What is Calculus ?

alculus is the mathematics for motion and change . Calculus was first invented to meet the
mathematical needs of the scientists of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries . There are two
primary branches of calculus :
Differential Calculus dealt with the problem of calculating rate of change .

Calculus

Integral Calculus

dealt with the problem of determining a function from information

about its rate of change .

Calculus is a very important branch of mathematics and has been applied widely in the scientific research
and commercial fields . Examples : An architect will use integration to determined the amount of materials
necessary to construct a curved dome over a sports area , as well as calculate the weight of dome and
determine the type of support structure required , biologists use differential calculus to determine the exact
rate of growth in a bacterial culture when different variables such as temperature and food source are
changed . This research can help increase the rate of growth of necessary bacteria , or decrease the rate of
growth for harmful and potentially threatening bacteria . A graphics artist uses calculus to determine how
different three-dimensional models will behave when subjected to rapidly changing conditions . This can
create a realistic environment for movies or video games. Doctors can use calculus to help build the
discipline necessary for solving complex problems , such as diagnosing patients . The above examples show
that calculus has widespread application in science , economics , engineering and can solve many problems
for which algebra alone is insufficient .

1. Introduction

To Limits

To approach the subject of calculus , we examine the idea of limits .

We want to study the behaviour of f(x) when x is near a . In other words , when x is close to a ,what
happens to f(x) ?

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Suppose f(x) is a real-valued function and a is a real number . The expression

lim f ( x) L
xa

means that f(x) can be made to be as close to L as desired

by making x sufficiently close to a . Note that this statement can be true even if f(a) L .
Indeed , the function f(x) need not even be defined at a .

Reading Material
1.1 The formal definition of limit(Optional)
f ( x) L
Definition : lim
x c
For every > 0 , there exists a corresponding number > 0
such that for all x ,
0<| x-c|< |f(x) -L|<
* The proven of limit is not included in our syllabus !

Example 1 :
(a) Find lim
x 2

x2 2x
.
x2 4

[solution:]
x2 2x
x ( x 2)
lim 2
lim
x 2 x 4
x 2 ( x 2)( x 2)
x
= lim
x2 x 2
2
=
22
2
=
4
1
=
2

(b)

2 x3
(2 x 3)(2 x 3)
lim
2
x 1
x 1 ( x 1)( x 1)(2
x 1
x 3)
4 ( x 3)
= lim
x 2 ( x 1)( x 1)(2
x 3)
1 x
= lim
x 2 ( x 1)( x 1)(2
x 3)
( x 1)
= lim
x 2 ( x 1)( x 1)(2
x 3)
1
= lim
x 2 ( x 1)(2
x 3)
1
1
=
=
2(2 4) 8

lim

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x3 8
x 2 x 2

(c) lim

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1.2 Determine the value of a function when its variable approaches a certain value
is the value of f(x) when x approaches the value of a

Note:
x a

Example 2:

Find the limit for each question below

x

(a) lim (0.2) =

x0

(b) lim
x 1

x2 1
x2

(c) lim
x 1

x2 1
x 1

(d) lim
x 3

x2 2x 3
x2 9

Example 3 :

(a) lim
x 1

x 1
x 1

(b) lim
x 2

x2 2
x2 4

2x2 3
x x 2 4

(c) lim

( x 1)(3 x)
x 1
x4 1

(d) lim

(e) lim

n2 1 n
9n 2 1 4n

(f) lim
x 2

x 2
x6 8

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2. Chords

, Normals , Tangent

Consider any two points , A and B , on any curve .

The line joining A and B is called a chord .
The line that touches the curve at A is called the tangent atBA .
The point A (touch point) is called the point of contact.
The line perpendicular to the tangent at A is called the normal at A.
Figure 1

The Gradient Of A Curve

From figure 1 , since the curve is not a straight line , and hence its gradient is not
constant . In fact , the gradient of a curve changes continuously from point to point .
So , what is the gradient of a curve ?
The gradient of a curve at a point A is defined as the gradient of the tangent
drawn at the point A .
2.1

Find the gradient of a chord joining two points on a curve

Example 4 : Determine the gradient of the chord AB as shown below

(a) y
32-------------- B.

y=2x

(b) y

10--------------- -F

y=x +1

(c) y
y=x2 4
5-------------------- B

2----------E
8------- A
0
0

x
4

-4 A

From the definition , the gradient of a curve at any point is found by drawing a tangent
to the curve at the particular point , but it is just a approximate values . To obtain more
accurate value , the following method is needed .

