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Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 35 (2015) 24152422

www.elsevier.com/locate/proci

Study on one-dimensional steady combustion

of highly densied biomass briquette (bio-coke)
in air ow
Takero Nakahara, Hui Yan, Hiroyuki Ito, Osamu Fujita
Division of Mechanical and Space Engineering, Hokkaido University, Kita 13 Nishi 8, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan
Available online 8 September 2014

Abstract
Combustion experiments on cylindrical bio-coke (BIC), a highly densied biomass briquette, have been
conducted to observe whether quasi-one-dimensional steady combustion can be attained in room temperature air ow. In the experiments, the air ow velocity was the main test condition and the fuel consumption rate when the bottom surface of the BIC sample burned was evaluated as the regression rate of the
combustion zone at the bottom surface. In addition, one-dimensional calculations based on an energy
equation at the combustion zone were conducted to understand the mechanism that results in steady combustion and predict the eect of water and volatile matter content in BIC on the extinction limit. The
results showed that steady combustion of the BIC sample could be attained in 4.67 m/s or more, and,
in contrast, extinction was observed in 3.82 m/s or less. The critical regression rate explained by the combustion zone temperature was shown, and the reason combustion becomes unsteady could be explained by
the energy balance at the combustion zone. Though the main reason for extinction was radiation heat loss,
the heat loss by water and volatile matter was not negligible. Therefore, the eect of water and volatile matter content on steady combustion must be considered.
2014 The Combustion Institute. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Biomass briquette; Solid combustion; Surface combustion; Steady ame propagation; Extinction limit

1. Introduction
Presently, biomass fuels are an increasingly
attractive primary energy source because of their
intrinsically renewable nature and potentially limited generation of pollutants. Biomass usually
contains negligible sulfur and low concentrations
Corresponding author. Tel.+81 11 706 6385, fax:

+81 11 706 7841.

E-mail address: ofujita@eng.hokudai.ac.jp (O. Fujita).

of nitrogen and heavy metals and is neutral with

respect to greenhouse gases. However, there are
issues in utilizing biomass as fuels, including the
low caloric value per unit volume and special
treatment required before utilization for economical transport and storage. Moreover, controlling
the burning rate in the combustion equipment is
dicult since raw biomass fuel may be inhomogeneous and have a remarkable burning rate. To
overcome these disadvantages, a newly developed
biomass-type fuel has been proposed, Bio-coke
(BIC) [14]. BIC, highly densied biomass

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2014.08.013
1540-7489/ 2014 The Combustion Institute. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

2416

T. Nakahara et al. / Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 35 (2015) 24152422

Nomenclature
A
A0
cp
D
dn
E
k
L
Nud
Q
R
SB
T
td

frequency factor
theoretical amount of air
specic heat
diusion coecient
nozzle diameter
activation energy
reaction rate constant
latent heat
Nusselt number for substance
diusion
caloric value
universal gas constant
regression rate
temperature
thickness of diusion layer

e
k
m
q
r

emissivity
excess air factor
stoichiometric coecient
density
StefanBoltzmann constant

Subscripts
a
ambient
char
char
CO2
carbon dioxide
i
carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen
O2
oxygen
s
surface
v
volatile matter
w
water

Greek symbols
b
substance diusion rate

briquettes, is manufactured by high compression

at moderate temperatures, and this alternative
fuel has been investigated in the present study.
BIC has high mechanical strength, is able to withstand the compressive stress in melting furnaces,
and has been shown to be a potential alternative
to coal coke. BIC can be manufactured in a wide
range of sizes, large dimensions (48 mm in diameter and 85 mm in length in this study) and densities higher (1300 kg/m3) than ordinary wood
pellets (600 kg/m3) [5]. This means the combustion time of the fuel enables a longer heat release
with a smaller number of fuel loadings, resulting
in a better overall performance compared with
existing biomass fuels. Additionally, BIC has relatively low transport and storage costs because of
its high volumetric caloric value and mechanical
strength, and this new fuel is expected to be used
in melting furnaces, stoves, and boilers.
As biomass fuel is a popular topic in the eld
of combustion, many researchers have investigated the combustion characteristics of biomass
fuel [69], but few studies are available on the
steady combustion mechanism of large blocks of
biomass. In the combustion process of a large fuel
block, steady combustion is dened as the steady
regression rate of the fuel block during combustion. Discussing the mechanism of steady combustion is an important topic, and allows us to gain a
better understanding of the combustion characteristics of the newly developed biomass fuel and
improve the knowledge of combustion furnace
design. Steady combustion can be obtained only
when a steady temperature distribution inside
BIC is achieved. The temperature distribution
inside the fuel was assumed to be dependent on

