ABSTACT

The main aim of Minor project is to expose the student to the industrial technical
problems to which he is to be exposed in the future life. In an organization where
Making Things Right in the first instance is the driving motto, perfection and accuracy
are inevitable.
I have worked for six months on the topic entitled MATERIAL SEPRATION. I have
the honor to work as a student of DEV POLYTECHNIC to the extent of my
technical capabilities. Doing this tenure, I have acquired a sufficient knowledge on
construction and assembly of conveyor system for material sepration.
I remained actively associated with one of the most demanding field of mechanical.
The time spent on the aforesaid topic has really proved to be very useful and will
remain enduring throughout my professional career. Brief outline of the work is
covered under the following heads.
We would like to express our gratitude to Mr. Ashish Goyal (H.O.D. ME Deptt), who
motivated us and helped us in every step of our project work
We would also like to thanks all the faculty of Mechanical Department who
contributed directly or indirectly towards the completion of the project.

OVERVIEW OF CONVEYOR SYSTEM

DC GEARED MOTORS
BASICS OF SENSORS
ABOUT METAL DETECTOR
RESULT & MODIFICATIONS
SUGGESTION FOR FUTURE MODIFICATION AND FUTURE SCOPE OF
PROJECT
In conclusion, I must say that the Minor project has helped me to enhance my working
skills & stamina and to further enlighten me to enter a new phase of life after completion
of the degree program.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Content
Chapter No.
Name
1 Introduction
1.1 Walking kinematic project
1.2 Overview of design
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9

Designing of machine
Designing
Feature
Mechanical designing
Prototype development
Material selection
Manufacturing
Future scope
General Dimension
Mechnical part specification

3. DC motor and their drive

4. Switches

Reference

Appendix- Data Sheets

CHAPTER 1
1. INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER-2: Linear Actuator

INTRODUCTION:
A linear actuator is a device that applies force in a linear manner, as opposed to
rotationally like an electric motor. There are various methods of achieving this linear
motion. Some actually convert rotational motion into linear motion.

FIG : Conceptual design of a basic linear actuator

The linear actuator used in our project is completely mechanical design with
ball screw arrangement.
BASIC WORKING OF OUR LINEAR ACTUATOR:
There is a motor mount at the beginning of the linear actuator. It is this
motor that is used to slide the moving block up and down in the linear
actuator. The design of the actuator is so made that when the motor moves in
clockwise direction with one polarity at the ends, it turns the moving block
slide that is mounted on the rotating screw . This gives forward motion to the
actuator. Again, reversing the polarity on the motor would reverse the
direction of rotation of motor tht is turns it to rotate in anticlockwise
direction so that the screw also revolves in anticlockwise direction ,this
makes the sliding block move back on the same rotaing screw. Thus, with
the help of rotatory motion, we are getting vertical up and down motion.
TYPES OF LINEAR ACTUATORS:

1. Mechanical actuators

FIG. A mechanical linear actuator with digital readout.

Mechanical actuators typically convert rotary motion of a control knob or

handle into linear displacement via screws and/or gears to which the knob or
handle is attached. A jackscrew or car jack is a familiar mechanical actuator.
Another family of actuators are based on the segmented spindle. Rotation of
the jack handle is converted mechanically into the linear motion of the jack
head. Mechanical actuators are also frequently used in the field of lasers and
optics to manipulate the position of linear stages, rotary stages, mirror
mounts, goniometers and other positioning instruments. For accurate and
repeatable positioning, index marks may be used on control knobs. Some
actuators even include an encoder and digital position readout. These are
similar to the adjustment knobs used on micrometers except that their
purpose is position adjustment rather than position measurement.

2. Hydraulic actuators
Hydraulic actuators or hydraulic cylinders typically involve a hollow
cylinder having a piston inserted in it. The two sides of the piston are
alternately pressurized/de-pressurized to achieve controlled precise linear
displacement of the piston and in turn the entity connected to the piston. The
physical linear displacement is only along the axis of the piston/cylinder.
This design is based on the principles of hydraulics. A familiar example of a
manually operated hydraulic actuator is a hydraulic car jack. Typically
though, the term "hydraulic actuator" refers to a device controlled by
a hydraulic pump.
3. Piezoelectric actuators

The piezoelectric effect is a property of certain materials in which

application of a voltage to the material causes it to expand. Very high
voltages correspond to only tiny expansions. As a result, piezoelectric
actuators can achieve extremely fine positioning resolution, but also have a
very short range of motion. In addition, piezoelectric materials
exhibit hysteresis which makes it difficult to control their expansion in a
repeatable manner.

4. Electro-mechanical actuators

A miniature electro-mechanical linear actuator where the lead nut is part of

the motor. The lead screw does not rotate, so as the lead nut is rotated by the
motor, the lead screw is extended or retracted.

Typical compact cylindrical linear electric actuator

Typical linear or rotary + linear electric actuator

Moving coil linear, rotary and linear + rotary actuators at work in various
applications
Electro-mechanical actuators are similar to mechanical actuators except that
the control knob or handle is replaced with an electric motor. Rotary motion
of the motor is converted to linear displacement of the actuator. There are
many designs of modern linear actuators and every company that
manufactures them tends to have their own proprietary method. The
following is a generalized description of a very simple electro-mechanical
linear actuator.