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2.2 Finding the first derivative of a function y = f(x), as the gradient of tangent to its graph.

y=x

y
Q (3.05 , 9.30)
Tangent at P
P(3

9)

Complete the table below and hence determine the first derivative of the function y = x
Gradient PQ
Point Q (x2, y2)
x2 -x1
y2 - y1
x2
y2
3.05
9.3025
0.05
0.3025
6.05
3.01
9.0601
0.01
0.0601
6.01
3.001
9.006001
0.001
0.006001
6.001
3.0001 9.0006
0.0001
0.0006
6.0001
When Q P , gradient PQ 6, then the gradient at point P = 6

In general ,
Let P(x,y) be a point on the curve y = x2 .
Consider a point Q on the curve whose coordinate is
( x x, y y )
Since P(x,y) is on the curve , then
y = x2 -------------- (1)
Since Q( x x, y y ) lies on the curve , then

y y ( x x) 2 ----------- (2)

As Q approaches P , x becomes smaller and smaller , ie. x 0 . The gradient of PQ thus tend to the gradient of the
tangent at P .
Hence , as QP , gradient of PQ =

The first principles of

differentiation
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2.3 H o w t o find the first derivative of polynomials using the first principles
dy
a) Let x be a small increment in x and y be the corresponding small increment in y.
b) Substitute x and y in the equation y = f(x) with x + x and y + y respectively
c) Express y in terms of x and x
d) Find

y
y
and lim
.
x 0 x
x

Example 5 :
2

1. Given y = 3x + 5,find

dy
dx

by using the first principle

2. Determine the first derivative of y =

4
3 by using
x

first principle .
Solution

Solution :

3. Differentiate the following functions from first principles :

(i) y = x3 2x

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3. What is Differentiation ?
where
where

Important :
Important :

We call (pronounced dee y by dee x ) the gradient function ,

We call (pronounced dee y by dee x ) the gradient function ,
derived function or differential coefficient of y with respect to
derived function or differential coefficient of y with respect to
x.
x.
The process of finding the dy/dx is called differentiation .
The process of finding the dy/dx is called differentiation .

3.1

Determining the first derivative of the function y = ax using formula

1. If y = k, where k is a constant then or
n

dy
d
=
(k ) = 0
dx dx

2. If y = ax where k is a constant and n is positive and negative integer

dy
d
=
(ax n ) = nax n-1
dx dx
n 1
n
3. If f(x) = ax , then f ( x) = anx
. Notation f ( x) is read as f prime x
then

Example 6: Differentiate the following with respect to x :

3
4
x
(a) y =
(b) y = (x-1)( x 3 )
2
x

(d) y = 3 x x x x 4

(e) y= ( x 2 x ) 2

(c) y =

(f) y =

x2 5x 4
x

3
x
2 1
4x x

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Example 7 :
Find the coordinates of the points on the curve y = 2x3 4x2 + x + 1 at which the gradient is -1 .
[Solution] y = 2x3 4x2 + x + 1
dy
6 x2 8x 1
dx
As gradient = -1 , then
dy
1
dx
6 x 2 8 x 1 1
3x 2 4 x 1 0
(3x 1)( x 1) 0
1
x or x = 1
3
When x = 1 , y = 2(1)3 4(1)2 + 1 +1 = 0 .
1
1 3
1 2 1
26
When x = , y 2( ) 4( ) 1
3
3
3
3
27
2
Example 8: Given that the curve y = ax

1 26
the required points are ( , ) and ( 1, 0).
3 27
b
has gradient 4 at the point A(1,5) , calculate the value of a and of b .
x

Example 9: Find the gradient of the curve y =

3x 9
at the point where the curve crosses the x-axis .
2 x2

Example 10: Find the coordinates of the points on the curve y = x 3 3 x 2 8 x 5 where the tangent makes an angle of
450 with the positive direction of the x-axis .

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Tangents

dy
represents the gradient of the tangent of the curve y = f(x)
dx

a)

b) The gradient of the tangent at a point A (p,q) on a curve y = f(x) can be determined by
substituting x = p

dy

dx

c) The equation of the tangent at point P(x1,y1 ) on the curve y =f(x) can be determined by
Finding the gradient, m, of the tangent at point P
Use the formula y y1 = m (x x1) to find the equation of the tangent.

Example 11 :
Find the coordinates of the point on the curve y = 2x x2 at which the tangent is
perpendicular to the
line y-2x= 3 .

