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AMELIORATING SOIL ACIDITY IN GHANA: A CONCISE REVIEW OF

APPROACHES
Franklin Obiri-Nyarko
Department of environmental protection and cartography, Hydrogeotechnika Sp. zo.o, Poland

ABSTRACT
The paper concisely reviews the causes and effects of soil acidity and the approaches used to
ameliorate acid soils for sustained crop production in Ghana. Acid soils which are characterized
as toxic and impoverished, posing serious constraints to crop production were only visible in the
western part and lowland areas of the country, but have now become a nationwide threat. Both
natural and anthropogenic factors cause soil acidity. However, anthropogenic activities
exacerbate the rate of acidification. Application of lime, organic materials, the use of acid
tolerant crops and agroforestry are some of the management options adopted in curbing the
menace associated with soil acidity. A combination of lime and organic materials, however, are
considered the most effective management option considering their availability and long term
effectiveness. There is also the need to limit or curtail practices such as injudicious application
of fertilizers that produce acidulating effects, and practices that can greatly deteriorate the
soils inherent fertility.
Keywords: soil acidity, crop production, amelioration, Ghana, tropical soils

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INTRODUCTION
Agriculture is the main sector which absorbs the majority of the people in the country as more
than 60 per cent of country's population depends on agricultural activities in support of their
livelihoods Agriculture therefore plays a central role in promoting growth and poverty alleviation
in the Ghanaian economy.(Egyir and Beinpuo, 2009). It is the goal of every farmer in the country
to have high crop yields and to ensure their sustenance or betterment since they depend on such
for their livelihoods. Conversely, a decline in crop yields in most regions of the country has been
observed over the years. Significantly lower yields of 1.2 t/ha, 16 t/ha and 11 t/ha compared with
their potential yields of 5 t/ha, 28 t/ha and 37 t/ha for staple crops such maize, cassava and yams,
respectively, have been reported (MOFA, 2003; SRI, 2003). The gravity of this threat is so
enormous that it has culminated in food pressures and food insecurity, which has also
necessitated the imports of huge amounts of food into the country. In recent years, many
discussions have centered on identifying the reasons for the decline in crop yields of which soil
acidification has been pinpointed as one of the main factors. Soil acidification which used to be a
problem only in the western parts and lowland areas of the country is now a menace that
threatens crop production nationwide. Investigations by several researchers have indicated that
soils in Ghana have increased in acidity over the years, the rate of which is very alarming. A
substantial proportion of agricultural soils nationwide are currently ranging from very slightly to
extremely acidic (Buri et al., 2005). Several efforts have been made by both researchers and
farmers to alleviate or control this problem. The intent of this paper is to review some of the
approaches adopted for acid soil amelioration in Ghana.

CAUSES OF SOIL ACIDITY

Soils that are acid have pH values less than 7 on the pH scale (SSSA, 1997). Theoretically, soil
acidity is largely associated with the presence of hydrogen and aluminium ions in exchangeable
forms (Brady, 2001; Fageria and Baligar, 2003). Thus, the higher the concentrations of these ions
in soil solution, the higher the acidity. Most acid soils have been found to be low in fertility, have
poor physical, chemical, and biological properties. Crop production on such soils is seriously
constrained, particularly in areas where proper management measures have not been put in place
(He at al., 2003). Generally, soils have natural buffering capacity by which they are able to resist
changes in soil pH upon marginal increases in their acidity or alkalinity (Black, 1968). This
natural buffering ability of soils, however, varies from region to region as the parent materials
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and the unconsolidated soil strata differ greatly in their physico-chemical properties. The
buffering capacity of soils, regardless of the location is, however, attenuated when soils are
continuously exposed to processes that lead to soil acidification. Soil acidity develops from a
combination of natural and anthropogenic processes. Naturally, soil acidity develops gradually
over time as part of the soil development process and other natural phenomena. In Ghana acidity
caused via anthropogenic activities, however, by far exceeds the natural causes of soil acidity. In
some areas, anthropogenic activities have exacerbated the rate of acidification caused through
natural phenomena.

