UNIT-3

Cost analysis
Cost concepts - opportunity cost, fixed vs. variable costs, explicit costs vs. implicit costs, and out of
pocket costs vs. imputed costs; Break-even analysis (BEA) - determination of break-even point
(simple problems), managerial significance, and limitations of BEA.
Capital and capital budgeting
Capital and its significance; Types of capital; Estimation of fixed and working capital requirements;
Methods and sources of raising finance.
Nature and scope of capital budgeting; Features of capital budgeting proposals; Methods of
capital budgeting - payback method, accounting rate of return (ARR), and net present value
method (simple problems)
Production involves costs, so does supply to the market from the production centre and then
supply from the retailers shelves to the ultimate consumer. There are costs at every state. All
these concepts of cost are referred by the economists. Some of the economic costs concepts
originate with others like the accountant and the engineer. All costs have to be identified,
measured and then analysed for business decisions. It is called as a cost - output relationship
Cost analysis plays a central role in managerial economics because every managerial decision
required a comparison between costs and benefits.
The analysis of cost is important in the study of managerial economics because it provides a basis
for two important decisions made by managers:
(a) Whether to produce or not and
(b) How much to produce when a decision is taken to produce.
Cost concepts:
1. Actual Costs and Opportunity Costs
2. Fixed and Variable Costs
3. Explicit and Implicit Costs
4. Accounting Costs and Economic Costs
5. Direct Costs and Indirect Costs
6. Total Cost, Average Cost and Marginal Cost
7. Short-Run and Long-Run Costs
1. ACTUAL COSTS AND OPPORTUNITY COSTS:
Actual costs are those costs, which a firm incurs while producing or acquiring a good or service like
raw materials, labour, rent, etc. Suppose, we pay Rs. 150 per day to a worker whom we employ
for 10 days, then the cost of labour is Rs. 1500. The economists called this cost as accounting costs
because traditionally accountants have been primarily connected with collection of historical data
(that is the costs actually incurred) in reporting a firms financial position and in calculating its
taxes. Sometimes the actual costs are also called acquisition costs or outlay costs.
On the other hand, opportunity cost is defined as the value of a resource in its next best use. For
example, Mr. Ram is currently working with a firm and earning Rs. 5 lakhs per year. He decides to
quit his job and start his own small business. Although, the accounting cost of Mr. Rams labour to
his own business is 0, the opportunity cost is Rs. 5 lakhs per year. Therefore, the opportunity cost
is the earnings he foregoes by working for his own firm. One may ask you that whether this

opportunity cost is really meaningful in the decision making process. As we see that the
opportunity cost is important simply because, if Mr. Ram cannot recover this cost from his new
business, then he will probably return to his old job.
Opportunity cost can be similarly defined for other factors of production. For example, consider a
firm that owns a building and therefore do not pay rent for office space. If the building was rented
to others, the firm could have earned rent. The foregone rent is an opportunity cost of utilizing the
office space and should be included as part of the cost of doing business. Sometimes these
opportunity costs are called as alternative costs.
2. FIXED AND VARIABLE COSTS
Fixed costs are that part of the total cost of the firm which does not change with output.
Expenditures on depreciation, rent of land and buildings, property taxes, and interest payment on
bonds are examples of fixed costs. Given a capacity, fixed costs remain the same irrespective of
actual output. Variable costs, on the other hand, change with changes in output. Examples of
variable costs are wages and expenses on raw material.
However, it is not very easy to classify all costs into fixed and variable. There are some costs,
which fall between these extremes. They are called semivariable costs. They are neither perfectly
variable nor absolutely fixed in relation to changes in output. For example, part of the
depreciation charges is fixed, and part variable. However, it is very difficult to determine how
much of depreciation cost is due to the technical obsolescence of assets and hence fixed cost, and
how much is due to the use of equipments and hence variable cost. Nevertheless, it does not
mean that it is not useful to classify costs into fixed and variable. This distinction is of great value
in break-even analysis and pricing decisions. For decision-making purposes, in general, it is the
variable cost, which is relevant and not the fixed cost.
To an economist the fixed costs are overhead costs and to an accountant these are indirect costs.
When the output goes up, the fixed cost per unit of output comes down, as the total fixed cost is
divided between larger units of output.
3. EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT COSTS:
Explicit costs are those costs that involve an actual payment to other parties. Therefore, an
explicit cost is the monitory payment made by a firm for use of an input owned or controlled by
others. Explicit costs are also referred to as accounting costs. For example, a firm pays Rs. 100 per
day to a worker and engages 15 workers for 10 days, the explicit cost will be Rs. 15,000 incurred
by the firm. Other types of explicit costs include purchase of raw materials, renting a building,
amount spent on advertising etc. On the other hand, implicit costs represent the value of
foregone opportunities but do not involve an actual cash payment. Implicit costs are just as
important as explicit costs but are sometimes neglected because they are not as obvious. For
example, a manager who runs his own business foregoes the salary that could have been earned
working for someone else as we have seen in our earlier example. This implicit cost generally is
not reflected in accounting
statements, but rational decision-making requires that it be considered. Therefore, an implicit cost
is the opportunity cost of using resources that are owned or controlled by the owners of the firm.
The implicit cost is the foregone return, the owner of the firm could have received had they used
their own resources in their best alternative use rather than using the resources for their own
firms production.