the surface char oxidative reaction rate and heat

transfer process, and the combustion behavior
would be inuenced by these factors. In this
regard, it is important to investigate the eects
of the char combustion rate, water content, and
volatile matter content on the criteria of steady
combustion. In the existing literature, Makino
performed experiments and analytical investigations on carbon combustion in air ow. They
showed that a steady combustion rate does exist
and depends on the Damkohler number for the
surface reaction. However, they ignored the eect
of water and volatile matter content on steady
combustion [10]. While there are studies on pyrolysis of biomass fuels [1113], little investigation
of the combustion processes has been involved.
One such investigation was reported by Ouedraogo, who presented a shrinking core model
for pyrolysis, devolatilization, and char oxidation
of solid biomass fuel under quasi-steady-state
combustion [14]. However, their study was
directly based on a steady-state assumption,
without explaining why the steady state was
attained.
This study investigated the mechanism of
steady combustion in convective air ow through
both experiments and analytical calculations.
One-dimensional combustion of BIC was performed based on end-face combustion method,
which will be described further in the following
section. The evidence of steady combustion is
shown by regression rate and temperature distribution inside BIC. Meanwhile, the eects of air
ow velocity, water content, and volatile matter
inside BIC on the combustion behavior were
examined.

T. Nakahara et al. / Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 35 (2015) 24152422

2. Experimental method

2417

Stainless steel wire

Flow meter

2.1. Test sample

Pulley
Air

Cylindrical BIC samples used in this study

were made from Japanese knotweed, a perennial
plant abundant in Hokkaido, Japan. The manufacture procedure for BIC is reported in detail
elsewhere [4]. Briey, pulverized Japanese knotweed is stued into cylindrical molds, pressed
and heated simultaneously, and subsequently
cooled to room temperature. After cooling, the
cylindrical BIC briquette is removed from the
mold. Properties of the BIC sample are shown in
Table 1. Dimensions of the BIC sample are
48 mm in diameter and 85 mm in length. Comparing BIC and wood pellets, no obvious distinction
was found in the gross caloric value (17.8 MJ/kg
and 20.3 MJ/kg [13], respectively). However,
because of the special treatment during manufacturing, BIC has a much higher density than wood
pellets (1300 kg/m3 and 600 kg/m3, respectively),
leading to a remarkable energy density within
BIC. Furthermore, according to industrial analysis, a large amount of volatile matter (70%) and
water content (10%) are retained in the original
material. This is the major dierence in BIC from
previous research on carbon combustion [10].
2.2. Experimental setup and test conditions
A schematic of the experimental setup is shown
in Fig. 1. It consists of a (a) combustion chamber,
including the outer and inner tubes (100 and
49 mm in diameter, respectively), (b) counter
weight on a stage, (c) air supply system, (d) air
cooling system inside the inner tube, (e) an infrared
(IR) camera (NEC Sanei, TH6200R, measurement
range of wavelength: 814 lm, measurement range
of temperature: 5231273 K) for monitoring the
bottom surface temperature of the BIC sample,
(f) thermocouples for measuring temperature distributions inside the BIC sample, and (g) digital
Table 1
Properties of the BIC sample.
Mass [kg]
Density [kg/m3]
Caloric value [MJ/kg] (HHV)

0.2
1300
17.9

Elemental analysis
(dry basis)
C [wt%]
H [wt%]
O [wt%]
N [wt%]

47.72
5.95
32.75
0.47

Industrial analysis
(as received basis)
Char [wt%]
Volatile matter [wt%]
Water [wt%]
Ash [wt%]

13
70
10
7

Data
logger
Inner tube

PC

Mechanical
scale

Bio-coke sample

Counter
weight

Thermocouples
Window

DV camera
Combustion zone
Outer tube
Stage

Electric heater
IR camera
Germanium glass window

Flow meter
Blower

Fig. 1. Experimental setup.

