Selenium
Biosynthesis pathway
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selenomethionine) are required for the synthesis of seleniumcontaining peptides and proteins.
Importantly, selenomethionine (the major dietary organic
form of Se) that is biochemically equivalent to methionine,
is not incorporated into selenoproteins and therefore, is not a
participant in the regulation of selenium homeostasis. There are
no known human or animal functionally active SePs that contain
selenomethionine.
Only proteins that are genetically programmed and perform
essential biological functions are classified as SePs. Some of
these SePs are enzymes such as the six antioxidant glutathione
peroxidases and the three thioredoxin reductases; the three
deiodinases are involved in thyroid function by catalysing the
activation and deactivation of the thyroid hormones.
Some SePs have direct roles in modulating immunity and
reproductive function, while other SePs facilitate tissue
distribution and transfer of Se.
Selenoprotein P, for example, functions as a transporter of
selenium between the liver and other organs. The functional
characterisation of many SePs remains to be delineated.
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April 2015 | 39
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exposure and time after exposure.
Table 1: Selenium compounds and their uses in animals and humans
In ruminants, selenite is the primary
Name and content
Nature or origin
Uses
compound available for absorption
because the reducing conditions within
For short-term selenium
Sodium Selenate
supplementation;
the rumen convert the majority of
Sodium Selenite
Synthetic Inorganic
orally in the diet, or by injections
Selenase 50 mcg/mL
selenate to selenite.
for both animals and humans
In the rumen, about a third of selenite
Biosel
Natural Inorganic
For long-term selenium
50 mcg/drop
supplementation in humans
is converted to insoluble forms that
are passed into manure. Of the soluble
Inactive dry yeast containing
Sintomin BIOSEL 2000
high levels of organic
All animals
selenite that reaches the intestine, some
selenium
40% will be absorbed, compared to
Selyeast
Yeast rich in organic selenium
For use as animal feed.
about 80 percent of selenomthionine.
Selenomethionine: 1000, 2000, 3000
As a consequence of these differences,
Selemax (1000, 2000)
Inactive dry yeast containing
in cows, the digestibility of Se from
All animal species and categories
70 % of total selenium in the form of
organic selenium
selenomethionine
selenite is around 50 percent compared
SeLECT
to about 66 percent for seleniumOrganic, pure
Oral administration (capsules)
L(+) Selenomethionine &
selenomethionine,
humans
yeast. There is no information on the
Vitamin E
impact of the gut microbiota on the Se
Sel Plex TM
requirements of monogastric animals.
>50% of total selenium in the form of
Yeast rich in organic selenium
All animals
selenomethionine
Inorganic Se is recognised by the
AB Tor-Sel
digestive tissues and is absorbed and
Yeast rich in organic selenium
All animals and humans
selenohomolanthionine
converted into SePs.
Naturally occurring
In contrast, organic Se
Predominate form of selenium
L-Selenomethionine
organoselenium compound
supplement in food for humans;
(selenomethionine) is not recognized
100% L-selenomethionine
made by plants
some use in animals
as Se-containing by mammalian cells.
Naturally occurring
As a consequence, selenomethionine
SeMCTM
organoselenium compound
Humans
Methylselenocysteine 98%
is absorbed and metabolized relative to
made by plants
methionine needs.
If selenomethionine is broken down
within the cell, Se is released and recognized by the cell as a
E are effective in treating mulberry heart disease (a dietetic
mineral. It is then processed according to the need for Se.
microangiopathy). Reproductive disorders, including retained
However, if the cell does not break down selenomethionine, it
placenta in dairy cows, and lowered disease resistance are
may be inadvertently incorporated into a wide variety of proteins
observed in all Se deficient species. Some species, such as rabbits
that are not genetically programmed to contain selenium.
and horses, seem to be more dependent on vitamin E than Se for
The functionality of these proteins will be compromised.
their antioxidant protection.
As a metabolic safeguard, neither dietary selenocysteine nor
This may reflect species differences in dependence on nonselenomethionine is directly incorporated into selenoproteins.
selenium containing GSH-Px.
All dietary forms of selenium must be metabolised and converted
Selenium presents a nutritional conundrum because it is both
to selenocysteine and selenoproteins under the genetically
essential and highly toxic. There are several approaches to
controlled mechanism within the cell.
measuring Se status. These include the measurement of changes
Much of the absorbed organic Se is transferred into the amino
in plasma Se concentration, measurement of GSH-Px enzyme
acid pool, where together with the existing intracellular pool, it is
activity, and absorption/retention studies.
metabolised by different pathways (see Figure 1). From there, it
The use of stable isotopes of Se have been used in human
is enzymatically converted in the liver to selenide, which serves
studies and to determine endogenous forms of selenium in foods.
as the Se source for selenocysteine synthesis.
All of these biomarkers are useful indicators of Se status but
because of the role of Se in many biochemical pathways, a single
indicator may not be an appropriate index of Se status.
Deficiency and requirements
Selenium acts biochemically in the animal or bird in a
complimentary manner to vitamin E. Both nutrients prevent
Dietary supplementation
peroxidation of unsaturated fatty acids in cell membranes.
Selenium is routinely added to animal diets to ensure that
Most of the deficiency signs of these nutrients can be explained
requirements are met.
by their antioxidant properties. The requirement for each is
There has been increased interest recently in Se dietary
therefore influenced by the dietary concentration of the other.
supplementation to enrich animal products. The production of
For example, the Se requirement of the chick is inversely
selenium-enriched meat, milk and eggs is viewed as an effective
proportional to dietary vitamin E intake. Thus Se has sparing
and safe way of improving the selenium status of humans.
effect on the requirement for vitamin E and vice versa.
There are a range of products available for dietary Se
Manifestation of Se deficiency can take many forms and
supplementation (see Table 1).
varies between species. Muscular degeneration or white muscle
Selenium is commonly added to diets as sodium selenite.
disease occurs to varying degrees in all species. In birds,
However, there has been growing interest in dietary addition of
pancreatic fibrosis is an uncomplicated Se deficiency, whereas
organic Se. Organic sources are assimilated more efficiently than
exudative diathesis (generalised oedema visible under the skin) is
inorganic Se and considered to be less toxic and therefore more
responsive to both Se and vitamin E.
appropriate as a feed supplement.
Pigs with hepatosis diatetica (severe necrotic liver lesions)
Yeast has become the most popular vehicle for the addition of
are responsive to Se supplements, while both Se and vitamin
organic Se because of its rapid growth, ease of culture and high
40 | Milling and Grain
F
experimental conditions, as demonstrated on many
occasions, dietary supplementation with both the
inorganic and organic selenium resulted in similar
animal and bird performance.
However, tissue accumulation was significantly
greater when the organic forms of Se were fed,
which is in accord with the literature. Interestingly,
the yeast enriched with SeHLan generated
significantly higher Se concentrations in muscle
tissue than the selenomethionine enriched product.
The implication of this finding in both pigs and
broilers may imply a greater efficacy of SeHLan in
stressful commercial environments.
Remarks
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