WEATHERING AND LEACHING

Usually, the parent rocks or materials from which soils are formed are the main provenance for
both essential and non-essential plant nutrient elements. If the parent material is acidic, there will
be acidifying effect and alkaline effect on the hand will manifest if the parent material is basic.
During weathering both acidic and basic cations are released into the soil. The influx of these
nutrient elements to the soil is, however, annulled through leaching, where most of the basic
cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+ and K+ ) that would counteract the acidity effects of the acidic
cations (mainly H+ and Al3+ ) are removed from the soil, resulting in the preponderance of these
acidic cations which give rise to soil acidity. This process is very effective in areas where there is
high temperature and where precipitation exceeds evaporation and plant transpiration to induce
weathering and leaching. By reason of Ghanas location on the globe, most of the soils,
particularly those in the south-western parts are naturally highly weathered and leached
rendering them acidic and less fertile, hence the predominance of Oxisols and Ultisols.

ORGANIC MATTER DECOMPOSITION

In the course of their lives, plants and animals take up nutrients in various forms. When these
plants and animals expire, the process of decomposition supervenes, whereby these organic
tissues are broken down into humus with a concomitant release of many sundry chemicals. As a
corollary of this eternal natural cycle, acids are either formed or consumed. Generally, organic
matter contains reactive substances such as carboxylic and phenolic groups which behave as
weak acids. The dissociation of these groups results in the release of H+ ions which are
responsible for acidity (Seatz and Peterson, 1964). Decaying organic matter also produces CO2
which reacts with H2O to form weak carbonic acids. The conversion of organic N to mineral N
through nitrification can also increase soil acidity. Brady (2001), however, indicated that the
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contribution to acid soil development by decaying organic matter is generally very small and it is
only the accumulated effects that might ever be measured.
Acid rain
Rainfall is characteristically acid and it is made so by oxides of sulphur and nitrogen fed into the
atmosphere from the internal combustion engines, the burning of coal and agricultural activities.
The acidity of the rain which can have a pH value between 4 and 4.5 (Brady, 2001) is imparted
to the soil through precipitation (Coy et al., 1990). The quantity of H2SO4 and HNO3 that is
brought to the earth in acid precipitation globally is enormous but the amount falling on a given
hectare in a year which can induce any significant changes in pH is somewhat low, particularly
in the less industrialized countries like Ghana. With time, however, the cumulative effects of
acid precipitation can influence both soils and plants that grow in them (Brady, 2001).
Crop production and removal
Obviously the main aim of any agricultural production system is to produce saleable products.
However, this often saddled with some problems such as soil acidifcation. The respiration of
plants and micro-organism in the soil is necessary for their survival. However, this results in
large quantities of carbonic acids with acidulating effects being produced. According to Black
(1968), however, this effect is relatively small because most of the carbonic acid decomposes
and is lost to the atmosphere as CO2. Also, the uptake of nutrients by plants results in
partitioning of acidity into the soil and alkalinity into the plant (Tang and Rengel, 2003). Crops
absorb basic cations such as Ca2+, Mg2+ and K+ and also NH4 + from the soil solution for their
nutrition. Consequently, there is a release of H+ from the plants in order for electrical balance to
be established, particularly when plants absorb nutrient in the form of NH4 +. The release of
these H+ ions has an acidulating effect in the soil (Tisdale and Nelson, 1975). When these crops
are subsequently harvested from the field, or burnt and washed away via surface run-off, these
basic cations which are responsible for counteracting the acidity developed by other processes
are lost and the net effect is increased acidity (Chen and Barber, 1990). The amount of these
nutrients removed by cropping, however, depends on the type of crop grown, the part of crop
harvested, and stage of growth at harvest. The leaves and stem portions of the plant contain
larger amounts of these basic nutrients than the grains. Therefore, high-yielding forages such as
Bermuda grass, hay and alfalfa have a larger effect on soil acidity than grains when harvested.