Simplified design
Typically, a rotary driver (e.g. electric motor) is mechanically connected to
a lead screw so that the rotation of the electric motor will make the lead
screw rotate. A lead screw has a continuous helical thread machined on its
circumference running along the length (similar to the thread on a bolt).
Threaded onto the lead screw is a lead nut with corresponding helical
threads. The nut is prevented from rotating with the lead screw (typically the
nut interlocks with a non-rotating part of the actuator body). Therefore,
when the lead screw is rotated, the nut will be driven along the threads. The
direction of motion of the nut will depend on the direction of rotation of the
lead screw. By connecting linkages to the nut, the motion can be converted
to usable linear displacement. Most current actuators are built either for high
speed, high force, or a compromise between the two. When considering an

actuator for a particular application, the most important specifications are

typically travel, speed, force, accuracy, and lifetime.
There are many types of motors that can be used in a linear actuator system.
These include dc brush, dc brushless, stepper, or in some cases, even
induction motors. It all depends on the application requirements and the
loads the actuator is designed to move. For example, a linear actuator using
an integral horsepower AC induction motor driving a lead screw can be used
to actuate a large valve in a refinery. In this case, accuracy and move
resolution down to a thousanth isn't needed, but high force and speed is. For
electromechanical linear actuators used in laboratory instrumentation
robotics, optical and laser equipment, or X-Y tables, fine resolution into the
micron region and high accuracy may require the use of a fractional
horsepower stepper motor linear actuator with a fine pitch lead screw. There
are many variations in the electromechanical linear actuator system. It's
critical to understand the design requirements and application constraints to
know which one would be best.
Principles
In the majority of linear actuator designs, the basic principle of operation is
that of an inclined plane. The threads of a lead screw act as a continuous
ramp that allows a small rotational force to be used over a long distance to
accomplish movement of a large load over a short distance.
Variations
Many variations on the basic design have been created. Most focus on
providing general improvements such as a higher mechanical efficiency,
speed, or load capacity. There is also a large engineering movement towards
actuator miniaturization.
Most electro-mechanical designs incorporate a lead screw and lead nut.
Some use a ball screw and ball nut. In either case the screw may be
connected to a motor or manual control knob either directly or through a
series of gears. Gears are typically used to allow a smaller (and weaker)
motor spinning at a higher rpm to be geared down to provide the torque

necessary to spin the screw under a heavier load than the motor would
otherwise be capable of driving directly. Effectively this sacrifices actuator
speed in favor of increased actuator thrust. In some applications the use
of worm gear is common as this allow a smaller built in dimension still
allowing great travel length.
Some lead screws have multiple "starts". This means that they have multiple
threads alternating on the same shaft. One way of visualizing this is in
comparison to the multiple color stripes on a candy cane. This allows for
more adjustment between thread pitch and nut/screw thread contact area,
which determines the extension speed and load carrying capacity (of the
threads), respectively.
Linear motors
A linear motor is essentially a rotary electric motor laid down on flat
surface. Since the motor moves in a linear fashion to begin with, no lead
screw is needed to convert rotary motion to linear. While high capacity is
possible, the material and/or motor limitations on most designs are surpassed
relatively quickly. Most linear motors have a low load capacity compared to
other types of linear actuators.
Wax motors
A wax motor typically uses an electric current to heat a block of wax
causing it to expand. A plunger that bears on the wax is thus forced to move
in a linear fashion.
Segmented spindles
Segmented actuators consist of discrete chain elements which are interlinked
to form a rod (the technology is known as the segmented spindle) thus
making the actuator extremely compact.

Advantages and disadvantages of different types of linear actuators:

Actuator Type

Advantages

Disadvantages

Mechanical

Cheap. Repeatable. No power source required. Self

contained. Identical behaviour extending or
retracting.

Electro-mechanical

Cheap. Repeatable. Operation can be automated. Self

contained. Identical behaviour extending or
Many moving parts prone to wear.
retracting. DC or Stepping motors. Position feedback
possible.

Linear motor

Simple design. Minimum of moving parts. High

speeds possible. Self contained. Identical behaviour
extending or retracting.

Low force.

Piezoelectric

Very small motions possible.

Requires position feedback to be repeatable. Short

travel. Low speed. High voltages required.
Expensive. Good in compression only. Not good in
tension.

Hydraulic

Very high forces possible.

Can leak. Requires position feedback for

repeatability. External hydraulics pump required.
Some designs good in compression only.

Wax motor

Smooth operation.

Not as reliable as other methods.

Segmented spindle

Very compact. Range of motion greater than length

of actuator.

Both linear and rotary motion.

Moving coil

Force, position and speed are controllable and

repeatable. Capable of high speeds and precise
Requires position feedback to be repeatable.
positioning. Linear, rotary, and linear + rotary actions
possible.

MICA (moving
iron controllable
actuator)

High force and controllable. Higher force and less

Stroke limited to several millimeters, less linearity
losses than moving coils [2]. Losses easy to dissipate.
than moving coils
Electronic driver easy to design and set up.

Manual operation only. No automation.

LINEAR ACTUATOR WITH BALL SCREW ARRANGEMENT IN

EDM:

It works on the principle of conversion of rotator motion into linear motion.

