAndreasFaultinCaliforniaisanexampleofaright
lateralstrikeslipfault.DisplacementsontheSanAndreasfaultareestimatedatover600
km.

EvidenceofMovementonFaults
Sincemovementonafaultinvolvesrocksslidingpasteachothertheremaybeleftevidenceof
movementintheareaofthefaultplane.
FaultBrecciasarecrumbleduprocksconsistingofangularfragmentsthatwere
formedasaresultofgrindingandcrushingmovementalongafault.Whentherockis
brokenintoclayorsiltsizeparticlesasaresultofslippageonthefault,itisreferredtoas
faultgouge.
Slickensidesarescratchmarksthatareleftonthefaultplaneasoneblockmoves
relativetotheother.Slickensidescanbeusedtodeterminethedirectionandsenseof
motiononafault.
MyloniteAlongsomefaultsrocksareshearedordrawnoutbyductiledeformation
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alongthefault.Thisresultsinatypeoflocalizedmetamorphismcalleddynamic
metamorphism(alsocalledcataclasticmetamorphism.Theresultingrockisafine
grainedmetamorphicrockshowevidenceofshear,calledamylonite.Faultsthatshow
suchductilesheararereferredtoasshearzones.
DeformationofDuctileRocks
Whenrocksdeforminaductilemanner,insteadoffracturingtoformfaultsorjoints,theymay
bendorfold,andtheresultingstructuresarecalledfolds.Foldsresultfromcompressional
stressesorshearstressesactingoverconsiderabletime.Becausethestrainrateislowand/orthe
temperatureishigh,rocksthatwenormallyconsiderbrittlecanbehaveinaductilemanner
resultinginsuchfolds.

GeometryofFoldsFoldsaredescribedbytheirformandorientation.Thesidesofafoldare
calledlimbs.Thelimbsintersectatthetightestpartofthefold,calledthehinge.Aline
connectingallpointsonthehingeiscalledthefoldaxis.Animaginaryplanethatincludesthe
foldaxisanddividesthefoldassymmetricallyaspossibleiscalledtheaxialplaneofthefold.

Werecognizeseveraldifferentkindsoffolds.

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Monoclinesarethesimplesttypesoffolds.
Monoclinesoccurwhenhorizontalstrataare
bentupwardsothatthetwolimbsofthefold
arestillhorizontal.

Anticlinesarefoldswheretheoriginally
horizontalstratahasbeenfoldedupward,
andthetwolimbsofthefolddipaway
fromthehingeofthefold.

Synclinesarefoldswheretheoriginally
horizontalstratahavebeenfolded
downward,andthetwolimbsofthefold
dipinwardtowardthehingeofthefold.
Synclinesandanticlinesusuallyoccur
togethersuchthatthelimbofasynclineis
alsothelimbofananticline.

Inthediagramsabove,thefoldaxesarehorizontal,butifthefoldaxisisnothorizontal
thefoldiscalledaplungingfoldandtheanglethatthefoldaxismakeswithahorizontal
lineiscalledtheplungeofthefold.

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Notethatifaplungingfoldintersectsa
horizontalsurface,wewillseethe
patternofthefoldonthesurface(see
alsofigures11.16einyourtext.

DomesandBasinsareformedasaresultofverticalcrustalmotion.Domeslooklikean
overturnedbowlandresultfromcrustalupwarping.Basinslooklikeabowlandresultfrom
subsidence(seefigure11.15inyourtext).
Foldsaredescribedbytheseverityoffolding.anopenfoldhasalargeanglebetweenlimbs,a
tightfoldhasasmallanglebetweenlimbs.
Furtherclassificationoffoldsinclude:
Ifthetwolimbsofthefolddipawayfromtheaxiswiththesameangle,thefoldissaidto
beasymmetricalfold.
Ifthelimbsdipatdifferentangles,thefoldsaresaidtobeasymmetricalfolds.
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Ifthecompressionalstressesthatcausethefoldingareintense,thefoldcancloseupand
havelimbsthatareparalleltoeachother.Suchafoldiscalledanisoclinalfold(iso
meanssame,andclinemeansangle,soisoclinalmeansthelimbshavethesameangle).
Notetheisoclinalfolddepictedinthediagrambelowisalsoasymmetricalfold.
Ifthefoldingissointensethatthestrataononelimbofthefoldbecomesnearlyupside
down,thefoldiscalledanoverturnedfold.
Anoverturnedfoldwithanaxialplanethatisnearlyhorizontaliscalledarecumbant
fold.
Afoldthathasnocurvatureinitshingeandstraightsidedlimbsthatformazigzag
patterniscalledachevronfold.