video (DV) camera (SONY, HCR-HC7). The

BIC sample is located inside the inner tube and
connected to the counter weight on the stage by
a wire. Initially, the air is metered (4.67 m/s) and
subsequently heated (873 K) by the air supply system and blown onto the bottom surface of the BIC
sample. In order to obtain one-dimensional
combustion behavior, we strategically planned
the experiment (end face combustion). After the
bottom face of the BIC sample ignites, the air temperature is switched to room temperature. Simultaneously, the air cooling system between the
inner tube and BIC sample plays a crucial role in
preventing the side wall and top surface of the
BIC sample from being heated. Based on this
end-face
combustion
method,
quasi-onedimensional combustion behavior of BIC is
achieved. [15]. Five K-type thermocouples
(0.3 mm in diameter, wire) were installed inside
the BIC sample, and they were on the circumference of the 24-mm-diameter circle and at every
10 mm in an axial direction from the initial location of the bottom surface. The IR camera and
DV camera were employed to capture the maximum surface temperature and direct surface combustion images, respectively. This experiment was
conducted three times under every air ow velocity
condition, which were 2.97, 3.82, 4.67, 5.52, and
6.37 m/s, and the experimental data was averaged.
3. Calculation method
In this study, the energy balance in a combustion zone of BIC is proposed to describe the
one-dimensional and steady phenomena, and the
following assumptions are invoked:
 Pyrolysis gas is composed of CO, CO2, and
CH4 [11,12].
 Emissivity is 0.8.
 Thermal properties are independent of
temperature.
 The eect of ash is ignored.

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T. Nakahara et al. / Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 35 (2015) 24152422

The last assumption is according to the fact

that the burning char is always visible and is
exposed to the opposed air ow as seen in Fig. 2.
An energy balance equation is given as Eq. (1)
on the basis of the above assumptions.
!
X
S B T s  T a
qchar mi cpi qv cpv qw cpw
i

S B qv Qv qw Lw erT 4s  T 4a
1

S B qchar Qchar :

In Eq. (1), the energy balance among the absorption of heat is considered, which consists of sensible heat, decomposition heat of the volatile
matter, latent heat of vaporization, and radiation
heat, and the amount of generated heat from carbon combustion(carbon in the char).
The rst term that appears in the left-hand side
of Eq. (1) represents the sensible heat increasing
from the original temperature to the combustion
zone temperature of nitrogen and excess oxidizer
by air ow, pyrolysis gas, water vapor, and CO2
generated by char oxidation inside the control volume. The ratio of composition of pyrolysis gas is
CO:CO2:CH4 = 2:2:1 [11,12]. The second term in
the left-hand side of Eq. (1) is the latent heat of
water vaporization and heat for the pyrolysis reaction based on results of dierential thermal analysis inside the control volume. The radiation heat
in Eq. (1) is thought to approximate the combustion zone gray body in which emissivity is 0.8.
This approximation is based on experimental data
and calibrating temperatures measured by IR
camera and thermocouple. The right-hand term
in Eq. (1) is the char oxidative reaction inside
the control volume. The chemical reaction formula with nitrogen and excess oxidizer in the supplied air is expressed by Eq. (2).
C 0:23kA0 O2 0:77kA0 N2 ! mCO2 CO2
0:23k  1A0 O2 0:77kA0 N2 :

In this research, extinction limit is dened as

the limit of regression rate dropping to 0.
Air ow velocity conditions for this calculation
were from 0.00 to 6.37 m/s.
4. Results and discussion

Both drying and pyrolysis are thermally

controlled, while char oxidation can either be
kinetically controlled or diusion controlled
depending on the operating conditions. In Eq.

BIC sample

(2), the excess air factor is dened as k 1 b=k.