4. ACCOUNTING COSTS AND ECONOMIC COSTS:

For a long time, there has been a considerable disagreement among economists and accountants
on how costs should be treated. The reason for the difference of opinion is that the two groups
want to use the cost data for dissimilar purposes. Accountants always have been concerned with
firms financial statements. Accountants tend to take a retrospective look at firms finances
because they keep trace of assets and liabilities and evaluate past performance. The accounting
costs are useful for managing taxation needs as well as to calculate profit or loss of the firm. On
the other hand, economists take forward-looking view of the firm. They are concerned with what
cost is expected to be in the future and how the firm might be able to rearrange its resources to
lower its costs and improve its profitability. They must therefore be concerned with opportunity
cost. Since the only cost that matters for business decisions are the future costs, it is the economic
costs that are used for decision-making. Accountants and economists both include explicit costs in
their calculations. For accountants, explicit costs are important because they involve direct
payments made by a firm. These explicit costs are also important for economists as well because
the cost of wages and materials represent money that could be useful elsewhere. We have already
seen, while discussing actual costs and opportunity costs, how economic cost can differ from
accounting cost. In that example we have seen how a person who owns business chooses not to
consider his/her own salary. Although, no monitory transaction has occurred (and thus would not
appear as an accounting cost), the business nonetheless incurs an opportunity cost because the
owner could have earned a competitive salary by working elsewhere.
Example of Economic Profit and Accounting Profit:
Mr. Raj is a small storeowner. He has invested Rs. 2 lakhs as equity in the store and inventory. His
annual turnover is Rs. 8 lakhs, from which he must deduct the cost of goods sold, salaries of hired
staff, and depreciation of equipment and building to arrive at annual profit of the store. He asked
help of a friend who is an accountant by profession to prepare annual income statement. The
accountant reported the profit to be Rs. 1.5 lakhs. Mr. Raj could not believe this and asked the
help of another friend who is an economist by profession. The economist told him that the actual
profit was only Rs. 75,000 and not Rs. 1.5 lakhs. The economist found that the accountant had
underestimated the costs by not including the implicit costs of time spent as Manager by Mr. Raj
in the business and interest on owners equity.
a) Controllable and Non-Controllable costs: Controllable costs are those which are capable
of being controlled or regulated by executive vigilance and, therefore, can be used for
assessing executive efficiency. Non-controllable costs are those, which cannot be
subjected to administrative control and supervision. Most of the costs are controllable,
except, of course, those due to obsolescence and depreciation. The level at which such
control can be exercised, however, differs: some costs (like, capital costs) are not
controllable at factorys shop level, but inventory costs can be controlled at the shop level.
b) Out-of-pocket costs and Book costs: Out of pocket costs are those costs that improve
current cash payments to outsiders. For example, wages and salaries paid to the
employees are out-of pocket costs. Other examples of out-of-pocket costs are payment of
rent, interest, transport charges, etc. On the other hand, book costs are those business
costs, which do not involve any cash payments but for them a provision is made in the
books of account to include them in profit and loss accounts and take tax advantages. For
example, salary of owner manager, if not paid, is a book cost. The interest cost of owners
own fund anddepreciation cost are other examples of book cost. The out-of-pocket costs
are also called explicit costs and correspondingly book costs are called implicit or imputed
costs. Book costs can be converted into out-of-pocket costs by selling assets and leasing
them back from buyer. Thus, the difference between these two categories of cost is in

c)

d)

e)

f)