FoldsandTopography
Sincedifferentrockshavedifferentresistancetoerosionandweathering,erosionoffolded
areascanleadtoatopographythatreflectsthefolding.Resistantstratawouldformridgesthat
havethesameformasthefolds,whilelessresistantstratawillformvalleys(seefigure11.15in
youtext).

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HowFoldsForm
Foldsdevelopintwoways:
Flexuralfoldsformwhenlayersslipasstratifiedrocksarebent.Thisresultsinthe
layersmaintainingtheirthicknessastheybendandslideoveroneanother.Theseare
generallyformedduetocompressionalstressesactingfromeitherside.
Flowfoldsformwhenrocksareveryductileandflowlikeafluid.Differentpartsofthe
foldaredrawnoutbythisflowtodifferentextentsresultinginlayersbecomingthinner
insomeplacesandthickerinouterplaces.Theflowresultsinshearstressesthatsmear
outthelayers.

Foldscanalsoformin
relationshiptofaultingofother
partsoftherockbody.Inthis
casethemoreductilerocksbend
toconformtothemovementon
thefault.

Alsosinceevenductilerockscan
eventuallyfractureunderhighstress,
rocksmayfolduptoacertainpointthen
fracturetoformafault.

FoldsandMetamorphicFoliation
Aswesawinourdiscussionofmetamorphicrocks,foliationisaplanarfabricthatdevelopsin
rockssubjecttocompressionalstressduringmetamorphism.Itmaybepresentasflattenedor
elongatedgrains,withtheflatteningoccurringperpendiculartothedirectionofcompressional
stress.Italsoresultsfromthereorientation,recrystallization,orgrowthofsheetsilicate
mineralssothattheirsheetsbecomeorientedperpendiculartothecompressionalstress
direction.Thus,wecommonlyseeafoliationthatisparalleltotheaxialplaneofthefold.
Shearingofrockduringmetamorphismcanalsodrawoutgrainsinthedirectionofshear.

MountainsandMountainBuildingProcesses
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OneofthemostspectacularresultsofdeformationactingwithinthecrustoftheEarthisthe
formationofmountainranges.Mountainsfrequentlyoccurinelongate,linearbelts.Theyare
constructedbytectonicplateinteractionsinaprocesscalledorogenesis.

Mountainbuilding(orogenesis)involves
Structuraldeformation.
Faulting.
Folding.
IgneousProcesses.
Metamorphism.
Glaciation.
Erosion.
Sedimentation
Constructiveprocesses,likedeformation,folding,faulting,igneousprocessesand
sedimentationbuildmountainsupdestructiveprocesseslikeerosionandglaciation,tearthem
backdownagain.
Mountainsarebornandhaveafinitelifespan.Youngmountainsarehigh,steep,andgrowing
upward.Middleagedmountainsarecutbyerosion.Oldmountainsaredeeplyerodedandoften
buried.Ancientorogenicbeltsarefoundincontinentalinteriors,nowfarawayfromplate
boundaries,butprovideinformationonancienttectonicprocesses.Sinceorogeniccontinental
crustgenerallyhasalowdensityandthusistoobuoyanttosubduct,ifitescapeserosionitis
usuallypreserved.
UpliftandIsostasy
ThefactthatmarinelimestonesoccuratthetopofMt.Everest,indicatesthatdeformationcan
causeconsiderableverticalmovementofthecrust.Suchverticalmovementofthecrustis
calleduplift.Upliftiscausedbydeformationwhichalsoinvolvesthickeningofthelow
densitycrustand,becausethecrust"floats"onthehigherdensitymantle,involvesanother
processthatcontrolstheheightofmountains.
Thediscoveryofthisprocessanditsconsequencesinvolvedmeasurementsofgravity.Gravity
ismeasuredwithadeviceknownasagravimeter.Agravimetercanmeasuredifferencesinthe
pullofgravitytoaslittleas1partin100million.Measurementsofgravitycandetectareas
wherethereisadeficiencyorexcessofmassbeneaththesurfaceoftheEarth.These
deficienciesorexcessesofmassarecalledgravityanomalies.
Apositivegravityanomalyindicatesthatanexcessofmassexitsbeneaththearea.Anegative
gravityanomalyindicatesthatthereislessmassbeneathanarea.
Negativeanomaliesexistbeneathmountainranges,andmirrorthetopographyandcrustal
thicknessasdeterminedbyseismicstudies.Thus,thelowdensitycontinentsappeartobe
floatingonhigherdensitymantle.

