Electrons, waves and photons - Key terms and definitions

Electricity

What is electric current?

Electric current is a net flow of charged

particles; current in a metal is due to the
movement of electrons, whereas in an
electrolyte the current is due to the
movement of ions.

What is conventional
current?

Conventional current is in the opposite

direction to the flow of electrons and is
represented by an arrow from the positive
side of the battery.

What is mean drift

velocity?

The mean drift velocity is the average

velocity of a charge carrier in a current.

Define the Coulomb

1 Coulomb = 1 Amp multiplied by 1

second.
(The Coulomb is the unit of charge)

State Kirchhoffs 1st Law.

From which conservation law
does it follow?

The total current leaving a junction in a

circuit is equal to the total current entering
the junction.
It follows from the conservation of charge.

Define electromotive force

(e.m.f.)

Energy transferred into electrical energy

per unit charge moved (from other forms of
energy e.g. chemical)

Define potential
difference (p.d.)

Energy transferred from electrical energy

per unit charge moved (into other forms of
energy e.g. light)

Define the volt

1 volt = 1 Joule per Coulomb.

The volt is the unit of potential difference
and e.m.f.

Electrons, waves and photons - Key terms and definitions

State Kirchhoffs 2nd Law

From which conservation law
does it follow?

In any closed loop in a circuit the sum of

the e.m.f.s (energy givers) is equal to the
sum of the p.d.s (energy takers).
It follows from the conservation of energy

Define resistance

p.d. across a component divided by the

current through it.
(Resistance is the opposition to the flow of
current)

Define the Ohm

1 ohm = 1 volt per ampere.

(the ohm is the unit of resistance)

State Ohms Law

For a conductor at constant temperature,

the p.d. across a component is
proportional to the current through it.

Define resistivity

A property of a material that affect

resistance, defined by the equation =
RA/L where R = resistance, A = cross
sectional area of conductor, L = length of
conductor.

How does resistivity

change with temperature?

The resistivity of a metal increases as

temperature increases; the resistivity of a
semiconductor decreases as the
temperature increases.

Define power

Energy transferred per second

(or the rate of energy transfer).

Define the Watt

1 Watt = 1 Joule per second

(the Watt is the unit of power)

Electrons, waves and photons - Key terms and definitions

Define the kilo-watt hour

1 kilowatt hour = the energy transferred by

a 1kW appliance in 1 hour.
(the kWh is a unit of energy in calculations
of domestic electricity)

What is terminal p.d?

The measured voltage across the output of

a battery is known as the terminal p.d

What can a potential

divider circuit be used for?

A potential divider circuit can be used to

produce a variable p.d. (for example using
a thermistor or LDR to change output
voltage in response to temperature / light
level)

How are e.m.f., terminal

p.d. and internal
resistance related?

All sources of e.m.f. (e.g. batteries, power

packs) have an internal resistance, r.
The measured voltage across the output of
the battery is known as the terminal p.d.,
V.
They are related by the equation V = e.m.f
- Ir

Give 3 equations used to

calculate electrical power

P = VI
P = I2R
P = V2/R

Electrons, waves and photons - Key terms and definitions

Waves

What is a progressive
wave?

A progressive, or travelling, wave is

caused by vibrations or oscillations and
transfers energy from one place to
another.

What is a stationary wave?

A stationary wave (or standing wave)

is a wave pattern produced when two
progressive waves of the same frequency
travelling in opposite directions
superimpose.

What is a longitudinal
wave?

Longitudinal waves, such has sound, have

vibrations parallel to the direction the
wave travels.

What is a transverse wave?

Transverse waves, such as

electromagnetic waves (e.g. light), have
vibrations perpendicular to the direction
the wave travels

Define displacement

Displacement distance of any part of

the wave from its undisturbed position

Define amplitude

Amplitude maximum displacement of

the travelling wave

Define wavelength

the distance between adjacent peaks (or

adjacent troughs)

Define the period of a wave

The time taken for one complete cycle of

the wave.
(period = 1 / frequency)

Electrons, waves and photons - Key terms and definitions

Define phase difference

The difference in phase between two waves

or between two points on the same wave.
One wavelength is equivalent to a phase
difference of 360 or 2 radians.

Define the frequency of a

wave

the number of oscillations or cycles per

second
(frequency = 1 / period)

How is wave speed

calculated?

Wave speed is equal to the frequency

multiplied by the wavelength. The speed
the wave travels at will depend on the
medium it travels through.

What is intensity?

Intensity is equal to power divided by

cross-sectional area; also intensity is
proportional to amplitude2.

What is reflection?