terms of whether the company owns it or not. If a factor of production is owned, its cost is
a book cost while if it is hired it is an out-of-pocket cost.
Past and Future costs: Past costs are actual costs incurred in the past and they are always
contained in the income statements. Their measurement is essentially a record keeping
activity. These costs can only be observed and evaluated in retrospect. If they are regarded
as excessive, management can indulge in post-mortem checks just to find out the factors
responsible for the excessive costs, if any, without being able to do anything about
reducing them.
Future costs are those costs that are likely to be incurred in future periods. Since the
future is uncertain, these costs have to be estimated and cannot be expected to be
absolutely correct figures. Past costs serve as the basis for projecting future costs. In
periods of inflation and deflation, the two cost concepts differ significantly.
Historical and Replacement costs: The historical cost of an asset is the actual cost incurred
at the time, the asset was originally acquired. In contrast to this, replacement cost is the
cost, which will have to be incurred if that asset is purchased now. The difference between
the historical and replacement costs results from price changes over time. Suppose a
machine was acquired for Rs. 50,000 in the year 1995 and the same machine can be
acquired for Rs. 1,20,000 in the year 2001. Here Rs. 50,000 is the historical or original cost
of the machine and Rs. 1,20,000 is its replacement cost. The difference of Rs.70,000
between the two costs has resulted because of the price change of the machine during the
period. In the conventional financial accounts the value of assets is shown at their
historical costs. But for decision-making, firms should try to adjust historical costs to reflect
price level changes. If the price of the asset does not change over time, the historical cost
will be the same as the replacement cost. If the price rises the replacement cost will
exceed historical cost and vice versa. During periods of substantial price variations,
historical costs are poor indicators of actual costs.
Private Costs and Social Costs: A further distinction that is useful to make - especially in
the public sector is between private and social costs. Private costs are those that accrue
directly to the individuals or firms engaged in relevant activity. Social costs, on the other
hand, are passed on to persons not involved in the activity in any direct way (i.e., they are
passed on to society at large). Consider the case of a manufacturer located on the bank of
a river who dumps the waste into water rather than disposing it of in some other manner.
While the private cost to the firm of dumping is zero, it is definitely harmful to the society.
It affects adversely the people located down current and incur higher costs in terms of
treating the water for their use, or having to travel a great deal to fetch potable water. If
these external costs were included in the production costs of a producing firm, a true
picture of real, or social costs of the output would be obtained. Ignoring external costs may
lead to an inefficient and undesirable allocation of resources in society.
Relevant Costs and Irrelevant Costs: The relevant costs for decision-making purposes are
those costs, which are incurred as a result of the decision under consideration. The
relevant costs are also referred to as the incremental costs. Costs that have been incurred
already and costs that will be incurred in the future, regardless of the present decision are
irrelevant costs as far as the current decision problem is concerned. There are three main
categories of relevant or incremental costs. These are the present-period explicit costs, the
opportunity costs implicitly involved in the decision, and the future cost implications that
flow from the decision. For example, direct labour and material costs, and changes in the
variable overhead costs are the natural consequences of a decision to increase the output
level. Also, if there is any expenditure on capital equipments incurred as a result of such a
decision, it should be included in full, not withstanding that the equipment may have a

useful life remaining after the present decision has been carried out. Thus, the incremental
costs of a decision to increase output level will include all present-period explicit costs,
which will be incurred as a consequence of this decision. It will exclude any present-period
explicit cost that will be incurred regardless of the present decision.
g) Sunk Costs and Incremental Costs: Sunk costs are expenditures that have been made in
the past or must be paid in the future as part of contractual agreement or previous
decision. For example, the money already paid for machinery, equipment, inventory and
future rental payments on a warehouse that must be paid as part of a long term lease
agreement are sunk costs. In general, sunk costs are not relevant to economic decisions.
For example, the purchase of specialized equipment designed to order for a plant. We
assume that the equipment can be used to do only what it was originally designed for and
cannot be converted for alternative use. The expenditure on this equipment is a sunk cost.
Also, because this equipment has no alternative use its opportunity cost is zero and, hence,
sunk costs are not relevant to economic decisions. Sometimes the sunk costs are also
called as non-avoidable or non-escapable costs. On the other hand, incremental cost refers
to total additional cost of implementing a managerial decision. Change in product line,
change in output level, adding or replacing a machine, changing distribution channels etc.
are examples of incremental costs. Sometimes incremental costs are also called as
avoidable or escapable costs. Moreover, since incremental costs may also be regarded as
the difference in total costs resulting from a contemplated change, they are also called
differential costs.
5. DIRECT COSTS AND INDIRECT COSTS:
There are some costs, which can be directly attributed to production of a given product. The use
of raw material, labour input, and machine time involved in the production of each unit can
usually be determined. On the other hand, there are certain costs like stationery and other office
and administrative expenses, electricity charges, depreciation of plant and buildings, and other
such expenses that cannot easily and accurately be separated and attributed to individual units of
production, except on arbitrary basis. When referring to the separable costs of first category
accountants call them the direct, or prime costs per unit. The accountants refer to the joint costs
of the second category as indirect or overhead costs. Direct and indirect costs are not exactly
synonymous to what economists refer to as variable costs and fixed costs. The criterion used by
the economist to divide cost into either fixed or variable is whether or not the cost varies with the
level of output, whereas the accountant divides the cost on the basis of whether or not the cost is
separable with respect to the production of individual output units. The accounting statements
often divide overhead expenses into variable overhead and fixed overhead categories. If the
variable overhead expenses per unit are added to the direct cost per unit, we arrive at what
economists call as average variable cost.
Separable Costs and Common Costs: Costs can also be classified on the basis of their traceability.
The costs that can be easily attributed to a product, a division, or a process are called separable
costs. On the other hand, common costs are those, which cannot be traced to any one unit of
operation. For example, in a multiple product firm the cost of raw material may be separable
(traceable) product-wise but electricity charges may not be separable product-wise. In a university
the salary of a Vice-Chancellor is not separable department-wise but the salary of teachers can be
separable department-wise. The separable and common costs are also referred to as direct and
indirect costs respectively. The distinction between direct and indirect costs is of particular
significance in a multi-product firm for setting up economic prices for different products.

