Food Chemistry 157 (2014) 448456

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Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem

Cultivar difference in physicochemical properties of starches and ours

from temperate rice of Indian Himalayas
Shabir Ahmad Mir, Sowriappan John Don Bosco
Department of Food Science and Technology, Pondicherry University, Puducherry 605 014, India

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 22 November 2013
Received in revised form 6 February 2014
Accepted 12 February 2014
Available online 24 February 2014
Keywords:
Rice starch
Flour
Amylose
Physicochemical properties
Raman spectroscopy

a b s t r a c t
Starch and our of seven temperate rice cultivars grown in Himalayan region were evaluated for composition, granule structure, crystallinity, Raman spectrometry, turbidity, swelling power, solubility, pasting
properties and textural properties. The rice cultivars showed medium to high amylose content for starch
(24.6932.76%) and our (17.7824.86%). SKAU-382 showed the highest amount of amylose (32.76%).
Rice starch showed polyhedral granule shapes and differences in their mean granule size (2.36.5 lm)
were noted among the samples. The starch and our samples showed type A-pattern with strong reection at 15, 18, and 23. Pasting prole and textural analysis of rice starch and our showed that all the
cultivars differences, probably due to variation in amylose content. The present study can be used for
identifying differences between rice genotypes for starch and our quality and could provide guidance
to possible industries for their end use.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the most important cereal crop and
staple food of over approximately one-half of the worlds population. In Asia, more than 2000 million people obtain their
6070% calories from rice and its products (Lin, Singh, Chang, &
Chang, 2011). Diversity in rice, largely affects their physical,
chemical and cooking properties of a particular cultivar (Mir,
Bosco, & Sunooj, 2013; Wani et al., 2012). Physico-chemical
properties of rice our and starch depend mostly on the variety,
genetic background, climatic and soil conditions during the rice
grain development (Falade, Semon, Fadairo, Oladunjoye, & Orou,
2014; Wu et al., 2013).
Starch is the major component of rice grain and an important
energy source for human nutrition, mainly determines the acceptability of the rice cultivar in terms of physicochemical and cooking
properties. Diversication of rice cultivars has an impact on different properties of rice starches as reported by several researchers
(Lee & Osman, 1991; Wang et al., 2012). Although a great number
of native starches with different functionalities are available in the
market, increasing demand for specic starch properties requires
new strategies or, alternatively, novel sources (Wani et al., 2012).
The physico-chemical characteristics of starches are of great

Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 413 2654623; fax: +91 413 2656743.
E-mail address: sjdbosco@yahoo.com (S.J.D. Bosco).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.02.057
0308-8146/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

importance because of their extensive utilization in the food and

non-food industries. The starch has important role in developing
food products either as a raw material or as a food additive,
such as thickener, texture enhancer or stabilizer (Aina, Falade,
Akingbala, & Titus, 2012).
Many factors, including composition, granular size and
structure, type of crystal polymorph, amylose/amylopectin ratio,
gelatinization, lipid-complexed amylose, and presence of noncarbohydrate content of starch affect the quality of rice our
and its products (Lin et al., 2011; Yu, Ma, Menager, & Sun,
2012; Zhu, Liu, Wilson, Gu, & Shi, 2011). Several techniques have
been used to study the properties of rice starches and ours by
using different techniques, such as X-ray diffractometry (Yu
et al., 2012; Zhu et al., 2011), scanning electronic microscopy
(Zhu et al., 2011), Raman spectroscopy (Labanowska, Birczynska,
Kurdziel, & Puch, 2013), rapid visco analysis (Puncha-arnon &
Uttapap, 2013), and textural prole analysis (Puncha-Arnon &
Uttapap, 2013; Yu et al., 2012).
The diverse industrial applications have spurred towards investigating the physico-chemical properties of rice ours and starches
from different genotypes. Due to the special agro-climatic conditions in temperate regions of India, Kashmir is endowed with large
cultivars of rice germplasm. Therefore, the objective of the present
work is to compare the physico-chemical properties of starch and
our from seven different genotypes of temperate rice of Indian
Himalayas.