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APPLICATION OF ACID FORMING FERTILIZERS

Generally, as a result of high temperatures and other natural phenomena such as, precipitation
and incessant leaching of nutrients, there is deterioration of the soils inherent capacity to
support crop production. The continuous use of agricultural lands without appropriate
management measures to ensure their rejuvenation has also given rise to many infertility
problems. The levels of organic matter and most of the essential plant nutrients, particularly
nitrogen and available phosphorus are low in most Ghanaian soils. By reason of this intrinsic
poverty of most of the soils, most farmers depend on external sources of fertilization to replenish
the soil of its fertility. The reliance on chemical fertilizers far surpasses that of organic
amendments for soil fertility replenishment in Ghana. Chemical fertilizers mostly used in Ghana
include ammonium sulphate (AS), muriate of potash (MOP), urea, single and trisuperphosphate
(SSP and TSP), etc. (FAO, 2004). There is no denying the fact that significant successes in terms
of crop yields have been recorded in so many places via the use of such chemical fertilizers.
Albeit these fertilizers are vital for high yields, their use is saddled with many ramifications such
as soil acidification.

EFFECTS OF SOIL ACIDITY ON CROP PRODUCTION

Soil acidity has been shown to have detrimental effects on plant growth by affecting plant
nutrient availability and plant development. Two fundamental factors are associated with acid
soil infertility; nutrient deficiencies such as P, Ca and Mg, and the presence of phytotoxic
substances such as soluble Al and Mn. In the soil, plants absorb nutrients mainly in soluble
forms. Under acidic conditions some of the vital nutrients such as P, Ca and Mg are made
unavailable in the soil solution for plant uptake due to the abundance of elements such as Al and
Mn. As mentioned in the preceding chapters, soil acidity is usually associated with H+ and Al3+.
Surprisingly, however, not so much deleterious effects on plant growth as a result of increased
activity of H+ ions under acidic conditions have been documented compared to that of Al (Black,
1968; Rao et al, 1993). Soluble aluminium in the soil causes most of the problems associated
with acidic soils. The principal effects on plant growth from soluble aluminium in the soil
solution is increased acidity via Al hydrolysis and reduced root proliferation and function, which
is generally observed in the roots on the field as stunted, club shaped. This reduces the ability of
plants to extract water and other nutrients in the soil. Several studies have also shown that when
Al is in abundance, P is fixed as aluminium phosphate which is insoluble, hence making it
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unavailable for plant uptake (Fageria and Baligar, 2003). This is one of the main problems
farmers in Ghana are faced with concerning acid soils. With the exception of molybdenum, the
availability of micro-nutrients generally increases as soil acidity increases. Since micro-nutrients
are needed by the plants in only minute quantities, plant toxicity and other detrimental effects
occur with excess amounts.

MANAGEMENT OF SOIL ACIDITY

The preceding sections have shown that soil acidity is an ongoing natural process which can be