The surface reaction rate constant k and diusion
rate of the oxidizer b are dened as
k A expE=RT s and b Nud D=td , which indicate chemical control eect and diusion control
eect, respectively. The excess air factor means
mass ux of diused oxygen to the mass ux of
reacted oxygen in the case of equivalence or fuel
lean, and if all the supplied oxidizer is consumed
by char combustion, the excess air factor is equal
to unity. The activation energy and frequency factor are determined by referencing a value within
the range of the char oxidative reaction in stagnate ow and combustion of woody biomass
[1619], A 1:9  107 m=s and E 150 kJ=kg.
The diusion part is regulated with the experimental correlations by J. Lee [20] for the Nusselt number,
which
is
dened
as
Nud
 0:078
0:566 td
, because they were dealing
0:661Re
dn
with similar conguration as ours except the cooling system. In the present research, we assumed
the eect of cooling air ow on the expression of
Nusselt number is negligible, because the cooling
air is just supplied to cool the circumference of
BIC and evacuates outward as described in
Fig. 1. The regression rate of the combustion zone
is given by Eq. (3) because the mass of char supplied from unburnt fuel to the combustion zone
is equal to that of the oxidizer supplied to the
combustion zone.
qO2
SB
:
3
qchar mO2 1=k 1=b

4.1. Combustion behavior of BIC in convective ow

A direct image of quasi-one-dimensional combustion is shown in Fig. 2. Surface combustion
was observed at the bottom surface of the BIC sample, but no visible ame appeared in the gas phase
during any experiment because of the large stretch
rate near the stagnation point. However, pyrolysis
gas may exist there. Hence, only char combustion
is treated in this, and gas phase combustion was
ignored.
4.2. Steadiness of BIC combustion

Air
Fig. 2. Direct image of end-face combustion.

Temperature histories inside the BIC sample

with 6.37 m/s air ow are shown in Fig. 3 as a
function of elapsed time. Here elapsed time means
the time after the start of the air supply, which is
heated to 873 K only at the initial moment of air

T. Nakahara et al. / Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 35 (2015) 24152422

1200
Locatiom of bottom surface [mm]

60

1100

50mm

20mm
40mm

1000

Temperature [K]

2419

10mm

900

30mm

800
700
600
500
400
300
200

50
40
30
20
2.97m/s

3.82m/s

5.52m/s

6.37m/s

4.67m/s

10
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

20

40

Elapsed time [min.]

60

80

100

120

140

Elapsed time [min]

Fig. 3. Temperature history inside the BIC sample with

6.37 m/s air ow.

Fig. 4. Temporal change of the end-face location.

supply for ignition. The temperature measurement

was conducted with thermocouples set at dierent
depths of the BIC sample, as described in Fig. 1.
At any measuring point, the temperature increases
gradually to 373 K and maintained at 373 K for
a while. This change in temperature is explained
by the water content in the BIC sample after the
conductive supply from the combustion zone.
Subsequently, the temperature quickly increases
to 8001000 K when the combustion zone comes
closer to the position of the individual thermocouples. The time to reach the maximum temperature
indicates the moment the ame front arrived at
the thermocouple position. Using this information, the propagation characteristics of the combustion zone can be determined. As shown in
Fig. 3, the temperature peak for 30 mm is quite
low, this is due to large fragment of BIC near
the thermocouple drops. Temperature datas in
such case are omitted in the following discussion.
Temporal changes in the location of the combustion zone and displacement of the ame front
from the initial position are shown in Fig. 4 as a
function of elapsed time. The convective air ow
velocity is the experimental parameter in the gure. In this study, the displacement rate of ame
front is called the regression rate and is given by
the slope gradient in Fig. 4. For every air ow
velocity case, we conducted three repeated tests.
Plots of Fig. 4 are the average of repeated tests.
Under high air ow velocity conditions (4.67
6.37 m/s), quasi-one-dimensional steady combustion is observed in all repeated tests. The location
of the bottom surface varied almost linearly,
which means that the regression rate is almost
constant and larger as the air ow velocity
increases. In contrast, extinction is always
observed before all parts of the BIC sample are
consumed under low air ow velocity conditions
(2.97 m/s). As for 3.82 m/s case, in one experiment, extinction happens, while it survives in
other two experiments. Based on these results, a
minimum air ow velocity between 3.82 and
4.67 m/s exists, which can sustain steady combustion. The regression rate in low air ow velocity
conditions is smaller than that in high air ow