S.A. Mir, S.J.D. Bosco / Food Chemistry 157 (2014) 448456

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Materials
Seven different rice cultivars were used in this study, namely
Jehlum, K-332, Khosar, Pusa-3, SKAU-345, SKAU-382 and Shalimar
Rice-1 grown in temperate regions of India, were collected from
Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology
of Kashmir, India. The grains were dried and cleaned manually to
remove foreign matter. The dried and cleaned paddy samples were
dehusked on a Stake Testing Rice Husker (THU-34A, Stake, Japan)
to obtain brown rice.
2.2. Flour preparation
Flour was prepared by grinding the rice grains using Mini Grain
Mill (A11B, IKA Inc.) and sifting the material through 300 lm sieve
and kept in a refrigerator at about 4 C for further analysis.
2.3. Starch preparation
Starch was isolated according to the method of (Lawal et al.,
2011) with some modications. Rice was steeped with ve times
the weight of sodium hydroxide solution (0.3%) at 24 C for 24 h
to soften the endosperm. The steep liquor was drained off, then
the rice was washed and ground with a blender (Crompton
Greaves, CG-BX, Mumbai, India). The slurry was again dispersed
in sodium hydroxide solution (0.3%) stirred manually for 20 min
and allowed to settle for 6 h and the supernatant was drained
off. The sediment was diluted to the original volume with distilled
water and the supernatant was drained off after 6 h. The process
was repeated until the supernatant was free from NaOH. The starch
was suspended in distilled water, passed through 100200 mesh
nylon and repeatedly washed with water. The starch was collected
by sedimentation process. Afterwards, the slurry centrifuged at
3000g for 10 min., the supernatant and any brown surface layer
of the starch were removed while as, the lower white starch layer
was washed with deionised water. The slurry was suspended in
distilled water, the pH was adjusted to 7.0 with HCl (0.5 M) and
passed through nylon screen (53 mm). Afterwards, it was allowed
to settle for another 6 h and the clear supernatant was discarded.
The starch obtained as sediment was dried in oven at 40 C.
2.4. Chemical composition
The powdered samples of rice our and starch were analyzed
for protein, fat, and ash content according to AACC (2000) procedures. The amylose content was estimated by the method
described by Williams, Kuzina, and Hlynka (1970).
2.5. Scanning electron microscopy
Morphology of the starch samples was analyzed by scanning
electronic microscopy (Hitachi, S-3400N, Tokyo, Japan). The samples were mounted on aluminium stubs using double sided adhesive tape to which the samples were xed and afterwards were
coated with a thin layer of gold. An acceleration potential of
15 kV was used during micrography.
2.6. X-ray diffraction and crystallinity
X-ray diffraction analysis was performed using an X-ray diffractometer (Shimadzu XRD 7000) with Cu Ka value of 1.54060 radiation at a speed of 2/min, diffraction angle of 2h at 4 and 50 at
40 kV and 30 mA. The total area under the curve and the area un-

449

der each prominent peak was determined using OriginPro software

package and the percentage crystallinity was estimated by using
the following formula:
% Crystallinity = (Area under peaks/Total area)  100.
2.7. Raman spectroscopy
The Raman spectra were recorded with a Raman spectrometer
(InVia, Renishaw, Gloucestershire, United Kingdom), working in
confocal mode. Dry rice starch and our samples were placed on
an aluminium holder. The samples were excited with 785 nm laser
line of HP NIR diode laser Renishaw (UK). The laser power was kept
low enough to ensure that it did not damage the sample. Measurements were performed with microscope and spectra were taken
from the same spot size of each sample in the range of 1800 to
400 cm 1.
2.8. Swelling power and solubility
Swelling power (SP) and solubility (S) of the rice starch and
our samples were determined according to the methods (Adebooye & Singh, 2008; Li & Yeh, 2001) with slight modication.
500 mg of each our and starch sample was cooked with 20 ml
of water at temperatures of 80 C for 30 min. Then samples were
cooled to room temperature and centrifuged at 2500g for 15 min.
The supernatant was decanted, and the residue was weighed for
swelling power estimation. The supernatant was poured into a
glass dish and kept in a boiling water bath for evaporation. Afterwards, the dish was dried at 105 C and weighed. The solubility
and swelling power were calculated as follows:
S = (weight of the dried supernatant/weight of the wet
sediment)  100.
SP = (weight of the wet sediment/weight of sample-weight of
the dried supernatant).
2.9. Turbidity
The turbidity of starch and our samples from different rice cultivars were measured by the method (Sodhi & Singh, 2003) with a
slight modication. A 2% aqueous suspension of starch or our
from each rice cultivar was heated in a boiling water bath for 1 h
with constant stirring. The suspension was cooled to room temperature, and then stored for 8 days at 4 C in a refrigerator. Turbidity
was determined every 24 h by measuring absorbance at 640 nm
against a water blank with a UVVis Spectrophotometer (UV1800, Shimadzu, Japan).
2.10. Pasting properties
Pasting characteristics of rice starch and our samples was
determined using the Rapid Visco Analyzer (Starch master 2, Newport Scientic Pty. Ltd, Warriewood, Australia). Each of 3 g of rice
starch and our sample was weighed in RVA canisters and 25 ml
of water was added. The prepared slurry in the canisters was
heated to 50 C and stirred at 160 rpm for 10s to enable the complete dispersion. The slurry was held at 50 C for 1 min and temperature was raised to 95 C for 7.5 min. and then held at 95 C
for 5 min. The slurry was cooled at 50 C for 7.5 min, and then held
at 50 C for 2 min. Pasting parameters including peak viscosity,
holding viscosity, nal viscosity, breakdown, setback and pasting
temperature were recorded.
2.11. Gel textural properties
The textural properties of RVA gels were determined by texture
prole analysis (HDP/BS blade of texture analyzer (TA-XT2i Stable