augmented via anthropogenic activities. However, with appropriate management practices, soil
acidity and its deleterious effects can be mitigated or prevented. Studies have shown that a wide
array of possibilities exist for mitigating the effects of soil acidity. Some of the methods
commonly used in Ghana include liming, the use of acid tolerant crops (Sanchez, 1977), organic
material addition and agroforestry (Ofori, 1971; Lathwell, 1979; Dennis and Issaka, 1986;
Anane-Sekye, 1997).
Liming
Several liming materials such as crushed limestone (CaCO3), dolomitic lime (CaMgCO3),
slaked lime (Ca(OH)2), quick lime (CaO) etc., can be used to reduce soil acidity. They can be
used either singly or in combined form. Studies have shown that apart from reducing the acidity
of the soil by counteracting the effects of excess H+ and Al3+ ions (Fageria and Baligar, 2005),
liming also has several other benefits including, its ability to reduce the toxicity effects of some
micro elements by lowering their concentrations while increasing the availability of plant
nutrients such as Ca, P, Mo, and Mg in the soil (Naidu et al., 1990) and reducing the solubility
and leaching of heavy metals (Lindsay, 1979; Sauv et al., 2000). Crops absorb most of these
nutrient elements particularly Ca, P, and Mg in substantial amounts and therefore by increasing
their amounts in soil crop yields can be significantly improved. Application of lime is, however,
affected by factors such as quality of the liming material, soil texture, soil fertility, crop rotation,
conservation tillage, crop species and the use of organic manure (Fageria and Baligar, 2008).
Several studies have been conducted to buttress the beneficial effects of liming in Ghana.
Lathwell (1979) conducted an experiment on improving the fertility of some acid and
impoverished soils in Ghana by liming. The study revealed a concomitant increase in pH and
Ca+Mg contents and a decrease in Al concentration of the soil. This altogether resulted in a
mammoth increase in crop yield. In a similar experiment conducted elsewhere in the country
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where 1.0 t/ha and 2 t/ha lime were applied, the authors recorded 72% and 48% increases in
yield, respectively, over no lime treatments (Buri et al., 2005). Other experiments conducted by
the same authors when they combined lime-phosphorus on an Oxisol and Ultisol with pH
ranging from 4.1-4.5 and 4.7-5.4, respectively, also showed a considerable increase in maize
grain yield by both lime and phosphorus. The apparent reason was the increase in pH and the
availability of other essential nutrient elements. Dennis and Issaka (1986) in their investigations
indicated that by applying lime at 0.5 t/ha to some forest Ultisols with pH range of 4.7 to 5.5,
highly significant yields over other treatments and a 73% increase in yield over the control was
observed.
Application of organic materials
For simplicity, the use of organic materials herein represents all forms of organic materials from
both plants and animal origins. It has long been established that apart from improving the
fertility, structure and some biological properties of the soil, organic materials have the capacity
to reduce soil acidity and Al saturation. Though still enigmatic, a number of possible
mechanisms have been suggested by several workers in their quest to elucidate how this occurs.
Plant materials generally contain excess cations, and the balance between cations and anions is
maintained by synthesis of organic acid anions such as oxalate, citrate and malate (DeWit et al.,
1963). During microbial decomposition of plant materials, theses organic acid anions are
decarboxylated (Yan et al., 1996; Tang et al., 1999). Noble et al. (1996) therefore posited that the
decarboxylation of organic acid anions in the process of plant residue decomposition requires a
proton for this reaction to be complete. By consuming a proton, the hydroxyl ions increase and
this results in an increase in alkalinity. Thus the greater the content of cations in plant material,
the greater will be this effect. Plant materials such as legume residues (soybean, red clover, and
acacia) were observed to have a substantially higher Ca, Mg, and total basic cation contents than
the nonlegumes (maize and sorghum), and consequently, ash alkalinity values were also higher
(Bessho and Bell, 1992; Pocknee and Sumner, 1997; Wong et al., 1998). Another mechanism
was adduced by Wong et al. (1998) who indicated that functional groups associated with organic
materials can also consume protons and in the process, increase the alkalinity of the soil. To this
extent, all the mechanisms presented are related to organic acids. A study was conducted by Safo
et al (1997) to assess the effects of Palm bunch ash (PBA) on growth of cowpea and the
characteristics of a Ghanaian soil. According to the authors, the palm bunch ash is very
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hygroscopic, extremely basic (pH 10-12) and contains 25-34% K, 3.6-5.5% Ca, 1.6-3.6% Mg,
0.5-1.7% P, and approximately 0.1% N. Their study revealed an incredible increase in pH of
about 2.5 units (4.7 to 7.2) and concluded that PBA applied at 4.0 mg/kg of soil may be as
effective as limestone in ameliorating acidity in poorly buffered soils. A more recent study
conducted by Arthur (2009) whose milestone was to investigate the changes in soil physico
chemical properties following the application of crop residues on some acidic soils in Ghana
found that when maize stover was applied at 10t/ha for 3 years, the pH of the soil was
significantly raised from 5.06 to 6.27. It was indicated that the residue on the soil surface, apart
from releasing alkali elements into the soil, also protected it from raindrop impact that could lead
to erosion and leaching of basic cations (Schomberg and Steiner, 1999).
Use of acid tolerant crops
Although this approach is not able to reverse acidic soil conditions, the constraints of acid soil to
crop production can be alleviated by growing acid tolerant crops in such areas with limited
inputs such as lime (Clark, 1997). Quite a variety of crops have been found to thrive well in acid
soils because of their varying degrees of tolerance to acidity. Chillies, sweet and Irish potatoes
are among the crops that have shown tolerance to acidity and can somewhat do well in soils with
pH values well below 5.5. Most of the horticultural crops (onions, spinach, carrots, cabbages and
cauliflower), however, do not tolerate acidity and can only grow well in soils with pH values
above 6.0. Cassava and rice are, however, some of the successful crops so far used in this regard
(Rao et al., 1993). Currently, most of the lowland areas occupying about one million hectares in
Ghana have been cultivated to rice with outstanding results (Buri et al., 2005).
Agroforestry
Though not clearly defined, the considerable potential for agroforestry as a land management
alternative for conserving soils as well as maintaining soil fertility and productivity in the tropics
is becoming obvious. It involves the deliberate integration of trees with crops on the same land.
Several positive effects have been documented from this interaction. Nutrients such as nitrate,
Ca, Mg, etc. leached from the root zones of crops to sub-horizons can be taken up by these deep
rooted species and return them to the surface via litter fall. Ridley et al. (1990) observed a
reduction in nitrate loss through leaching when deep rooted species such as perennial grass,
multi-purpose trees or shrubs instead of annuals were strategically located within crops in the
field. Agroforestry systems such multi-story systems can also reduce erosivity of rain drops and
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leachability of nutrients. The ability of this system to reduce soil acidity, however, depends on
the tree species and the structure of the agroforestry system. Baggie et al. (2000) investigated the
potential of organic residues from nitrogen fixing trees such as Albizia zygia and Gliricidia
sepium for ameliorating acid infertile rice soil in Ghana. Their study revealed that after 4 weeks
of incubation, Albizia zygia and Gliricidia sepium had increased the pH of the soil from 4.4 to
5.1 and 5.3, respectively due to the high content of basic cations in these tree species.