The rotatory motion is achieved through the motor and linear motion through a
ball-screw arrangement.
It is supported by a base plate of alluminium and is provided with a moving plate o
which the robotic gripper is mounted in order to pick the objects from a lower
position and place it in higher position.

Linear actuator applications

Linear motion is much in demand in all sectors of industry and the linear actuator
is
one
of
the
responses.
The linear actuator is generally less cumbersome than a cogged belt, simpler than

a rack and pinion and more economical. It has a number of major advantages for
the
user:
*
*
*
*
*

Smaller
Performance

Longer
(power

size
Reliability
life
speed)
Cost

Below are some applications into which our linear actuators have been applied:
Linear

actuator

with

integrated

electronics

New developments launched in recent years have led to

many improvements in terms of power, speed and
reliability. But without doubt what has contributed most to
improved operation is integration of the control electronics
into
the
design
of
the
linear
actuator.
The unit in this picture is the 8623-R002. The datasheet for
this linear actuator can be seen on the right hand side of
this web page.

Medical

application

This actuator is based on a stepping motor with a

pernament magnet and fits perfectly into the customer's
assembly. it has a leakproof housing and is non-sensitive to
outside conditions.

Laboratory

application

Automated dosage in laboratories is developing as the

instruments achieve greater accuracy and efficiency. The
optimized resolution of the 7214 actuator provides constant
and precise movement, even at high speed.

Heating,

ventilation

and

air

conditioning

This actuator is the drive system for a 3-way valve for a

gas boiler. The actuator moves a valve which switches the
hot water circuit to the water or heating position.

Automotive

application

The environment in a car engine places severe demands on

the components - vibration, temperature variations,
thermal shock and an aggresive chemical atmosphere - and
yet the job of the linear actuator that regulates the by-pass
deceleration requires high precision. It is clipped directly
onto the butterfly valve to avoid using fixing screws.

CHAPTER-3
METAL DETECTOR
A metal detector is a device which responds to metal that may not be readily apparent.
Metal detectors have been a part of every countrys defence, security and military

operations for a long time. Along with its wide applications in industrial entry doors, it
could be used even in mines to detect the presence of metals. In defence, detection of any
pistol / bomb, electronic survelliance equipment hidden in a persons body could be
detected with its help.
There are many types of configurations in which a metal detector could be designed and
installed. Most widely used are: Walk through Metal Detectors installed in companys
entry doors to scan the incoming person for any unidentified hidden metal objects and
second category is Hand Held Metal Detector that is mostly used in external metal
identification and detection purposes such as in military and defense or to personally
check a person or his bag / luggage to detect for hidden metals.
The basic designing of a Metal Detector is based upon the principle that inductance of a
coil is changed when metal comes close to the coil. This is basically a type of an open
transformer. As a transformer has an enamled insulated copper metallic wire coil inside it,
similarly we would work on creating a copper thick wire (enameled) or PVC Copper
Wire and make an insulated coil out of it.
There would be an air core in the center of the coil. When a metal would pass out of this
coil, inductance of the coil would change and hence coil impedence would change. And
as the voltage and frequency of the coil would be maintained constant from external
triggering circuit, impedence is inversely proportional to change in current and hence this
change is detected and analog to digital converted circuitry and fed to a microcontroller
8051. So, whenever a person crosses the door, this system would detect the person for
any hidden metal, this walk through metal detector would show it on an LCD along with
an alarming buzzer.
A portable and handy design would be made containing copper coil and an air core to
demonstrate the working of the complete project.
LIST OF COMPONENTS TO BE USED
S.NO

Name

Quantity

Colour

Pins

Copper Wires

8 meters
long

Black

Singl
e
core
wire

Insulating Telescopic Pipes

(optional)

Black

Op-amp LM358 (IC)

Black

NE555 TIMER IC

Black

Microcontroller 8051

Black
40

IR sensor (Transmitter)

Light blue

IR sensor (Receiver)

Transparent

Resistance 330 ohm

Orange-orange-brown

Resistance 1 mega ohm

Green-brown

10

Not gate ( 7404)

Black

14

11

Designed PCB

12

Transistors PNP BC547

Black

13

2 x 16 LCD Module

14

Nut-Bolt Pair

15
16.
17.
18.
19.

3
16
-

Jumper Wire
( Single Stand Wire)
IC Base ( 8,14,16,40 pin)

Battery ( 9v) + Connector

Step down transformer ( 9-0-9)

Bridge diode ( 1 amp )

Black

Black

Black

20.

Voltage regulator 7805

21.

Led + 100 ohm ( indicator)

22.

10k ohm resistance

23.

10 microfarad capacitor

24.

33 picofarad capacitor

25.

Crystal 11.0592 Mhz

26.

Sip resistance ( 10 k ohm)

27.
28.
29.
30.