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S.A. Mir, S.J.D. Bosco / Food Chemistry 157 (2014) 448456

Micro Systems, Surrey, U.K.). The starch and our gels prepared
during rapid visco analyser were sealed in aluminium canisters
and stored at 4 C for 24 h. Then each gel sample inside the tube
was penetrated (to a depth of 16 mm) with a cylindrical probe
(5 mm in diameter). Forcetime curves were obtained at a crosshead speed of 1.5 mm/s during two penetration cycles. From the
texture prole curve, hardness, cohesiveness, adhesiveness, gumminess, springiness and chewiness were determined.

2.12. Statistical analysis

The data were analyzed statistically using package SPSS 18.0
(SPSS Inc, Chicago, USA) and the means were separated using the
Duncans multiple range test (p < 0.05). All the data are presented
as the mean with the standard deviation.

Chinese rice cultivars. This difference in chemical composition

might be due to the different agro-climatic zones and cultivars.
3.2. Morphology of starch granules
The starch granule morphology as depicted in Fig. 1 showed
that the starch granules are polyhedral with irregular shapes and
size in the range of 2.36.5 lm in different rice starches. SKAU382 starch showed the presence of largest size granules (3.6
6.5 lm), whereas, K-332 (2.35.4 lm) had the smallest sizes. In
addition to polyhedral granules, some were also round in shape.
Sodhi and Singh (2003) reported the average size of 2.45.4 lm
for Indian tropical rice starches. Previous studies have also shown
the rice starch granules of varying size (Li & Yeh, 2001). Climate,
agronomic practices, cultivar and starch biosynthesis are responsible for starch granule diversity (Wani et al., 2012).

3. Results and discussion

3.3. X-ray diffraction

3.1. Chemical composition

The X-ray diffractograms (XRD) of starch samples are shown in

Fig. 2a. The XRD results of rice starch showed the typical A-type
starch crystalline pattern with strong reections at Braggs angle
(2h) at about 15, 18.09, and 23.5. It has been reported that X-ray
diffraction of rice starch showed the typical A-type pattern and
mostly strong reections at 2h = 15, 17, 18, 23 (Singh, Kaur, Sodhi,
& Sekhon, 2005; Yu et al., 2012). The results obtained in our study
are consistent with those reported in literature (Yu et al., 2012).
The intensity of the reection of rice our was lower as compared
to their respective starch. The rice our samples also exhibited the
A-type diffraction pattern (Fig. 2b) with major peaks at Braggs angle (2h) position near 14.93, 18.09, and 22.97. The results are similar to the reports of Lamberts, Gomand, Derycke, and Delcur
(2009) and Yu et al. (2012).
The relative crystallinity degrees (%) shown in Table 1. revealed
that relative crystallinity degree values of rice our were lower as
compared to their corresponding starches. Other components
might affect the crystallinity like protein and lipids present in rice
our in higher amounts as compared to rice starch (Ibanez et al.,
2007; Yu et al., 2012). The highest crystallinity per cent of 17.62

Perusal of data presented in Table 1 revealed the chemical composition of rice our and starch samples. Rice our contained higher amount of protein, fat and ash content as compared to rice
starch. Protein, fat and ash content ranged from 6.14% to 7.94%,
1.321.55% and 18.7826.86%, respectively in rice our, whereas
in starch samples protein ranged from (0.22% to 0.40%), fat
(0.190.34%) and ash content (0.120.20%). The amylose content
of rice our samples was found lower than their corresponding isolated starches. These results were in accordance with the earlier
studies (Ibanez et al., 2007; Lu et al., 2009). The amylose content
of rice starch varied from 24.69% to 32.76% with the lowest in Khosar (24.69%) and highest in Jehlum cultivar (32.76%), whereas, in
rice our the amylose content varied from 17.78% to 24.86% with
the highest in Jehlum (24.86%) followed by SKAU-382 (23.88%)
and SKAU-345 (22.0%1). The amylose content was found within
the range as reported by Wani et al. (2013) for the starches of temperate rice varieties. Wang et al. (2012) reported that amylose content varied between 18.1% and 31.6% for starches isolated from