DISCUSSION
Both natural and anthropogenic activities cause soil acidity. Rapid population growth, however,
has increased anthropogenic activities thereby accelerating the rate of acidification and
aggravating its effects on crop production in Ghana. It is obvious that liming is the most
commonly used method in mitigating soil acidity and improving crop production on acid soils
worldwide. Even though several evidences regarding the beneficial effects of liming can be
found in the literature, inimical effects due to over application and some other limitations have
also been documented. Over application of lime has been shown to result in phosphorus
adsorption and deficiencies of micronutrients like Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, and B. Another limitation of
lime is its inability to reach the subsoil when placed on the surface. Lime percolates extremely
slowly to the subsoil and therefore it has been recommended that it should be placed deeper in
the soil in order to warrant any profitable returns. However, this practice can be very expensive
and may not be affordable by resource poor farmers. According to Ismail et al, (1993), the low
solubility of lime can be resolved by the using gypsum (CaSO4). The effect of gypsum on
subsoil pH is insignificant. However, it has high solubility which makes it able to supply large
amount of Ca ions deep into the soil. It is further mentioned that the dissociated sulfates (SO4 2-)
from the gypsum can combine with Al3+ ions to form aluminum sulfate (AlSO4 1+). The
authors tentatively assumed that this compound can alleviate the detrimental effects of Al3+ and
can be less phytotoxic than Al3+ alone. This hypothesis was corroborated by a study conducted
to examine the effects of dolomitic limestone and gypsum on corn growth on an Oxisol and
Ultisol in Malaysia (Ismail et al., 1993). Lungu and co (1993) also have reported that liming can
be ineffective on some tropical soils because of the large amount of leaching. Most tropical soils
such as the Oxisols and the Ultisols have low cation exchange capacity but high anion adsorption
capacity due to the dominance of Al and Fe oxides and low organic matter (Fontes and Weed,
1996) thereby leaving the positively charged macro nutrient elements at the mercy of inclement
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weather. The effect of liming on the soil pH of tropical soils therefore tends to be smaller and
more temporary than in temperate soils. This may require the application of large amounts of
lime which can be worrying to the resource poor farmer (Shainberg et al., 1989). In the early 80s,
the then government of Ghana removed all subventions on agriculture. The use of chemical
inputs including lime in agriculture declined because the resource poor farmers were unable to
afford them, and most of them were also not readily available as all chemical substances used the
time were imported. The need for alternatives that were relatively cheap and locally available
became of paramount importance. Addition of organic materials was and is still one of the
cheapest alternatives, and investigations done by authors such as Hoyt and Turner, (1975),
Ahmad and Tan (1986), Bessho and Bell (1992), Wong and Swift (1995), Wong et al. (1995),
and Wong et al., (1998) have all pointed to the fact that organic materials can be a suitable
substitute for lime in acid soil amelioration. Practically, the return of crop residues to the field is
an important agronomic practice not only for nutrient recycling but also for minimising soil
acidification through alkalinity recycling (Yan et al., 1996). Some studies have even shown that
some organic materials are more effective than lime. Lungu et al (1993) conducted a study that
compared the effects of lime andfarmyard manure (FYM) on the acidity and crop yields in
tropical soils in Zambia. It was concluded that, regardless of the rate of the lime applied, its
effects on both soil acidity and crop yields could not be substantiated. On the contrary significant
effects of FYM was observed on both soil pH and crop yield, while also reducing the levels of
exchangeable Al in the top 20 cm of the soil. It is therefore possible to infer that significant
savings can be made by using these organic materials. Nonetheless, the rapid rate of
decomposition of organic matter due to high temperatures and incessant rainfall can result in
rapid wearing out of its effects. The relatively large amounts required to neutralize acidity can
also make its usage somewhat cumbersome and deterring. For example, addition of 2 t ha-1 of