Black

Black

Blue

Ribbon wires
General purpose PCB
Buzzer
Potentiometer 10K

BLOCK DIAGRAM

220 volt AC
Use of 220v AC is optional
if we are using Battery
operated device
Copper Coil
(For metal detection)

5 volt regulated power supply

Using
Voltage regulator
Filter capacitor Or Battery

Opamp LM358

Transistor as an
Amplifier

Reference
Potentiometer
Main processing unit
Microcontroller 8-bit
AT89c52

ULN 2003 Amplifier

Alarming Buzzer
(on remote location
on identifying
Hidden Metal)

LCD FOR
DISPLAY of metal
detection

LED for
INDICATION

Anatomy of a Metal Detector

A typical metal detector is light-weight and consists of just a few parts:
1. Stabilizer (optional) - used to keep the unit steady as you sweep it back and
forth
2. Control

box -

contains

the

circuitry,

controls, speaker, batteries and

the microcontroller
3. Shaft - connects the control box and the coil; often adjustable so you can set it
at a comfortable level for your height
4. Search coil - the part that actually senses the metal; also known as the "search
head," "loop" or "antenna"

Most systems also have a jack for connecting headphones, and some have the control
box below the shaft and a small display unit above.
Operating a metal detector is simple. Once you turn the unit on, you move slowly over
the area you wish to search. In most cases, you sweep the coil (search head) back and
forth over the ground in front of you. When you pass it over a target object, an audible
signal occurs. More advanced metal detectors provide displays that pinpoint the type of
metal it has detected and how deep in the ground the target object is located.
Metal detectors use one of three technologies:

Very low frequency (VLF)

Pulse induction (PI)

Beat-frequency oscillation (BFO)

VLF Technology
Very low frequency (VLF), also known as induction balance, is probably the most
popular detector technology in use today. In a VLF metal detector, there are two distinct
coils:

Transmitter coil - This is the outer coil loop. Within it is a coil of wire.
Electricity is sent along this wire, first in one direction and then in the other,
thousands of times each second. The number of times that the current's
direction switches each second establishes the frequency of the unit.

Receiver coil - This inner coil loop contains another coil of wire. This wire
acts as an antenna to pick up and amplify frequencies coming from target
objects in the ground.

This LandRanger metal detector from Bounty Hunter uses

VLF
The current moving through the transmitter coil creates an electromagnetic field, which is
like what happens in an electric motor. The polarity of the magnetic field is perpendicular
to the coil of wire. Each time the current changes direction, the polarity of the magnetic
field changes. This means that if the coil of wire is parallel to the ground, the magnetic
field is constantly pushing down into the ground and then pulling back out of it.
As the magnetic field pulses back and forth into the ground, it interacts with any
conductive objects it encounters, causing them to generate weak magnetic fields of their
own. The polarity of the object's magnetic field is directly opposite the transmitter coil's
magnetic field. If the transmitter coil's field is pulsing downward, the object's field is
pulsing upward.

The receiver coil is completely shielded from the magnetic field generated by the transmitter coil.
However, it is not shielded from magnetic fields coming from objects in the ground. Therefore, when
the receiver coil passes over an object giving off a magnetic field, a small electric current travels
through the coil. This current oscillates at the same frequency as the object's magnetic field. The coil
amplifies the frequency and sends it to the control box of the metal detector, where sensors analyze the
signal.
The metal detector can determine approximately how deep the object is buried based on the strength of
the magnetic field it generates. The closer to the surface an object is, the stronger the magnetic field
picked up by the receiver coil and the stronger the electric current generated. The farther below the
surface, the weaker the field. Beyond a certain depth, the object's field is so weak at the surface that it
is undetectable by the receiver coil.

VLF Phase Shifting

How does a VLF metal detector distinguish between different metals? It relies on a
phenomenon known as phase shifting. Phase shift is the difference in timing between the
transmitter coil's frequency and the frequency of the target object. This discrepancy can
result from a couple of things:

Inductance - An object that conducts electricity easily (is inductive) is slow

to react to changes in the current. You can think of inductance as a deep
river: Change the amount of water flowing into the river and it takes some
time before you see a difference.

Resistance - An object that does not conduct electricity easily (is resistive) is
quick to react to changes in the current. Using our water analogy, resistance
would be a small, shallow stream: Change the amount of water flowing into
the stream and you notice a drop in the water level very quickly.

Basically, this means that an object with high inductance is going to have a larger phase
shift, because it takes longer to alter its magnetic field. An object with high resistance is
going to have a smaller phase shift.
Phase shift provides VLF-based metal detectors with a capability called discrimination.
Since most metals vary in both inductance and resistance, a VLF metal detector examines
the amount of phase shift, using a pair of electronic circuits called phase demodulators,
and compares it with the average for a particular type of metal. The detector then notifies

you with an audible tone or visual indicator as to what range of metals the object is likely
to be in.
Many metal detectors even allow you to filter out (discriminate) objects above a certain
phase-shift level. Usually, you can set the level of phase shift that is filtered, generally by
adjusting a knob that increases or decreases the threshold. Another discrimination feature
of VLF detectors is called notching. Essentially, a notch is a discrimination filter for a
particular segment of phase shift. The detector will not only alert you to objects above
this segment, as normal discrimination would, but also to objects below it.
Advanced detectors even allow you to program multiple notches. For example, you could
set the detector to disregard objects that have a phase shift comparable to a soda-can tab
or a small nail. The disadvantage of discrimination and notching is that many valuable
items might be filtered out because their phase shift is similar to that of "junk." But, if
you know that you are looking for a specific type of object, these features can be
extremely useful.
PI Technology
A less common form of metal detector is based on pulse induction (PI). Unlike VLF, PI
systems may use a single coil as both transmitter and receiver, or they may have two or
even three coils working together. This technology sends powerful, short bursts (pulses)
of current through a coil of wire. Each pulse generates a brief magnetic field. When the
pulse ends, the magnetic field reverses polarity and collapses very suddenly, resulting in a
sharp electrical spike. This spike lasts a few microseconds (millionths of a second) and
causes another current to run through the coil. This current is called the reflected
pulse and is extremely short, lasting only about 30 microseconds. Another pulse is then
sent and the process repeats. A typical PI-based metal detector sends about 100 pulses per
second, but the number can vary greatly based on the manufacturer and model, ranging
from a couple of dozen pulses per second to over a thousand.