Table 1
Proximate composition, crystallinity, solubility and swelling power of starch and our from temperate rice of Indian Himalayas.
Jehlum
Protein (g/100 g)
Starch
Flour
Fat (g/100 g)
Starch
Flour
Ash (g/100 g)
Starch
Flour
Amylose (g/100 g)
Starch
Flour
Crystallinity degree (%)
Starch
Flour
Solubility (g/g)
Starch
Flour
Swelling power (g/g)
Starch
Flour

K-332

Khosar

Pusa-3

SKAU-345

SKAU-382

Shalimar rice 1

0.37 0.05ab
6.14 0.17e

0.24 0.03d
6.27 0.12e

0.33 0.06c
6.32 0.51e

0.40 0.03a
7.94 0.23a

0.22 0.02d
7.32 0.16c

0.39 0.04a
7.67 0.15b

0.35 0.02bc
6.53 0.18d

0.19 0.03e
2.65 0.24b

0.24 0.05d
2.86 0.31a

0.42 0.02a
2.90 0.39a

0.28 0.06c
2.39 0.22c

0.21 0.02e
2.48 0.41c

0.34 0.03b
2.84 0.28a

0.16 0.05f
2.44 0.35c

0.19 0.06ab
1.37 0.28b

0.15 0.05cd
1.55 0.36a

0.13 0.07de
1.52 0.23a

0.13 0.05de
1.38 0.18b

0.12 0.03e
1.35 0.32bc

0.20 0.04a
1.32 0.27c

0.17 0.03bc
1.36 0.41bc

32.76 1.02a
24.86 1.24a

24.05 0.93d
19.04 1.06d

22.69 0.72d
17.78 0.92e

30.86 1.09b
21.06 1.15cd

30.11 1.21b
23.07 1.06abc

29.81 0.87b
23.88 1.32ab

27.69 1.05c
22.01 1.28bc

15.39 0.54d
15.10 0.71b

15.56 0.36d
15.07 0.46b

17.44 0.32a
14.36 0.31c

16.76 0.71b
14.27 0.39c

17.62 0.86a
15.95 0.41a

16.26 0.29c
12.65 0.56e

15.26 0.66d
13.66 0.65d

3.23 0.35g
7.67 0.24e

7.62 0.28b
14.31 0.43b

9.06 0.46a
15.98 0.68a

4.80 0.18f
14.86 0.29ab

6.06 0.41d
7.87 0.42e

10.56 0.61e
7.72 0.27c

16.72 0.78b
11.12 0.51a

19.54 1.03a
10.17 0.56a

14.79 0.57c
9.77 0.48ab

12.80 0.74d
8.48 0.22bc

Values are expressed as mean standard deviations. Means having same letters within the same row differ signicantly at p < 0.05.

5.72 0.24e
8.84 0.49cd
10.81 0.53e
7.96 0.62c

7.03 0.56c
9.20 0.53c
13.78 0.64cd
9.89 0.32ab

S.A. Mir, S.J.D. Bosco / Food Chemistry 157 (2014) 448456

451

Fig. 1. Scanning electronic micrographs of starch granules from temperate rice cultivars of Indian Himalayas. A: Jehlum; B: K-332; C: Khosar; D: Pusa-3; E: SKAU-345; F:
SKAU-382; G: Shalimar Rice 1.

was exhibited by cultivar SKAU-345 followed by Khosar (17.44%)

and Pusa-3 (16.76%) in rice starch. The difference in proportions
of amylose, short and long side-chain amylopectin may be responsible for the difference in crystallinity among different rice
starches.

3.4. Raman spectroscopy

Raman spectroscopy a fast and non-destructive qualitative and
quantitative analytical tool was used to probe the internal vibrations of molecules. Raman spectroscopy is a suitable method for

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S.A. Mir, S.J.D. Bosco / Food Chemistry 157 (2014) 448456

Fig. 2. X-ray diffractographs of starch (a) and our (b); Raman spectrum of starch (c) and our (d) from temperate rice cultivars of Indian Himalayas. A: Jehlum; B: K-332; C:
Khosar; D: Pusa-3; E: SKAU-345; F: SKAU-382; G: Shalimar Rice 1.