velocity conditions. Furthermore, the regression

rate decreases with time and ame, resulting in
extinction. Based on these results, a minimum
air ow velocity between 3.82 and 4.67 m/s exists,
which can sustain steady combustion.
Temporal changes in the temperature distribution inside the BIC sample at an air ow velocity
of 6.37 m/s are shown in Fig. 5 as a function of
the distance from the temporal bottom surface
position. A comparison of the temperature distributions when the regression length is 20 mm
(dashed line) and 40 mm (solid line) is shown.
According to this gure, the temperature distributions are not signicantly dierent. Hence, a similar temperature distribution can be assumed to be
kept nearly constant for the entire ame propagation period.
From the above observation, steady combustion can be attained under high air ow velocity
conditions. However, this is not possible under
low air ow velocity conditions. In the following
section, the mechanism for determining the criteria for steady combustion is discussed on the basis
of comparison between calculation and experimental results.
4.3. Dependence of air ow velocity on regression
rate and temperature
The eects of air ow velocity on regression
rate and surface temperature are shown in Fig. 6
1000

Temperature [K]

900
800
700
Regression length: 20mm
600
500
400
Regression length: 40mm

300
200
0

10

Distance from bottom surface [mm]

Fig. 5. Temporal change of the temperature distribution

inside the BIC sample with 6.37 m/s air ow.

2420

T. Nakahara et al. / Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 35 (2015) 24152422

Temperature of combustion zone [K]

Regression rate [10-5m/s]

3.00
Solid line : Calculation
Dots : Experiment

2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

1200
1100
2.97m/s

900
5.52m/s

800
700
600

3.82m/s

500

Solid line : Calculation

Dots : Experiment

400
300

8.00

0.00

0.50

1.00

Air flow velocity [m/s]

Temperature of combustion zone [K]

1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
Solid line : Calculation
Dots : Experiment

400
300
1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

2.00

2.50

3.00

6.00

7.00

8.00

Air flow velocity [m/s]

Fig. 7. Eect of air ow velocity on the combustion

zone temperature.

Fig. 8. Relationship between the regression rate and

combustion zone temperature.

70.0
60.0

Heat loss [kJ/m2s]

and Fig. 7, respectively. The experimental data are

obtained every 10 mm in the combustion zone.
The regression rate and temperature increase as
the air ow velocity increases for both experiments and calculations, of course in the condition
extremely close to extinction limit, the eect of
chemical part turns to be controlling step, but
general trend in Fig 6 is controlled by diusion
process according to the Nusselt number and
chemical parameter, but the calculation results
are larger than the experiments results. In Fig. 6,
the calculated regression rate goes to zero at a
ow velocity less than 3.00 m/s, while its steady
values exist at a ow velocity higher than
3.00 m/s. The same criterion is observed in
Fig. 7, above that ow velocity a steady surface
temperature is attained. The reason the calculation results are larger is because of the assumption
of a fresh air supply to the bottom surface of the
BIC sample. However, the oxygen concentration
in the supplied air near the surface may decrease
because of oxygen consumption in the gas phase.
As a result, the minimum air ow velocity to sustain steady combustion is larger in the experiments (between 3.82 and 4.67 m/s) than in the
calculations (3.00 m/s). Figure 8 shows the relationship between regression rate and surface temperature from experiments and calculations. The
surface temperature decreases with a decrease in
the regression rate for both experiments and calculations. According to the calculations, the

0.00

1.50

Regression rate [10-5m/s]

Fig. 6. Eect of air ow velocity on regression rate.

500

6.37m/s

4.67m/s

1000

Radiation

50.0

Sensible heat

40.0
30.0
20.0

Decomposition heat of volatile matter

10.0

Latent heat of vaporization

0.0
0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

8.00

Air flow velocity [m/s]

Fig. 9. Comparison between heat losses.

decrease in the temperature is explained by a

decrease in the heat release rate because of a
decreased regression rate, that is, the ratio of heat
release to heat loss increases. This temperature
decrease is the mechanism of extinction because
the chemical reaction rate changes nonlinearly,
and it suddenly decreases when the temperature
is lower than a critical value.
As discussed in the previous section, the regression rate is controlled by the air ow velocity and
the combustion is diusion-controlled. Therefore,
there is minimum air ow velocity to sustain
steady combustion.
4.4. Discussion on extinction limit
Heat losses corresponding to each term in Eq.
(1) are shown in Fig. 9 as a function of air ow
velocity. Any heat loss monotonically increases
as the air ow velocity increases. Of all the heat
loss terms, radiation heat loss is the largest factor,
accounting for 48% of the total heat loss at the
extinction limit. The decomposition heat of volatile matter and latent heat of vaporization account
for 12% and 5% of the total heat loss, respectively.
Consequently, extinction at low air ow velocity is mainly due to radiation heat loss. However,
the eects of the decomposition heat of volatile
matter and latent heat of vaporization are not
negligible, which results in the extinction limit
shifting to a higher air ow velocity.