This Garrett metal detector uses pulse induction.

If the metal detector is over a metal object, the pulse creates an opposite magnetic field in
the object. When the pulse's magnetic field collapses, causing the reflected pulse, the
magnetic field of the object makes it take longer for the reflected pulse to completely
disappear. This process works something like echoes: If you yell in a room with only a
few hard surfaces, you probably hear only a very brief echo, or you may not hear one at
all; but if you yell in a room with a lot of hard surfaces, the echo lasts longer. In a PI
metal detector, the magnetic fields from target objects add their "echo" to the reflected
pulse, making it last a fraction longer than it would without them.
A sampling circuit in the metal detector is set to monitor the length of the reflected
pulse. By comparing it to the expected length, the circuit can determine if another
magnetic field has caused the reflected pulse to take longer to decay. If the decay of the
reflected pulse takes more than a few microseconds longer than normal, there is probably
a metal object interfering with it.
The sampling circuit sends the tiny, weak signals that it monitors to a device call an integrator. The
integrator reads the signals from the sampling circuit, amplifying and converting them to direct current
(DC). The direct current's voltage is connected to an audio circuit, where it is changed into a tone that
the metal detector uses to indicate that a target object has been found.
PI-based detectors are not very good at discrimination because the reflected pulse lengths of various
metals are not easily separated. However, they are useful in many situations in which VLF-based metal
detectors would have difficulty, such as in areas that have highly conductive material in the soil or
general environment. A good example of such a situation is salt-water exploration. Also, PI-based
systems can often detect metal much deeper in the ground than other systems.

BFO Technology
The most basic way to detect metal uses a technology called beat-frequency
oscillator (BFO). In a BFO system, there are two coils of wire. One large coil is in the
search head, and a smaller coil is located inside the control box. Each coil is connected to
an oscillator that generates thousands of pulses of current per second. The frequency of
these pulses is slightly offset between the two coils.

As the pulses travel through each coil, the coil generates radio waves. A tiny receiver
within the control box picks up the radio waves and creates an audible series of tones
(beats) based on the difference between the frequencies.
If the coil in the search head passes over a metal object, the magnetic field caused by the
current flowing through the coil creates a magnetic field around the object. The object's
magnetic field interferes with the frequency of the radio waves generated by the searchhead coil. As the frequency deviates from the frequency of the coil in the control box, the
audible beats change in duration and tone. The simplicity of BFO-based systems allows
them to be manufactured and sold for a very low cost. But these detectors do not provide
the level of control and accuracy provided by VLF or PI systems.

CHAPTER-4
DC Motor , actuator & Their Drives
DC MOTORS
DC motor has two leads. If we apply +ve to one lead and ground
to another motor will rotate in one direction, if we reverse the
connection the motor will rotate in opposite direction. If we keep both

leads open or both leads ground it will not rotate (but some inertia will
be there). If we apply +ve voltage to both leads then braking will
occurs. The main things about a DC motor are Voltage rating, current
rating, Torque, Speed. Torque is inversely proportional to speed. So
we had to get a good torque rather than speed. So, to get maximum
torque we should use gear motors or gearbox.
Normally available DC motors (without gears) have 12V,
250mA, 2400rpm (may change) ratings. But it is better to have a
geared motor, because you should make gears to get a good torque to
drive robot. As a beginner we mostly use DC motors, stepper motor
and servo motor will come later. You can test this, first without
applying any voltage you rotate the shaft of the motor, then apply
ground on both lead and try to rotate the shaft. Both will almost
remain same, but if we apply both lead +ve voltage (+12V) and try to
rotate the shaft, you can feel the difference between the previous one.
You have to apply more force to rotate the same rotation in previous
connection. So we take this condition as braking, because if we want
to stop the motor suddenly then this is the better way which is easily
possible. There are methods to brake motor fastly, like shorting two
leads, applying negative polarity exists, but we won't use this in
robotics.
Normally we get Speed/9 reduction gears to reduce speed and
get a good torque. Put three gears to reduce speed to 2400/27
(calculation is taken avoiding gear loss). So we get a speed of 80 rpm.
I used DC geared motor of 12V, 250mA, 60-80rpm, 2kgcms Torque.

So as a beginner it is better to have a geared motor than a normal

motor because you have to make gears.
Ultra flat dimensions.
Extremely low current consumption.
Low starting voltage.
Low rotor inertia for extremely fast acceleration and braking.
Extremely light and compact.
Very cost effective.
Precision gearboxes available in all sizes.