Table 2
Positions of Raman bands and their respective assignments in starch.
Band position (cm
412
440
478
523
718
770
865
940
1050
1083
1109
1128
1260
1340
1381
1460

Assignment

References

CACAO pyranose ring skeletal modes

Skeletal modes of pyranose ring
Skeletal modes of pyranose ring
Skeletal modes of pyranose ring
CAC stretching
CAC stretching
CAOAC ring mode, C1AH bending a conguration
Skeletal mode vibration of aA1,4 glycosidic linkage (CAOAC)
CAC stretching
CAOAH bending
CAC bending, (CAO), (CAOAH)
CAO stretching, CAOAH bending
CH2, CH2OH related mode
CH2 twisting, CAOAH bending
CH2 scissoring, CAH and CAOAH bending
CH2 twisting, CH2 bending

Soderholm, Roos, Meinander, and Hotokka (1999)

Kaurakova and Mathlouthi (1996), Soderholm et al. (1999)
Kaurakova and Mathlouthi (1996)
Kaurakova and Mathlouthi (1996)
Cael et al. (1973)
Cael et al. (1973)
Cael et al. (1973)
Pigorsch (2009)
Pigorsch (2009)
Passauer, Bender, and Fischer (2010)

structural characterization of the sample. Raman spectra of the

starch and our samples in the 4001800 cm 1 region are shown
in Fig. 2c and d respectively, and their band assignments were
listed in Table 2.

Pigorsch (2009)
Cael et al. (1973)
Passauer et al. (2010)
Pigorsch (2009)
Cael et al., 1973

All the characteristic bands for rice starch samples were clearly
visible as compared to our samples and the positions of the
observed bands were almost the same. Vibrations in the 800
400 cm 1 region of starch sample were due to CCO and CCC

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S.A. Mir, S.J.D. Bosco / Food Chemistry 157 (2014) 448456

deformations, and this region is having a strong coupling which is

related to the glycosidic ring skeletal deformations. In all the spectra of the samples, the highest intensity shown mostly a band at
478 cm 1 due to skeletal mode, involving (CAOAC) ring mode
and (CACAO). The band of 865 cm 1 is assigned to symmetric C
(1) AOAC (5) stretching of the a-D-glucose ring (Cael, Koenig, &
Blackwell, 1975). As reported previously, the ratio of the bands at
942 cm 1 is sensitive to the ratio of linear/branched residues
(Liu, Himmelsbach, & Barton, 2004). The vibrations originating
from a-1,4 glycosidic linkages can be observed as strong raman
bands in the 920960 cm 1 region, and thus the band observed
at 940 cm 1 was assigned to the amylose a-1,4 glycosidic linkage.
Among other bands the characteristic for starch were the bands:
860 cm 1 originating from (CAOAC) ring mode and C1AH bending
a-conguration.
The coupling of the CCH and COH deformation modes can be
observed in the region between 1380 and 1400 cm 1, whereas several vibrational modes are observed in the region between 1340
and 1,200 cm 1 bands such as CO and CC stretching and CCH,
COH and CCH deformations. The band at 1381 cm 1, usually assigned to d (CAOH) and d (CAH) modes in polymers (Cael, Koenig,
& Blackwell, 1973). Benzerdjeb, Mokhtari, and Rahal (2007)),
reported the region between 1200 and 800 cm 1 is a characteristic
of the CO and CC stretching and COC deformation modes, referring
to the glycosidic bond. This region is also known as the ngerprint
or anomeric region, and is very often cited by other authors, like
Yang and Zhang (2009), and Thygesen, Lokke, Micklander, and
Engelsen (2003). The observed bands at about 1460 cm 1 could
be attributed to (CH2) twisting and CH bending, whereas
1340 cm 1 to (CH2) and CAOH bending.