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Theprotrusionsofthecrustintothemantlearereferredtoascrustalroots.Normalcrustal
thickness,measuredfromthesurfacetotheMohois35to40km.Butundermountainbelts
crustalthicknessesof50to70kmarecommon.Ingeneral,thehigherthemountains,the
thickerthecrust.
Whatcausesthisistheprincipalofisostasy.Theprincipalcanbedemonstratedbyfloating
varioussizesoflowdensitywoodblocksinyourbathtuborsink.Thelargerblockswillboth
floathigherandextendtodeeperlevelsinthewaterandmimicthehowthecontinentsfloaton
themantle(seefigure11.26inyourtext).
Itmustbekeptinmind,howeverthatit'snotjustthecrustthatfloats,it'stheentire
lithosphere.So,thelithosphericmantlebeneathcontinentsalsoextendstodeeperlevelsandis
thickerundermountainrangesthannormal.Becausethelithosphereisfloatinginthe
asthenospherewhichismoreductilethanthebrittlelithosphere,thesoftasthenospherecan
flowtocompensateforanychangeinthicknessofthecrustcausedbyerosionordeformation.
ThePrincipleofisostasystatesthatthereisaflotationalbalancebetweenlowdensityrocksand
highdensityrocks.i.e.lowdensitycrustalrocksfloatonhigherdensitymantlerocks.The
heightatwhichthelowdensityrocksfloatisdependentonthethicknessofthelowdensity
rocks.Continentsstandhighbecausetheyarecomposedoflowdensityrocks(granitic
composition).Oceanbasinsstandlow,becausetheyarecomposedofhigherdensitybasaltic
andgabbroicrocks.
Isostasyisbestillustratedbyeffectsofglaciation.Duringaniceagecrustalrocksthatare
coveredwithicearedepressedbytheweightoftheoverlyingice.Whentheicemelts,theareas
previouslycoveredwithiceundergouplift.
Mountainsonlygrowsolongasthereareforcescausingtheuplift.Asmountainsrise,they
areeroded.Initiallytheerosionwillcausethemountainstorisehigherasaresultofisostatic
compensation.But,eventually,theweightofthemountainstartstodepressthelowercrustand
subcontinentallithospheretolevelswheretheystarttoheatupandbecomemoreductile.This
hotterlithospherewillthenbegintoflowoutwardawayfromtheexcessweightandtheabove
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willstarttocollapse.
Thehotterrockscouldeventuallypartiallymelt,resultinginigneousintrusionsasthemagmas
movetohigherlevels,ortheentirehotterlowercrustcouldbegintoriseasaresultoftheir
lowerdensity.Theseprocessescombinedwitherosiononthesurfaceresultinexhumation,
whichcausesrocksfromthedeepcrusttoeventuallybecomeexposedatthesurface.
CausesofMountainBuilding
Therearethreeprimarycausesofmountainbuilding.
1. Convergenceatconvergentplateboundaries.
2. ContinentalCollisions.
3. Rifting
ConvergentPlateMargins
Whenoceaniclithospheresubductsbeneathcontinentallithospheremagmasgenerated
abovethesubductionzonerise,intrude,anderupttoformvolcanicmountains.The
compressionalstressesgeneratedbetweenthetrenchandthevolcanicarccreatefold
thrustmountainbelts,andsimilarcompressionbehindthearccreateafoldthrustbelt
resultinginmountains.MountainsalongthemarginsofwesternNorthandSouth
America,liketheAndesandtheCascaderangeformedinthisfashion.
Islandarcsoffthecoastofcontinentscangetpushedagainstthecontinent.Becauseof
theirlowdensity,theydon'tsubduct,butinsteadgetaccretedtotheedgeofthe
continent.MountainrangesalongthewestcoastofNorthAmericaformedinthis
fashion(seefigure11.22inyourtext).
ContinentalCollisions
Platetectonicscancausecontinentalcrustalblockstocollide.Whenthisoccurstherocks
betweenthetwocontinentalblocksbecomefoldedandfaultedundercompressional
stressesandarepushedupwardtoformfoldthrustmountains.TheHimalayan
Mountains(currentlythehighestonEarth)aremountainsofthistypeandwereformedas
aresultoftheIndianPlatecollidingwiththeEurasianplate.SimilarlytheAppalachian
MountainsofNorthAmericaandtheAlpsofEuropewereformedbysuchprocesses.
Rifting
ContinentalRiftingoccurswherecontinentalcrustisundergoingextensional
deformation.Thisresultsinthinningofthelithosphereandupwellingofthe
asthenospherewhichresultsinuplift.Thebrittlelithosphererespondsbyproducing
normalfaultswhereblocksofcontinentallithosphereareupliftedtoformgrabensorhalf
grabens.Theupliftedblocksarereferredtoafaultblockmountains.
TheBasinandRangeprovinceinthewesternUnitedstatesformedinthismanner,
includingtheSierraNevadaonitswesternedgeandtheGrandTetonsinWyoming..