A DC motor is designed to run on DC electric power. Two examples of

pure DC designs are Michael Faraday's homopolar motor (which is
uncommon), and the ball bearing motor, which is (so far) a novelty. By far
the most common DC motor types are the brushed and brushless types,
which use internal and external commutation respectively to reverse the
current in the windings in synchronism with rotation.

Permanent-magnet motors
permanent-magnet motor does not have a field winding on the stator
frame, instead relying on permanent magnets to provide the magnetic field
against which the rotor field interacts to produce torque. Compensating
windings in series with the armature may be used on large motors to
improve commutation under load. Because this field is fixed, it cannot be
adjusted for speed control. Permanent-magnet fields (stators) are
convenient in miniature motors to eliminate the power consumption of the
field winding. Most larger DC motors are of the "dynamo" type, which
have stator windings. Historically, permanent magnets could not be made to
retain high flux if they were disassembled; field windings were more
practical to obtain the needed amount of flux. However, large permanent
magnets are costly, as well as dangerous and difficult to assemble; this
favors wound fields for large machines.
To minimize overall weight and size, miniature permanent-magnet motors
may use high energy magnets made with neodymium or other strategic
elements; most such are neodymium-iron-boron alloy. With their higher
flux density, electric machines with high energy permanent magnets are at
least

competitive

with

all

fed synchronous andinduction electric

optimally
machines.

designed singly
Miniature

motors

resemble the structure in the illustration, except that they have at least three
rotor poles (to ensure starting, regardless of rotor position) and their outer
housing is a steel tube that magnetically links the exteriors of the curved
field magnets.
Brushed DC motors

Workings of a brushed electric motor with a two-pole rotor and permanentmagnet stator. ("N" and "S" designate polarities on the inside faces of the
magnets; the outside faces have opposite polarities.)
DC motors have AC in a wound rotor also called an armature, with a split
ring commutator, and either a wound or permanent magnet stator. The
commutator and brushes are a long-life rotary switch. The rotor consists of
one or more coils of wire wound around a laminated "soft" ferromagnetic
core on a shaft; an electrical power source feeds the rotor windings through
the commutator and its brushes, temporarily magnetizing the rotor core in a
specific direction. The commutator switches power to the coils as the rotor
turns, keeping the magnetic poles of the rotor from ever fully aligning with
the magnetic poles of the stator field, so that the rotor never stops (like a
compass needle does), but rather keeps rotating as long as power is applied.
Many of the limitations of the classic commutator DC motor are due to the
need for brushes to press against the commutator. This createsfriction.
Sparks are created by the brushes making and breaking circuits through the
rotor coils as the brushes cross the insulating gaps between commutator
sections. Depending on the commutator design, this may include the
brushes shorting together adjacent sections and hence coil ends

momentarily while crossing the gaps. Furthermore, the inductance of the

rotor coils causes the voltage across each to rise when its circuit is opened,
increasing the sparking of the brushes. This sparking limits the maximum
speed of the machine, as too-rapid sparking will overheat, erode, or even
melt the commutator. The current density per unit area of the brushes, in
combination with their resistivity, limits the output of the motor. The
making and breaking of electric contact also generates electrical noise;
sparking generates RFI. Brushes eventually wear out and require
replacement, and the commutator itself is subject to wear and maintenance
(on larger motors) or replacement (on small motors). The commutator
assembly on a large motor is a costly element, requiring precision assembly
of many parts. On small motors, the commutator is usually permanently
integrated into the rotor, so replacing it usually requires replacing the whole
rotor.

DC MOTOR
Reduction Gears used: 4
Material = MS
Reduction Gear Ratio = 1: 100

Electrical Specification of Motor

operating Voltage 12V Max

No load current - 5 amperes
Load current
- 12 amperes
Starting Current 8 amperes
Flux 2.5 Weber
Coil resistance- 150 ohm
Power = 580 watts

Mechanical Specification of Motor

Shaft Diameter = 8 mm
Gears Type = worm wheel gears
Material of Gears = Brass
Mounting Bolt = 13mm
Gear Mounting case = Nylon
Torque - 9 kg/cm

CHAPTER 4
RELAY
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a
switching mechanism, but other operating principles are also used. Relays find
applications where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal, or where
several circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long
distance telegraph circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and retransmitting it to another. Relays found extensive use in telephone exchanges and early
computers to perform logical operations. A type of relay that can handle the high power
required to directly drive an electric motor is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control
power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device triggered by
light to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and
sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or
faults; in modern electric

power

functions are performed by

digital instruments still

called "protection relays".