6. TOTAL COST, AVERAGE COST AND MARGINAL COST

Total cost (TC) of a firm is the sum-total of all the explicit and implicit expenditures incurred for
producing a given level of output. It represents the money value of the total resources required
for production of goods and services. For example, a shoe-makers total cost will include the
amount she/he spends on leather, thread, rent for his/her workshop, interest on borrowed
capital, wages and salaries of employees, etc., and the amount she/he charges for his/her services
and funds invested in the business.
Average cost (AC) is the cost per unit of output. That is, average cost equals the total cost divided
by the number of units produced (N). If TC = Rs. 500 and N = 50 then AC = Rs. 10. Marginal cost
(MC) is the extra cost of producing one additional unit. At a given level of output, one examines
the additional costs being incurred in producing one extra unit and this yields the marginal cost.
For example, if TC of producing 100 units is Rs. 10,000 and the TC of producing 101 units is Rs.
10,050, then MC at N = 101 equals Rs.50.
7. SHORT-RUN AND LONG-RUN COSTS
The short run is defined as a period in which the supply of at least one element of the inputs
cannot be changed. To illustrate, certain inputs like machinery, buildings, etc., cannot be changed
by the firm whenever it so desires. It takes time to replace, add or dismantle them. Long run, on
the other hand, is defined as a period in which all inputs are changed with changes in output. In
other words, it is that time-span in which all adjustments and changes are possible to realise.
Thus, in the short run, some inputs are fixed (like installed capacity) while others are variable (like
the level of capacity utilisation); but in the long run all inputs, including the size of the plant, are
variable.
Short-run costs are the costs that can vary with the degree of utilisation of plant and other fixed
factors. In other words, these costs relate to the variation in output, given plant capacity. Shortrun costs are, therefore, of two types: fixed costs and variable costs. In the short-run, fixed costs
remain unchanged while variable costs fluctuate with output. Long-run costs, in contrast, are
costs that can vary with the size of plant and with other facilities normally regarded as fixed in the
short-run. In fact, in the long-run there are no fixed inputs and therefore no fixed costs, i.e. all
costs are variable. Both short-run and long-run costs are useful in decision-making. Short-run cost
is relevant when a firm has to decide whether or not to produce and if a decision is taken to
produce then how much more or less to produce with a given plant size. If the firm is considering
an increase in plant size, it must examine the long-run cost of expansion. Long-run cost analysis is
useful in investment decisions.

BREAK-EVEN ANALYSIS
Break even analysis is a specific method of presenting and studying the inter relationship
between costs, volume and profits. Hence, it is also known as cost- volume- profit analysis(C-V-P
Analysis). It is an important tool of financial analysis where by the impact on profit of the changes
in volume, price, cost and mix can be found out with a certain amount of accuracy. A business is
said to break even when its total sales are equal to its total costs. Break- even point is a point of
no profit or no loss. At this point contribution is equal to fixed costs. Break-even point can be
calculated in units or sales.
At break- even point the desired profit will be zero. Where the volume of output sales is to
be calculated so as to earn a desired amount of profit, the amount of desired profit has to be
added to the fixed cost.
Assumptions of Break- Even Analysis.
1) Total cost can exactly be categorized in to fixed costs and variable cost, means, no
existence of semi- variable costs.
2) No change in selling price, variable costs, It means, the firm is not going to offer either
cash or price discounts to its customers. Selling price remains constant.
3) It is used for short- term purpose.
4) All the produced goods are completely sold means, no unsold goods.
Advantages of Break even analysis: Break even analysis helps in
a) Determining total costs, variable cost and fixed costs at a given level of activity.
b) Finding out break-even output or sales.
c) Finding out sales to get desired amount of profit.
d) Understanding the cost, volume, profit relationship.
e) Forecasting profits.
f) Making inter- firm comparisons.
g) Selecting the best product mix.
h) Enforcing cost control.
i) Understanding soundness of the business enterprises.
Limitations of Break even analysis: This analysis suffers from the following limitations.