Jehlum showed the lowest value of (3.23 g/g) and (7.67 g/g) for
starch and our respectively. The cultivar Khosar having the high
amylopectin content as compared to other cultivars, showed high
solubility. Solubility is related to the presence of soluble molecules
like amylose (Tester & Morrison, 1990), which will vary with cultivar. Wang et al. (2010) reported the solubility value of 1740% for
starches from Chinese rice cultivars. Upon heating insoluble starch
swells by penetrating water and weakened the infrastructure of
hydrogen bonds, and correspondingly some fragments of the
starch could be solubilised. The hydrogen bonds can be easily
weakened in the starch granules with high amylopectin content
and leading to the high solubility values.
3.7. Turbidity
The turbidity values of gelatinized starch suspension varied
among the rice cultivars as depicted in Fig 3a. The differences in
turbidity might be due to difference in amylose content and the
amount of swollen granule remnants (Jacobson, Obanni, & Bemiller, 1997), as well as the granular structure (Wang et al., 2010).
The turbidity values of K-332 and Khosar starch suspension was
signicantly lower than the turbidity values of other rice cultivars.
The lowest turbidity values of K-332 and Khosar starch suspension
may be due to their low amylose content and smallest starch granule size (Jacobson et al., 1997; Sodhi & Singh, 2003). The turbidity
values of starch suspensions progressively increased with increased in storage period up to 4th day and further storage caused
a slight increase. The aggregation and crystallization of amylose
occur highest during rst four storage days. The increase in turbidity during the storage period may be due to the leached amylose
and amylopectin chains that lead to the development of the

3.5. Swelling power

3.6. Solubility

(a)

K-332

Khosar

SKAU-345

SKAU-382

Shalimar Rice 1

Pusa-3

Turbidity

2.4
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2

Storage time (Days)

(b)

Jehlum
SKAU-345

K-332
SKAU-382

Khosar
Shalimar Rice 1

Pusa-3

2.7
2.6
2.5
2.4
2.3
2.2
2.1
2
1.9

Signicant differences (p < 0.05) were observed in solubility

between the starch and our samples of different rice cultivars
(Table 1). The cultivar Khosar showed the highest solubility values
for starch (9.06 g/g) and our (15.98 g/g) whereas, the cultivar

Jehlum

2.6

Turbidity

The swelling power of rice starch varied from 10.56 to 19.54 g/g
starch as shown in Table 1, with the lowest in Jehlum (10.56 g/g)
and highest in Khosar cultivar (19.54 g/g). Lee and Osman (1991)
reported the swelling index of rice starch in the range of 7.70
22.76 g/g starch. The difference in swelling power may be related
to the differences in amylopectin content among the rice cultivars.
Swelling power is a measure of the ability of the starch to hydrate
under specic conditions like temperature and water content. As
reported by different workers that greater swelling capacity is an
indication of weaker binding forces in the starch granules (Hoover
& Manuel, 1996). The swelling power of a starch depends on the ratio and molecular weights of amylose and amylopectin, and also
intra- and inter-molecular interactions. The amylopectin is likely
to swell due to the weakness of the intra- and inter-molecular
coherence in starch, while as, amylose acts as an inhibitor of swelling (Tester & Morrison, 1990).
The swelling power of rice ours shown in Table 1, varied from
7.72 to 11.12 g/g rice our with the highest observed in Khosar cultivar. However, the swelling power of rice our was lower than
their derived starches. The swelling power of our depends on
the packing of starch granules with proteins and lipids. The swelling power of starch is related to gelitinization of starch reecting
breaking of hydrogen bonds in the crystalline regions and uptake
of water by hydrogen bonds and water absorption by non-starch
polysaccharides and protein (Thitipraphunkul, Uttapap, Piyachomkwan, & Takeda, 2003; Yu et al., 2012).

Stoage time (Days)

Fig. 3. Turbidity of starch (a) and our (b) from temperate rice cultivars of Indian
Himalayas.

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S.A. Mir, S.J.D. Bosco / Food Chemistry 157 (2014) 448456

functional zone which scatter a signicant amount of light (Yu

et al., 2012).
The our samples showed higher turbidity values as compared
to their derived starch as depicted in Fig. 3b. These results may be
due to the other components of the our, such as protein, lipid and
bre, which inuences the turbidity value of our suspension. During the gelatinization process, amylose lipid complex is formed
(Kaur & Singh, 2000), which retard the starch molecule aggregation, so the turbidity value of rice our suspension increased much
slower than the starch solution. Jehlum our samples showed the
highest turbidity value, while Khosar cultivar showed the lowest
value. This may be due to the variation in amylose content among
the different cultivars with highest found in the cultivars having
higher turbidity values.
3.8. Pasting properties
Signicant differences (p < 0.05) were observed among the
pasting properties of starch samples of different rice cultivars as
presented in Table 3. Peak viscosity of rice starch samples ranged
from 2657 to 3911 cP. The highest peak viscosity was shown by
K-332 starch, whereas, the lowest by Pusa-3 starch. The difference
in pasting properties was observed due to the variation in amylose