systems

these

Basic design and operation

A simple electromagnetic relay, such as the one taken from a car in the first picture, is an
adaptation of an electromagnet. It consists of a coil of wire surrounding a soft iron core,
an iron yoke, which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron
armature, and a set, or sets, of contacts; two in the relay pictured. The armature is hinged
to the yoke and mechanically linked to a moving contact or contacts. It is held in place by
a spring so that when the relay is de-energised there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit.
In this condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the
other set is open. Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on
their function. The relay in the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the
yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between the moving contacts on the armature,
and the circuit track on the printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered to
the PCB.
When an electric current is passed through the coil, the resulting magnetic field attracts
the armature, and the consequent movement of the movable contact or contacts either
makes or breaks a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was closed when
the relay was de-energised, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks the

connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is
switched off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the
magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but
gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured
to operate quickly. In a low voltage application, this is to reduce noise. In a high voltage
or high current application, this is to reduce arcing.
If the coil is energized with DC, a diode is frequently installed across the coil, to dissipate
the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise
generate a voltage spike dangerous to circuit components. Some automotive relays
already include that diode inside the relay case. Alternatively a contact protection
network, consisting of a capacitor and resistor in series, may absorb the surge. If the coil
is designed to be energized with AC, a small copper ring can be crimped to the end of the
solenoid. This "shading ring" creates a small out-of-phase current, which increases the
minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle.[1]
By analogy with the functions of the original electromagnetic device, a solid-state relay is
made with a thyristor or other solid-state switching device. To achieve electrical isolation
an optocoupler can be used which is a light-emitting diode (LED) coupled with a photo
transistor.

Types
LATCHING RELAY, dust cover removed, showing pawl
and ratchet mechanism. The ratchet operates a cam, which
raises and lowers the moving contact arm, seen edge-on
just below it. The moving and fixed contacts are visible at
the left side of the image.
A latching relay has two relaxed states (bistable). These are
also called "impulse", "keep", or "stay" relays. When the
current is switched off, the relay remains in its last state. This is achieved with a

solenoid operating a ratchet and cam mechanism, or by having two opposing coils with
an over-center spring or permanent magnet to hold the armature and contacts in position
while the coil is relaxed, or with a remanent core. In the ratchet and cam example, the
first pulse to the coil turns the relay on and the second pulse turns it off. In the two coil
example, a pulse to one coil turns the relay on and a pulse to the opposite coil turns the
relay off. This type of relay has the advantage that it consumes power only for an
instant, while it is being switched, and it retains its last setting across a power outage. A
remanent core latching relay requires a current pulse of opposite polarity to make it
change state.

Reed relay
A reed relay has a set of contacts inside a vacuum or inert gas filled glass tube, which
protects the contacts against atmospheric corrosion. The contacts are closed by a
magnetic field generated when current passes through a coil around the glass tube.
Reed relays are capable of faster switching speeds than larger types of relays, but have
low switch current and voltage ratings. See also reed switch.
Mercury-wetted relay
A mercury-wetted reed relay is a form of reed relay in which the contacts are wetted
with mercury. Such relays are used to switch low-voltage signals (one volt or less)
because of their low contact resistance, or for high-speed counting and timing
applications where the mercury eliminates contact bounce. Mercury wetted relays are
position-sensitive and must be mounted vertically to work properly. Because of the
toxicity and expense of liquid mercury, these relays are rarely specified for new
equipment. See also mercury switch.
Polarized relay
A polarized relay placed the armature between the poles of a permanent magnet to
increase sensitivity. Polarized relays were used in middle 20th Century telephone
exchanges to detect faint pulses and correct telegraphic distortion. The poles were on

screws, so a technician could first adjust them for maximum sensitivity and then apply
a bias spring to set the critical current that would operate the relay.
Machine tool relay
A machine tool relay is a type standardized for industrial control of machine tools,
transfer machines, and other sequential control. They are characterized by a large
number of contacts (sometimes extendable in the field) which are easily converted
from normally-open to normally-closed status, easily replaceable coils, and a form
factor that allows compactly installing many relays in a control panel. Although such
relays once were the backbone of automation in such industries as automobile
assembly, the programmable logic controller (PLC) mostly displaced the machine tool
relay from sequential control applications.
Contactor relay
A contactor is a very heavy-duty relay used for switching electric motors and lighting
loads. Continuous current ratings for common contactors range from 10 amps to
several hundred amps. High-current contacts are made with alloys containing silver.
The unavoidable arcing causes the contacts to oxidize; however, silver oxide is still a
good conductor.[2] Such devices are often used for motor starters. A motor starter is a
contactor with overload protection devices attached. The overload sensing devices are
a form of heat operated relay where a coil heats a bi-metal strip, or where a solder pot
melts, releasing a spring to operate auxiliary contacts. These auxiliary contacts are in
series with the coil. If the overload senses excess current in the load, the coil is deenergized. Contactor relays can be extremely loud to operate, making them unfit for
use where noise is a chief concern.

RELAY
You have seen controlling home
equipments such as light, fans and

Equipments that run on 230V using parallel port of computer or a

microcontroller or any other digital ICs. This is possible through relays.
Relay is an electromagnetic device which works on magnetic field. The
only difference between a switch and a relay is that switch operates when
given a manual input whereas relay on the other hand triggers when
given an input electrical signal on its 2 input terminals. Relay is also
called an electromagnetic switch. If you apply proper low voltage on one
side the metal will get contacted. Following figure shows an SPDT Relay
and its terminals.