Example 12:
Find the equations of the tangents to the curve y=x2-3x-4 at its points of intersection with
the x-axis , and find the co-ordinates of the point of intersection of these tangents ?

Example 13:
The tangent at the point A on the curve y = x(x-1)(x-2) whose x coordinate is equal to p meets
the axis of y in T .
Prove the length OT = 3p2 2p3 where O is origin .

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Example 14:
Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y =

c2
, where c is a constant , at the point (
x

c
ct , ) . If the tangent meets the axes of x and y in A and B , prove that the triangle AOB is
t
of constant area , where O is origin.

Normal To the a curve

The equation of the normal to the curve y = f(x) at point P( x1 ,y1), can be determined by

Finding the gradient ,m1,of the tangent at point P,

Finding the gradient, m2, of the normal at point P for which m1m2 = -1
using the formula y y1 = m2 (x x1) to find the equation of the normal

Example 15 : Find the equation of the normal for each of following equations and the corresponding points.

(a) y = x - 4x + 1 at point (3,-2)

(b) y = 2x +

8
at point (1,10)
x

Example 16:

Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = 8x 3x2 at the point x = 2 and find where this normal meets the
line x = 2y + 1 .

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Example 17:
P is the point (4,7) on the curve y = x2 -6x + 15 . Find the gradient of the curve at P and the equation of the normal

at this point . Find the coordinates of the point where this normal cuts the curve again. The tangent at another point
Q is perpendicular to the tangent at P . Find the x-coordinate of Q .
[ Ans : 2 ; -1/2 ; x+2y-18=0 ; (3/2 , 33/4 ) ; 11/4 ]

Example 18:
The tangent to the curve y=ax2+bx + 2 at (1,

1
) is parallel to the normal to the curve y = x 2 + 6x
2

+ 10 at (-2,2) . Find the values of a and b .

Example 19:

The tangent at the point P(a,b) on the curve y =

ab
meets the x-axis and y-axis at points Q and R
x

respectively. Show that PQ = RP .

Page 11 of 15

Miscellaneous Exercise
Problem 1: Find

1
dy
by using first principle of differentiation if (i) y =
x
dx

(ii)

1
(2 x 1)( x 4)
Problem 2: Differentiate the following :
a) y = x 4 + mx3 + n , where m,n are constant
2
b) y 9 x

3
x2

e) y

c) y (3 x 1)( x 2)
Problem 3: Find the gradient of the curve y = 9x

d) y

f) y =

3x 2 x 1
x

(1 x)(4 x 1)
x

1
4 x7 3x 2 1
4x

1
at the point whose abscissa is 2 . Also find
x

the coordinate of the

points where the tangent is horizontal .

[Ans: 35/4 ; (1/3,6) ; (-1/3,-6) ]

Problem 4 : Given that the gradient of the tangent to the curve y = ax 3 + bx2 + 3 at the point
(1,4) is 7 , calculate the value
of a and of b .
[Ans: a=5 , b= -4 ]
Problem 5: Calculate the equation of tangent and normal to the curve y

( x 1)(2 x 3)
at x = -1.
x
[Ans: y = 5x + 5 ; x +

5y +1 = 0 ]
Problem 6: A curve is defined by the equation y x( x 1)( x 2) .
(a) Find the equations of the tangents to the curve which are perpendicular to the
line x 2 y 1.
(b) Find the equation of the normal to the curve at the point where the normal is
given by the
equation 81x 54 y 38 0 .

[Ans; (a) y = 2x+4; y = 2x (b) 18x +

27y + 20 =0]
Problem 7: The line y = 5x + c is a tangent to the curve y = 7x2 5x + 3.
(a) Find the value of the constant c.
(b) If the tangent meets the x-axis at A and the y-axis at B, calculate the area of
triangle
OAB, where O is the origin.
(b)

8
245

[Ans: (a) c 74

units2]

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Problem 8: Show that if the line y = mx + c is a tangent to the curve y = x2 + x + 4, then m2

-2m + 4c 15 = 0.
Hence, find the equation(s) of the tangent to the curve which passes through the
point (0, 3).
[ Ans: y = 3x
+ 3 ; y + x = 3]
Problem 9: The normal at the point P(12,4) on the curve xy = 48 meets the curve again in Q ,
find the length of PQ.
[Ans:

40
10 units]
3
Problem 10: Find the equations of the normal to the curve y = 2x
coordinates of the point
where these normal intersect .
52/5 ) ]

8
at x =1 , x = 4 . Find the
x

[Ans : x-6y+59=0 ; 2x+3y-38=0; (17/5 ,

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