Reflection is when a wave bounces off a

surface; the angle of incidence (with
respect to the normal) is equal to the angle
of reflection.

What is refraction?

Refraction is change in direction of a

wave when it travels between two media
due to the change in speed of the wave.

What is diffraction?

Diffraction is the spreading out of a wave

round an obstacle or through a gap; most
noticeable when the gap size is similar to
the wavelength of the wave.

What do all electromagnetic

waves have in common?

All electromagnetic waves travel at the

same speed in a vacuum. (approx. 3.0 x
108 ms-1)

Electrons, waves and photons - Key terms and definitions

What is meant by
plane-polarised waves?

Plane-polarised waves are transverse

waves that oscillate only in one plane. Light
is partially polarised on reflection.

What is Malus law?

Malus law describes the transmitted

intensity of light from a polarising filter in
relation to the angle between the plane
of polarisation of the wave and the
analysing filter, I = Imax cos .

What is the principle of

superposition?

The principle of superposition of waves

states that when two waves meet the
resultant displacement will be the sum of
the individual displacements of the two
waves at that point.

What is interference?

Interference addition of two or more

waves to produce a wave of a new pattern

What is constructive
interference?

Constructive interference occurs when

the two waves are in phase and the
displacements add to increase the
amplitude.

What is destructive
interference?

Destructive interference occurs when the

two waves are in anti-phase (180 out of
phase) and the displacements add to
decrease the amplitude (cancel out)

What is meant by
coherence?

What is a node?

Coherence describes waves that are the

same frequency and have a constant phase
relationship.

Nodes points of zero displacement on a

stationary wave caused by destructive
interference

Electrons, waves and photons - Key terms and definitions

What is an antinode?

Antinodes points of maximum amplitude

on a stationary wave caused by
constructive interference

What is the separation

between adjacent nodes (or
antinodes)?

The separation between adjacent

nodes (or antinodes) = /2. (half a
wavelength)

What is meant by the

fundamental mode of
vibration?

What are harmonics?

Fundamental mode of vibration is the

simplest stationary wave corresponding to
the lowest frequency.

Harmonics are multiples of the

fundamental frequency of a stationary
wave.

Quantum

What is a photon?

A photon is a quantum (or packet) of

energy of electromagnetic radiation; E = hf

Photon energy E = hf (or E = hc/ )

How is the energy of a

photon calculated?

Define the electronvolt

(where h = Plancks constant, f =

frequency, = wavelength, c = speed of
light)
1 electronvolt = the energy transferred
when
1 electron moves through a potential
difference of 1 volt.

Electrons, waves and photons - Key terms and definitions

Describe the
photoelectric effect

The emission of electrons from the surface

of a metal due to the incidence of
electromagnetic waves; one photon
transfers energy to one electron. Energy is
conserved when a photon interacts with an
electron.

Define the work function of

a metal

The minimum energy required to release

an electron from the surface of a metal.

Define the term

threshold frequency

The lowest frequency of electromagnetic

radiation that will result in the emission of
a photoelectron.

What phenomena are

evidence for the particle
and wave nature of light?

The photoelectric effect provides

evidence for a particle nature of
electromagnetic radiation, whereas
phenomena such as interference and
diffraction provide evidence for the wave
nature.

What phenomenon provides

evidence for the wave
nature of particles?

Electron diffraction provides evidence for

the wave nature of particles such as
electrons.

What phenomenon provides

evidence for discrete
energy levels in isolated
atoms?

Spectral lines are evidence for the

existence of discrete energy levels in
isolated atoms (hf = E1 E2 and hc/ = E1
E2).

How is the wavelength of a

particle calculated from its
momentum?

Using the de Broglie equation

Wavelength = h/mv
(h = Plancks constant,
mv = momentum = mass x velocity)

Explain the terms in

Einsteins photoelectric
equation,
hf = + KEmax

hf = + KEmax
hf = energy of incident photon, is the
work function of the metal (energy required
to release an electron from the surface),
KEmax is the maximum kinetic energy of
electrons released. The equation derives
from conservation of energy.

Electrons, waves and photons - Key terms and definitions

How can electrons be used

to determine the
arrangement of atoms in a
material?

Diffraction of electrons by matter can be

used to determine the arrangement of
atoms and the size of nuclei. For example,
electrons travelling through polycrystalline
graphite will be diffracted by the atoms and
the spacing between the atoms.

Describe an experiment to
measure Plancks constant
(h)
using LEDs

Measure the voltage V required to just

produce light from an LED with known
wavelength . Repeat for several different
LEDs (different ). Electron energy eV is
transformed to photon energy hc/. Plot V
against 1/. Gradient is hc/e