The voltage is applied on its input terminals V1 and V2 that internally

acts as two ends of an inductor coil. C is the common terminal and is
permanently connected to a contact that is magnetic in nature. When
there is no input applied to the input terminals, contact is established
between terminals C and A as shown in the figure above. A is normally
closed terminal. But when a suitable amount of voltage signal is applied
to its input, contact breaks up from A and gets attached with B that is
normally open terminal.
Note that either of the input terminals of relay could be taken as a
positive or negative terminal as an inductor coil has no polarity.
Relays also come in different packages such as SPDT, SPST, SPCO,
DPST, DPDT, DPCO with same symbols and connections as shown in the
table of types of switches in the previous chapter.
A simple circuit showing the triggering of relay through a low voltage via
transistor is shown below.

Note that it is not necessary to use a transistor to drive a relay, it is used

only to detect minute signals and passes ground to the terminal of relay
when triggered by input signal. It is used in the configuration of
Transistor as a Switch. We could also apply direct input to the
terminals of relay if it is sufficiently large enough to drive a relay. Other
components that could be used to drive a relay are amplifier circuits
such as Op-amps as amplifiers (LM741) or current amplifier ULN2003,
etc. We would discuss transistors and amplifier ICs in next coming
chapters.
The relays mostly available are of 12V,196 ohm relays, if you use D880
transistor for driving it then remember the resistance at the base of the
transistor should be around 1Kohm. I will explain this in Transistor
section briefly You can hear a sound when the relay got activated.

Checking a relay circuit:

1. First check the relay is good and test whether your relay work with the
Vcc you use. So first you connect Vcc and gnd between two ends of the
relay. If it is activated you can hear sound. If not see the voltage rating of
the relay and increase voltage. This is the most problem occurring with
relays. For a 6V, 100ohm relay it required 6.86V to make it work. If
Vcc=5v then u can hear a small sound that means that magnetization is
not enough.
2. See the connections properly because on the other side of the relay
you might be using 230V, so be careful when you touching the relay.
3. See the voltage of the other circuits and sensors when you connect
relay (whether they are getting proper voltages).
4. Remember to put the protection diode
5. Touch the heat sink of the transistor to see if the transistor is getting
heated or any faults.

6. See the value of the resistor connected in the base of the transistor. I
will explain about it in Transistor section.

Here it is a small relay representation (a diagram of relay i have). The

other side of the relay can be 230V or even 5V (no restriction), but we
normally get 230V relay, means voltage<=230 (on the 230V side). You can
use this in the last stage of a line follower(assume that line follower has
more than 2 LDR's), when last sensor go out of the line, you can use
relay mechanism to provide Vcc to the other lead of the motor so that
motor start to rotate backward.

APPLICATIONS OF RELAY

Application of relays is basically to switch a high voltage or AC voltage

device from low voltage. The simplest example of relay in day-to-day life is

indicators in your cars. When you press the indicator switch to turn on
the lights you can hear the triggering sound of the relay. In robotics,
most of the application of relay is in the remote controls for driving the
robots or we could say driving a motor through relay that operates on
high voltage with small voltage given by switch/ sensor as an input. We
would study its detail in the chapter of Motors and Remote in next
sections.

CHAPTER 5
BATTERY
Battery is an essential part of robotics, because it is the part that define the
working, power, efficiency of robot.
Using Light weight , more power batteries make robot perform better, but
also increases the cost of battery
An electrical battery is one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored
chemical energy into electrical energy. Since the invention of the first battery
(or "voltaic pile") in 1800 by Alessandro Volta, batteries have become a
common power source for many household and industrial applications.
According

to

2005

estimate,

the

worldwide

battery

industry

generates US$48 billion in sales each year,[2] with 6% annual growth.[3]

There are two types of batteries: primary batteries (disposable batteries),
which are designed to be used once and discarded, and secondary
batteries (rechargeable batteries), which are designed to be recharged and
used multiple times. Batteries come in many sizes, from miniature cells used
to power hearing aids and wristwatches to battery banks the size of rooms
that provide standby power for telephone exchanges and computer data
centers.

Battery Used in Our project is Lead Acid Battery (12V, 7.4AH)

CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

OBSERVATIONS AND CONCLUSION

The presented concept demonstrator proves the feasibility of the
locomotion concept using 3 link mechanism for low power
consumption and yet achieving remarkable couplking between
alternating arms to produce a maximum efficient walking mechnaism.
This is the basis for long range missions to remote research sites even
in

very

challenging

environments

with

important

slope

and

considerable number of obstacles. On Mars, it offers new scientific

opportunities to reach places which are rich in geological and
exobiological information. The most crucial subsystems for this long
range rover are the power train including the energy storage,
navigation system, the recovery from tipping over, the communication
system and the miniaturized payload.
For systems reliability and therefore simplicity must be the most
important design guideline. Although a further development of the
concept to a space proof level still requires substantial efforts, the new
order of possibilities should justify it.

FUTURE SCOPE
Till now, all hardware integration and control circuit has been developed.
The new system has been tested and its working as per designed. The future
is to achieve a special type of gate called alternating tripod for its
locomotion [3]. The RecurDyn modeling for this particular type of gate has
been simulated and all results are attached to this report. The new type of
gate further minimizes jerks and gives better control for its locomotion
(because of static stability). The new type of gate can be achieved by
designing an improved control circuit.

REFERENCES

CHAPTER 6
REFERENCES

REFERENCES
1. www.panorma.com
2. www.wikipedia.org
3. www.sciencedirect.org
4. www.tri.com
5. www.datasheets4u.com