content among the rice cultivars. Holding viscosity and nal viscosity in the rice starch samples ranged from 1335 to 3027 cP
and 3492 to 5173 cP, respectively. Breakdown viscosity, measure
of the starch paste resistance to heat and shear, were ranged from
578 to 2541 cP with the highest in K-332 cultivar (2541 cp) followed by Khosar (2487 cp) and Shalimar Rice 1 (4171 cp) and lowest in Jehlum cultivar (578 cp). Setback viscosity showed the
tendency of starch pastes to retrograde, varied signicantly
(p < 0.05) and ranged from 2248 (K-332) to 2882 cP (Jehlum). Pasting temperature, the temperature at the onset of rice in viscosity
varied signicantly (p < 0.05) and ranged from 70.25 to 77.65 C
with the highest value was observed for SKAU-382 and lowest
for K-332. The pasting properties of starches are affected by the
amylose, lipid, protein contents, and swelling power (Li & Yeh,
2001).
The pasting properties of rice ours varied signicantly
(p < 0.05) as shown in Table 3. Jehlum our showed the highest
peak viscosity, holding viscosity, nal viscosity, breakdown viscosity and setback viscosity of 3354, 2674, 6631, 699 and 3267 cP,
respectively. However, Pusa-3 showed the lowest values 1632,
1475, 3236, 143 and 1604 cP, respectively. The results indicated
that Pusa-3 is weakly resistant to shearing, and difcult to retrograde and can be easily used as a paste. The pasting temperature

Table 3
Pasting and textural properties of starch and rice samples from temperate rice of Indian Himalayas.
Parameter

Jehlum

K-332

Khosar

Pusa-3

SKAU-345

SKAU-382

Shalimar Rice 1

Peak viscosity (cP)

Starch
3517 21.92bc
Flour
3354 20.50a

3911 181.01a
2529 1.41c

3822 41.71a
2332 75.66d

2657 30.40e
1632 40.30f

3722 70.00ab
3136 28.99b

3451 33.94c
3076 64.35b

3027 105.36d
1860 4.94e

Holding viscosity (cP)

Starch
2938 21.21a
Flour
2674 86.97a

1375 33.94d
1787 8.48b

1335 8.48d
1700 60.10b

1417 30.40d
1475 24.75c

2251 25.45b
2683 7.07a

2132 8.48c
2665 33.94a

3027 105.37a
1490 11.31c

Final viscosity (cP)

Starch
4504 12.02b
Flour
6631 150.61a

3641 74.25d
4643 7.07cd

3678 2.12d
4378 21.21de

3492 4.49d
3236 65.76f

5173 20.51a
5882 198.69b

4751 265.16b
4848 354.26c

3996 129.40c
4171 3.53e

Breakdown viscosity (cP)

Starch
578 0.71d
Flour
699 107.48ab

2541 139.30a
742 9.90a

2487 33.23a
632 15.56b

1240 0.32c
143 15.55e

1417 44.54b
480 21.92c

1319 42.43c
411 30.40cd

1556 65.76b
370 6.36d

Setback viscosity (cP)

Starch
2566 9.19bc
Flour
3267 171.12a

2248 14.84d
2114 8.48cd

2343 6.36cd
2045 54.44cd

2075 35.35d
1604 25.45f

2882 103.24a
2719 227.6b

2619 256.68b
1772 289.91de

2525 89.80bc
2311 8.48c

Pasting temperature (C)