lime led to an increase in pH of 0.2 - 0.6 (Buri et al., 2005) whereas an application of 40-50 t ha1 of organic matter resulted in increases of pH of 0.8 -1.9 (Haynes, 2001). Antagonistic effects of
some nutrients on others via application of organic materials have also been reported by some
authors. For instance the use of PBA in the study by Safo et al (1997) resulted in high residual
soil K and low residual soil Mg, leading to wide soil K/Mg ratios. The authors therefore
suggested that lower rates of PBA should be applied to ensure proper K and Mg nutrition of
cowpea and other plants on acid soils that are low in these plant nutrients. However, by lowering
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its amount, its effectiveness may also be attenuated. It is also worth mentioning that, not all
organic materials can be used in this regard with positive results as they differ greatly in their
composition and ability to amend soils. Another reason that further affects its use is that some
crop residues are used as firewood and feed for animals. There is, however, evidence intimating
that when lime and organic materials are applied very phenomenal results can be obtained. The
reason stems from the fact that organic matter reduces Al toxicity and its acidulating effects
either by chelating or encapsulating the Al3+. In addition, it enhances plant growth through the
improvement of physical properties and the fertility of the soil and can also reduce leaching of
basic cations. On the other hand, nutrients can be readily made available for plant uptake by
liming. A study done by Lungu et al., (1993) on an Ultisol to compare the effectiveness of lime,
wheat straw (organic matter), and their combination on the growth of soybeans supported this
assertion. The result of the work showed a significant effect for the combined treatment by
producing the tallest plants, the largest dry weights, and the greatest reduction of Al toxicity and
therefore. The case of Ghana shows that when a combination of lime and organic materials is
used significant results can also be obtained. The use of acid tolerant crops is one of the
alternatives for alleviating the effects of acid soil on crop production. However, this has not been
well embraced due to several reasons such as the economic importance of these species, and
ability to thrive in environmental conditions other than acid soils. In addition, most of these acidtolerant plant species do not encompass many of the staple crops in Ghana. Continuous use of
such lands will also result in soils gradually becoming more acidic, and then the choice of crops
will be very limited. Stringent efforts to further develop more strains within the non-acid-tolerant
plant species which can also grow in acidic soils and also with the possibility of exuding some
organic acids such as citrate, gluconate, malate or oxalate that can chelate Al and reduce its
toxicity effects in the rhizosphere (Bennet and Breen 1991; Conyers et al. 2005) is necessary.
The massive campaign in the recent past about the use of agroforestry as a way of rehabilitating
degraded lands is in the right course. Notwithstanding the many advantages it has, some
disadvantages such as competition for water and nutrients during tree establishment phase and
long-term organic matter decline as suggested by some workers on long-term experiments in
Africa (Qureshi, 1991) are inevitable. Also, soils that are poorly buffered will increase in acidity
in sub-layers and may therefore not be beneficial for plant roots within such horizons. Further
analysis of this approach shows that it is not economical for farmers with farms that are small in
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size as land will be too small to allow for the integration of tree species. There are other
measures that could be adopted to reduce soil acidity. For instance, in areas where there is a risk
of leaching by rainfall, there can be synchronization of nutrient supply and plant uptake of
nutrients. This may reduce leaching of nutrients and the effects of over application of some
acidulating chemical fertilizer. Selection of fertilisers to prevent or minimise acidic inputs can
also be useful. For example, it is possible to replace nitrogen fertilisers that are acidic
(ammonium related fertilizers) with nitrate fertilizers as N source because nitrate gives alkaline
effect since it is exchanged by plant roots with bicarbonate and hydroxyl ions. Sources of nitrates
may, however, be scarce and can be expensive, particularly for resource poor farmers, but
whenever available, it can be a good substitute.