Difficulty in segregation of costs: It is very difficult to segregate the total cost into fixed
and variable components. Some times there exists certain costs which fall in between fixed
and variable. They are neither completely fixed nor completely variable. Such costs are
known as semi- variable costs, further, fixed costs do not always remain constant. Like
wise, variable costs do not take into account the changes in the stock position and the
conditions of growth and expansions in an organization.

Complicated Calculations: The application of Break even analysis to a multi- product firm
is very difficult. A lot of complicated calculation are involved.

Limited importance: The Break even point has limited importance. At best it would help
management to indulge in cost reduction in times of dull business. Normally, it is not the
objective of business to break- even, because no business is carried on in order to break-

even. Thus, the BEP provides neither a standard of performance nor a guide for executive
decisions.

Limited application in long-range planning: Break- even analysis is a short term concept,
and it has a limited application in the long- range planning.

usefulness of Break- Even Analysis: Normally, a business concern will select the product mix
which gives the maximum profit. Product mix is the ratio in which various products are
produced and sold. The Break- Even analysis technique( which is one of marginal casting
technique) helps management in taking appropriate decisions regarding the product mix, i.e. in
changing the ratio of product mix so as to maximize profits. This technique not only helps in
dropping un-profitable products from the mix but also helps in dropping unprofitable
departments, activities etc.,
But practically speaking, the application of break-even analysis, as mentioned, to a multi
product firm is very difficult. A lot of complicated calculation is involved.

CAPITAL AND CAPITAL BUDGETING

Definition: Working capital is that the funds required meeting short-term financial obligations.
Need:The need for working capital arises mainly due to the time gap between production and
realization of cash. The process of production and sale cannot be done instantaneously and hence
the firm needs to hold the current assets to fill-up the time gaps. There are time gaps in purchase of
raw materials and production; production and sales: and sales and realization of cash. The working
capital is needed mainly for the following purposes:
1. To purchase raw materials
2. To pay wages, salaries and other day to day expenses
3. To meet the selling expenses
4. To provide credit facilitate to the customers
5. To maintain the inventories of raw materials, work in progress and finished goods.
Generally, the level of working capital needed depends upon the time gap (known as operating
cycle) and the size of operations. Greater the size of the business unit generally, larger will be the
requirements of working capital. The amount of working capital needed also goes on increasing
with the growth and expansion of business. Similarly, the larger the operating cycle, the larger the
requirement for working capital. There are many other factors, which influence the need of
working capital in a business, and these are discussed below in the following pages.
Signification of Capital:
1. Solvency of Business
2. To expand and diversify
3. Regular supply of Raw materials
4. Regular payments
5. Good will
6. To pay taxes
7. To pay dividends an interests
8. To replace the assets
9. To support welfare programmes
10. Ability to face crisis