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CratonsandOrogens
Thecontinentscanbedividedintotwokindsofstructuralunits
Cratonsformthecoresofthecontinents.Theseareportionsofcontinentalcrustthat
haveattainedisostaticandtectonicstabilityandhavecooledsubstantiallysincetheir
formation.Theywereformedandweredeformedmorethanabillionyearsagoandare
theoldestpartsofthecontinents.Therepresentthedeeprootsofformermountainsand
consistofmetamorphicandplutonicigneousrocks,allshowingextensiveevidenceof
deformation.
Orogensarebroadelongatedbeltsofdeformedrocksthataredrapedaroundthecratons.
Theyappeartobetheerodedrootsofformermountainbeltsthatformedbycontinent
continentcollisions.Onlytheyoungestoftheseorogensstillformmountainranges(see
figure13.10)inyourtext).
Theobservationthattheorogensaregenerallyyoungertowardstheoutsideofanycontinent
suggeststhatthecontinentswerebuiltbycollisionsofplatesthataddedyoungermaterialtothe
outsideedgesofthecontinents,andisfurtherevidencethatplatetectonicshasoperatedforat
leastthelast2billionyears.
CaseStudyoftheAppalachianMountains

TheAppalachianMountainRangeextendingfromnorthernAlabamatoNovaScotiahavea
historythatdatesbackabout1billionyears.Thishistorywillbediscussedinclassandis
coveredinsection11.32ofyourtextbook.
Questionsonthismaterialthatcouldbeaskedonanexam.

1. Definethefollowing:(a)faultbreccia,(b)slickensides,(c)mylonite,(d)foldaxis,(e)
axialplane,(f)plungingfold,(g)orogenesis,(h)isostasy.
2. Explaininwordsordrawingstheessentialaspectsofthefollowingfeatures:(a)normal
fault,(b)reversefault,(c)thrustfault,(d)horstsandgrabens,(e)halfgrabens.
3. Drawcrosssectionsofananticlineandasynclineandlabelthefoldhinge,foldlimbs,
foldaxis,andtheaxialplaneofeach.
4. Whatisthedifferencebetweenaflexuralfoldandaflowfold?
5. Isitpossibleforfaultstocausefoldsorfoldstocausefaults?Explain.
6. Inwhichsettingsaremountainsformedandwhatkindofmountainsareformedineach?
7. Whatprocessesareinvolvedinexhumationandwhatisthefinalresultofexhumation?
8. ExplainhowcrustalthicknessvariesontheEarthandhowweknowthis?
9. Whyismetamorphicfoliationoftenparalleltotheaxialplanesoffolds?
http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens1110/deform.htm

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DeformationofRock

10. Foreachofthefollowingtypesofmountainrangesgivesomeexamples:(a)foldthrust,
(b)blockfault,(c)volcanic
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