CONCLUSION
As a natural process, soil acidification may only be reduced and not completely eliminated on
already-made- acid-soils. Preventive measures can, however, be adopted for the remaining which
have not yet been plagued by this menace by ensuring a balance in removal and input of soil
nutrients. In this review, however, it is inferred that a combination of organic materials and lime
are effective considering their merits and demerits and the case of Ghana. By this, problems such
as high cost of liming and the low supply and rapid putrefaction of organic materials can be
reduced to the barest minimum. However, in areas where it is extremely expensive to apply lime
and access to effective organic ameliorants is a problem, the use of acid tolerant crops may be
the best option. Its use is, however, still in the infancy and therefore its potentials are yet to be
fully tapped. Agroforestry has unambiguous benefits but may not be able to eliminate soil
acidity. Farmers are also encouraged to limit or desist from using fertilizers that can have
acidulating effects for correcting soils naturally low in essential plant nutrients. In addition, there
is the need to curtail or modify practices such as slash and burn and continuous mining of soil
nutrients without rejuvenating its fertility. Such practices enhance rapid depletion of soil organic
matter and hasten soil acidification. More sustainable and soil rehabilitation practices such as
recycling crop waste and crop rotations should be adopted. More studies also need to be done in
areas where there is potential for development, such as the development of acid tolerant strains.

REFERENCES
1. Ahmad, F. and K.H. Tan. (1986). Effect of lime and organic matter on soybean seedlings
grown on an aluminum toxic soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 50:656-661.
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2. AnaneSakye, C. (1994). Organic matter and soil fertility management in the Northern
Easter Savannazone of Ghana. Proceedings of seminar on organic and sedentary
Agriculture. Pp164-181.
3. Arthur, A (2009). effect of decomposing crop residues on soil properties and crop
productivity in the semideciduous forest zone of Ghana. A Doctoral thesis submitted to
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