Starch
77.00 0.14ab
Flour
87.10 0.56d

70.25 0.07d
92.35 1.62a

70.40 0.14d
90.55 0.21bc

72.30 0.56c
91.10 0.00ab

76.65.35b
89.30 0.28c

77.65 0.21a
89.25 0.35c

77.05 0.21ab
86.90 0.00d

Hardness (g)
Starch
Flour

65.25 5.58a
23.73 3.16a

18.25 0.91e
7.27 1.21d

16.42 1.76e
6.32 1.33d

61.67 6.71ab
14.68 2.61bc

52.33 3.81bc
21.03 3.28a

44.20 7.07cd
18.86 2.32ab

35.46 1.48d
11.15 2.03cb

Adhesiveness
Starch
Flour

10.91 5.16bc
6.17 0.34b

8.25 0.25cd
4.37 0.57c

5.71 0.23d
2.94 0.35d

7.36 0.37cd
1.59 0.17d

13.08 0.64ab
4.74 0.78c

17.92 1.48a
7.16 0.54a

5.21 0.57d
2.01 0.31d

Springiness
Starch
Flour

1.12 0.48a
0.80 0.14ab

0.96 0.10b
0.76 0.11bc

0.95 0.14b
0.82 0.17ab

0.91 0.13b
0.64 0.09d

0.98 0.00ab
0.68 0.12cd

1.06 0.12ab
0.87 0.15a

1.01 0.03ab
0.73 0.17bcd

Cohesiveness
Starch
Flour

0.59 0.04ab
0.45 0.06c

0.67 0.02ab
0.55 0.03b

0.77 0.03a
0.62 0.04a

0.54 0.00ab
0.41 0.06cd

0.41 0.05b
0.33 0.02e

0.50 0.02ab
0.43 0.03cd

0.48 0.01ab
0.39 0.05d

Gumminess
Starch
Flour

38.57 5.34a
10.70 0.78a

12.26 0.47c
4.01 0.37d

12.65 0.65c
3.93 0.65d

33.63 3.10b
6.07 0.76c

21.69 4.21c
7.01 0.95bc

21.82 3.57c
8.08 0.93b

17.37 0.55c
4.39 0.65d

Chewiness
Starch
Flour

43.24 5.80a
8.59 1.18a

11.80 0.34d
3.06 0.78d

12.03 0.83d
3.23 0.62d

30.72 3.57b
3.91 0.67d

21.42 4.21bcd
4.79 0.76c

22.68 1.73bc
7.02 0.94b

17.37 0.59cd
3.21 0.58d

Resilience
Starch
Flour

0.83 0.30b
0.44 0.09b

0.94 0.05a
0.54 0.12a

0.47 0.06d
0.28 0.04e

0.51 0.16d
0.37 0.06c

0.70 0.06c
0.43 0.09b

0.52 0.12d
0.33 0.07d

0.89 0.02ab
0.40 0.06bc

Values are expressed as mean standard deviations. Means having same letters within the same row differ signicantly at p < 0.05.

S.A. Mir, S.J.D. Bosco / Food Chemistry 157 (2014) 448456

of the our varied signicantly (p < 0.05) from 86.90 to 92.35 C in

Shalimar Rice 1 and K-332 cultivar, respectively. The presence of
other components such as lipids, protein, bre and lower amount
of starch in our inuenced the pasting properties. This may be
due to the interaction between amylose and lipid or protein. Previous literature reported that proteins, lipids and amylose, lipid amylose complex signicantly inuence the pasting properties of rice
ours (Kaur & Singh, 2000).
3.9. Textural properties
The textural values (Table 3) of starch and our gels of rice cultivars determined by textural analyzer differ signicantly among
the rice cultivars (p < 0.05). The starch samples have much harder
gel rmness than their respective rice ours. The high gel hardness
in rice starches is due to high amylose content as compared to our
samples (Yu et al., 2012) and mainly caused by starch gel retrogradation, associated with crystallization of amylose in a short time
which lead to harder gels (Miles, Morris, Orford, & Ring, 1985).
The highest gel hardness were observed in Jehlum rice starch
(65.25 g) and our (10.91 g), whereas, the lowest value were in
Khosar starch (16.42 g) and our (6.32 g) gel. Starch gel strength
is mainly affected by factors like composition, properties of the
granules, and molecular interaction with water. Bao, Ao, and Jane
(2005) reported that the amylose content served as a good indicator for gel hardness of rice our paste.
The rice starch gels showed mostly higher textural values as
compared to respective our gels. The highest springiness, gumminess and chewiness values were observed for Jehlum whereas,
lowest for Khosar rice starch and our gels. The gel formation of
starch mainly depends on swollen starch granules that hold water
in the network within the granule. Amylose leaked from swollen
granules plays a minor role and becomes more signicant when
the swollen granules disrupt. Other components mainly our samples, such as protein, lipid, and non-starch polysaccharides would
also take part in the network formation during the gel formation
process which also inuences the gel texture properties (Yu
et al., 2012).
4. Conclusion
Flour and starches from different rice cultivars collected from
temperate region of Indian Himalaya exhibit signicant differences
in their physicochemical properties. The study showed signicant
differences in composition among the starches and our of rice cultivars. The starch showed varied granule size from 2.3 to 6.5 lm.
The X-ray diffraction patterns of rice starches and ours showed
A type pattern with relative crystallinity degree varied among
the cultivars. Raman spectroscopy method has been used to identify the structural characteristics of rice starch and our. Pasting
properties signicantly varied and is useful for assessing the cooking quality of rice starch and ours. Swelling power, solubility, turbidity, and gel texture value of rice starches and ours varied
among the cultivars and were related to amylose content.
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to the Department of Food Science and
Technology and Central Instrumentation Facility, Pondicherry University for providing laboratory and instrumental facilities.
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