T. Nakahara et al. / Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 35 (2015) 24152422

3.00

Regression rate [10-5m/s]

6.37m/s
5.52m/s

2.50

4.67m/s
2.00

3.82m/s
2.97m/s

1.50

Unsteady region
1.00
0

10

15

20

25

Water content [%]

Fig. 10. Eect of water content on the regression rate

and extinction limit.

extinction limit appears after passing through a

maximum value.
The eect of volatile matter content on the
extinction limit is shown in Fig. 11. The tendency
is the same as that shown in the previous section.
Briey, heat loss through volatile matter and
decomposition heat inuences the heat balance
at the surface, and extinction appears based on
the volatile matter content.
Both water and volatile matter content are factors that can result in unstable one-dimensional
combustion. The eect of water and volatile matter content on the extinction limit is important
when considering steady combustion.
5. Concluding remarks

3.50

Regression rate [10-5m/s]

2421

6.37m/s

5.52m/s

3.00
4.67m/s
3.82m/s

2.50

2.97m/s

2.00
1.50

Unsteady region

1.00
60

65

70

75

80

Volatile matter content [%]

Fig. 11. Eect of volatile matter content on the regression rate and extinction limit.

4.5. Eects of water and volatile matter content on

steady one-dimensional combustion
The eects of water content on the regression
rate and extinction limit are shown in Fig. 10.
One thing we should mention here is that the eect
of water and VM on steady combustion is
addressed by modeling and not through experiment. The regression rates when the water content
is varied are shown for every air ow velocity by
solid and dashed lines. The extinction limit is
shown by dots, and the region under the dots is
where one-dimensional combustion becomes
unsteady. The regression rate gradually increases
as the water content increases and reaches a maximum value, which is followed by a decrease and
extinction. The extinction limit also increases as
the water content increases. In this study,
increases and decreases in water content are treated as increases and decreases in the mass fraction
of char. As the mass fraction of char increases,
surface combustion can be sustained, but the
regression rate decreases. For additional increases
in the water content, however, the extinction limit
appears because the ratio of heat loss from water,
latent heat, and heat release from char combustion increases. For large water content, the heat
loss signicantly aects the heat balance at the
surface relative to the generated heat, and the

Experiments with BIC, a highly densied biomass briquette, were conducted by burning the
BIC quasi-one-dimensionally to observe whether
the combustion reaches a steady state in room
temperature air ow. In addition, one-dimensional calculations were done to help understand
the mechanism that allows for steady combustion
and predict the eect of water and volatile matter
content in BIC. The results thus obtained may be
summarized as follows:
(1) It was conrmed that quasi-one-dimensional
combustion of BIC is attained in room
temperature air ow. The combustion
reaches a steady state in high air ow
velocity (4.67 m/s or larger), but extinction
is observed in low air ow velocity (3.82 m/
s or lower).
(2) According to the one-dimensional analysis,
there is a critical regression rate to sustain a
steady state. The existence of the critical
regression rate is explained by the bottom
surface temperature change, which is given
by the ratio of heat loss to heat released
by char combustion.
(3) The heat loss caused by water and volatile
matter content included in the BIC is not
negligible, but the main reason for extinction in low air ow velocity is radiation heat
loss. Moreover, the extinction limits shifts
to a higher regression rate as water and volatile matter content increase. Therefore, the
eects of water and volatile matter content
on steady combustion are important.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by Grants-Aid for
Scientic Research (Houga, Subject #22656050)
from MEXT Japan in 20102011 and was partially supported by Grants-Aid for Scientic
Research (Kiban (C), Subject #26420160) from
MEXT Japan in 2014.

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T. Nakahara et al. / Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 35 (2015) 24152422

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