Working capital is refereed to be the lifeblood and nerve center of a business. Working capital is as
essential to maintain the smooth functioning of a business as blood circulation in a human body.
No business can run successfully with out an adequate amount of working capital. The main
advantages of maintaining adequate amount of working capital are as follows:
1. Solvency of the business: Adequate working capital helps in maintaining solvency of the
business by providing uninterrupted flow of production.
2. Good will: Sufficient working capital enables a business concern to make prompt payment and
hence helps in creating and maintaining good will.
3. Easy loans: A concern having adequate working capital, high solvency and good credit standing
can arrange loans from banks and others on easy and favorable terms.
4. Cash Discounts: Adequate working capital also enables a concern to avail cash discounts on the
purchases and hence it reduces costs.
5. Regular supply of raw materials: Sufficient working capital ensures regular supply of raw
materials and continuous production.
6. Regular payments of salaries wages and other day to day
commitments: A company which has ample working capital can make regular payment of salaries,
wages and other day to day commitments which raises the morale of its employees, increases
their efficiency, reduces wastage and cost and enhances production and profits.
7. Exploitation of favorable market conditions: The concerns with adequate working capital only
can exploit favorable market conditions such as purchasing its requirements in bulk when the
prices are lower.
8. Ability to face crisis: Adequate working capital enables a concern to face business crisis in
emergencies.
9. Quick and regular return on Investments: Every investor wants a quick and regular return on
his investment. Sufficiency of working capital enables a concern to pay quick and regular dividends
to its investors, as there may not be much pressure to plough back profits. This gains the
confidence of its investors and creates a favorable market to raise additional funds in the future.
10.High morale: Adequacy of working capital creates an environment of security, confidence, and
high morale and creates overall efficiency in a business. Every business concern should have
adequate working capital to run its business operations. It should have neither redundant excess
working capital nor inadequate shortage of working capital. Both, excess as well as short working
capital positions are bad for any business. However, out of the two, it is the inadequacy of working
capital which is more dangerous from the point of view of the firm.
Factors Determining the Requirements of Working Capital:
There are a large number of factors such as the nature and size of business, the character of their
operations, the length of production cycle, the rate of stock turnover and the state of economic
situation etc. that decode requirement of working capital. These factors have different importance
and influence on firm differently. In general following factors generally influence the working
capital requirements.
1. Nature or character of business: The working capital requirements of a firm basically depend
upon the nature of its business. Public utility undertakings like electricity, water supply and
railways need very limited working capital as their sales are on cash and are engaged in provision
of services only. On the other hand, trading firms require more investment in inventories,
receivables and cash and such they need large amount of working capital. The manufacturing
undertakings also require sizable working capital.
2. Size of business or scale of operations: The working capital requirements of a concern are
directly influenced by the size of its business, which may be measured in terms of scale of
operations. Greater the size of a business unit, generally, larger will be the requirements of

working capital. However, in some cases, even a smaller concern may need more working capital
due to high overhead charges, inefficient use of available resources and other economic
disadvantages of small size.
3. Production policy: If the demand for a given product is subject to wide fluctuations due to
seasonal variations, the requirements of working capital, in such cases, depend upon the
production policy. The production could be kept either steady by accumulating inventories during
stack periods with a view to meet high demand during the peck season or the production could be
curtailed during the slack season and increased during the peak season. If the policy is to keep the
production steady by accumulating inventories it will require higher working capital.
4. Manufacturing process/Length of production cycle: In manufacturing business, the
requirements of working capital will be in direct proportion to the length of manufacturing
process. Longer the process period of manufacture, larger is the amount of working capital
required, as the raw materials and other supplies have to be carried for a longer period.
5. Seasonal variations: If the raw material availability is seasonal, they have to be bought in bulk
during the season to ensure an uninterrupted material for the production. A huge amount is, thus,
blocked in the form of material, inventories during such season, which give rise to more working
capital requirements. Generally, during the busy season, a firm requires larger working capital
then in the slack season.
6. Working capital cycle: In a manufacturing concern, the working capital cycle starts with the
purchase of raw material and ends with the realization of cash from the sale of finished products.
This cycle involves purchase of raw materials and stores, its conversion into stocks of finished
goods through workin progress with progressive increment of labour and service costs,
conversion of finished stock into sales, debtors and receivables and ultimately realization of cash.
This cycle continues again from cash to purchase of raw materials and so on. In general the longer
the operating cycle, the larger the requirement of working capital.
7. Credit policy: The credit policy of a concern in its dealings with debtors and creditors influences
considerably the requirements of working capital. A concern that purchases its requirements on
credit requires lesser amount of working capital compared to the firm, which buys on cash. On the
other hand, a concern allowing credit to its customers shall need larger amount of working capital
compared to a firm selling only on cash.
8. Business cycles: Business cycle refers to alternate expansion and contraction in general business
activity. In a period of boom, i.e., when the business is prosperous, there is a need for larger
amount of working capital due to increase in sales. On the contrary, in the times of depression,
i.e., when there is a down swing of the cycle, the business contracts, sales decline, difficulties are
faced in collection from debtors and firms may have to hold large amount of working capital.
9. Rate of growth of business: The working capital requirements of a concern increase with the
growth and expansion of its business activities. The retained profits may provide for a part of
working capital but the fast growing concerns need larger amount of working capital than the
amount of undistributed profits.
Types of Capital:
Capital can broadly be divided into two groups:
1. On the basis of Concept
a) Gross working Capital
b) Net working Capital
2. On the Basis of Time permanency
a) Fixed Capital and
b) Working Capital

a) Gross working concept:

Capital invested in total current assets including all types.
Cash & bank balance
Bills receivables
Loans & advances
Inventories of stocks
Prepaid expenses
Good will
b) Net working Capital:
Capital invested in total current assets which can converted into cash in short period.
1. Fixed Capital: Fixed capital which can be invested in acquiring long-term assets such as land
and building, plant and machinery, furniture and fixtures, and so on.
Types of Fixed Assets:
I. Tangible Fixed Assets
II. Intangible Fixed Assets
III. Financial Fixed Assets
2. Working Capital: (Circulating capital): It is the portion of capital that makes a company work.
Estimation of Fixed & working capital: It is, therefore, necessary for a new concern to estimate its
requirements of funds properly. The financial requirements of a new company may be outlined
under the following heads:
1. Cost of fixed assets including land and buildings, plant and machinery, furniture, etc. The
amount invested in these items is called fixed capital.
2. Cost of current assets including cash, stock of goods (also called inventory of merchandise),
book debts, bills, etc.
3. Cost of promotion including the expenses on preliminary investigation, accounting, marketing
and legal advice, etc.
4. Cost of setting up the orgnaisation.
5. Cost of establishing the business, i.e., the operating losses which have generally to be sustained
in the initial periods of a company.
6. Cost of financing including brokerage on securities, commission on underwriting, etc.
7. Cost of intangible assets like goodwill, patents, etc.
Of the various items of financial requirements listed above, the first two deserve special
consideration, as the successes of any concern will depend largely on them.
Components of working capital:
WC = Current Assets Current Liabilities
Current Assets:
Cash is required to pay salaries, office expenses and to pay creditors for purchases
Stock of raw materials in adequate quantities to ensure uninterrupted production
Stock of finished goods in sufficient quantities to meet the demand from customers
Debtors, that is, people to whom we sell goods on credit basis for increased sales
Prepaid expenses, that is, the expenses paid in advance such as insurance, rent, salaries and so on
Bill receivable these are the bills of exchange received for the money lent or to be received for a
short period

Current Liabilities:
Creditors, that is, the people from whom we purchase on credit basis
Accruals, that is, those expenses in respect of which, the liability has arisen. In other words, the
expenses have fallen due and hence to be incurred, such as interest, salaries, taxes and so on
Bills payables, these are the bills of exchanges which money is to be paid within a short period.
There are two concepts of working capital:
1. Gross working capital
2. Net working capital
Gross working capital:
In the broader sense, the term working capital refers to the gross working capital. The notion of
the gross working capital refers to the capital invested in total current assets of the enterprise.
Current assets are those assets, which in the ordinary course of business, can be converted into
cash within a short period, normally one accounting year. Examples of current assets:
1. Cash in hand and bank balance
2. Bills receivables or Accounts Receivables
3. Sundry Debtors (less provision for bad debts)
4. Short-term loans and advances.
5. Inventories of stocks, such as:
(a) Raw materials
(b) Work in process
(c) Stores and spares
(d) Finished goods
6. Temporary Investments of surplus funds.
7. Prepaid Expenses
8. Accrued Incomes etc.
Net working capital:
In a narrow sense, the term working capital refers to the net working capital. Networking capital
represents the excess of current assets over current liabilities. Current liabilities are those
liabilities, which are intend to be paid in the ordinary course of business within a short period,
normally one accounting year out of the current assets or the income of the business. Net working
capital may be positive or negative. When the current assets exceed the current liabilities net
working capital is positive and the negative net working capital results when the liabilities are
more then the current assets.
Examples of current liabilities:
1. Bills payable
2. Sundry Creditors or Accounts Payable.
3. Accrued or Outstanding Expanses.
4. Short term loans, advances and deposits.
5. Dividends payable
6. Bank overdraft
7. Provision for taxation etc.

Working Capital Cycle:

Creditors

Bills Payable

Work in Progress

Cash

Finished Goods

Bills Receivable

Debtors

Raw Materials

Cash Sales

Sales

Methods and Sources of Finance

The following are the common methods of finance:

1. Owner funds or ownership capital:

The ownership capital is also known as risk capital because every business runs the
risk of loss or low profits, and it is the owner who bears this risk. In the event of low
profits they do not have adequate return on their investment. If losses continue the
owners may be unable to recover even their original investment. However, in times of
prosperity and in the case of a flourishing business the high level of profits earned
accrues entirely to the owners of the business. Thus, after paying interest on loans at
a fixed rate, the owners may enjoy a much higher rate of return on their investment.
Owners contribute risk capital also in the hope that the value of the firm will appreciate
as a result of higher earnings and growth in the size of the firm.

2. Source of Company finance

Based upon the time, the financial resources may be classified into (1) sources of long term
(2) sources of short term finance. Some of these sources also serve the purpose of medium
term finance.
I. The source of long term finance are:
1. Issue of shares
2. Issue debentures
3. Loan from financial institutions
4. Retained profits and
5. Public deposits
II. Sources of Short-term Finance are:
1. Trade credit
2. Bank loans and advances and
3. Short-term loans from finance companies.
Sources of Long Term Finance
1. Issue of Shares: The amount of capital decided to be raised from members of the public is
divided into units of equal value. These units are known as share and the aggregate values of
shares are known as share capital of the company. Those who subscribe to the share capital
become members of the company and are called shareholders. They are the owners of the
company. Hence shares are also described as ownership securities.
2. Issue of Preference Shares: Preference share have three distinct characteristics. Preference
shareholders have the right to claim dividend at a fixed rate, which is decided according to the
terms of issue of shares. Moreover, the preference dividend is to be paid first out of the net profit.
The balance, it any, can be distributed among other shareholders that is, equity shareholders.

However, payment of dividend is not legally compulsory. Only when dividend is declared,
preference shareholders have a prior claim over equity shareholders. Preference shareholders also
have the preferential right of claiming repayment of capital in the event of winding up of the
company. Preference capital has to be repaid out of assets after meeting the loan obligations and
claims of creditors but before any amount is repaid to equity shareholders. Holders of preference
shares enjoy certain privileges, which cannot be claimed by the equity shareholders. That is why;
they cannot directly take part in matters, which may be discussed at the general meeting of
shareholders, or in the electionof directors.
Depending upon the terms of conditions of issue, different types of preference shares may be
issued by a company to raises funds. Preference shares may be issued as:
1. Cumulative or Non-cumulative
2. Participating or Non-participating
3. Redeemable or Non-redeemable, or as
4. Convertible or non-convertible preference shares.
In the case of cumulative preference shares, the dividend unpaid if any in previous years gets
accumulated until that is paid. No cumulative preference shares have any such provision.
Participatory shareholders are entitled to a further share in the surplus profits after a reasonable
divided has been paid to equity shareholders. Non-participating preference shares do not enjoy
such right. Redeemable preference shares are those, which are repaid after a specified period,
where as the irredeemable preference shares are not repaid. However, the company can also
redeem these shares after a specified period by giving notice as per the terms of issue. Convertible
preference shows are those, which are entitled to be converted into equity shares after a specified
period.
Merits:
Many companies due to the following reasons prefer issue of preference shares as a source of
finance.
1. It helps to enlarge the sources of funds.
2. Some financial institutions and individuals prefer to invest in preference shares due to the
assurance of a fixed return.
3. Dividend is payable only when there are profits.
4. If does not affect the equity shareholders control over management
Limitations:
The limitations of preference shares relates to some of its main features:
1. Dividend paid cannot be charged to the companys income as an expense; hence there is no tax
saving as in the case of interest on loans.
2. Even through payment of dividend is not legally compulsory, if it is not paid or arrears
accumulate there is an adverse effect on the companys credit.
3. Issue of preference share does not attract many investors, as the return is generally limited and
not exceed the rates of interest on loan. On the other than, there is a risk of no dividend being
paid in the event of falling income.
1. Issue of Equity Shares: The most important source of raising long-term capital for a company is
the issue of equity shares. In the case of equity shares there is no promise to shareholders a fixed
dividend. But if the company is successful and the level profits are high, equity shareholders enjoy
very high returns on their investment. This feature is very attractive to many investors even
through they run the risk of having no return if the profits are inadequate or there is loss. They
have the right of control over the management of the company and their liability is limited to the
value of shares held by them.

From the above it can be said that equity shares have three distinct characteristics:
1. The holders of equity shares are the primary risk bearers. It is the issue of equity shares that
mainly provides risk capital, unlike borrowed capital. Even compared with preference capital,
equity shareholders are to bear ultimate risk.
2. Equity shares enable much higher return sot be earned by shareholders during prosperity
because after meeting the preference dividend and interest on borrowed capital at a fixed rate,
the entire surplus of profit goes to equity shareholders only.
3. Holders of equity shares have the right of control over the company. Directors are elected on
the vote of equity shareholders.
Merits:
From the company point of view; there are several merits of issuing equity shares to raise longterm finance.
1. It is a source of permanent capital without any commitment of a fixed return to the
shareholders. The return on capital depends ultimately on the profitability of business.
2. It facilities a higher rate of return to be earned with the help borrowed funds. This is possible
due to two reasons. Loans carry a relatively lower rate of interest than the average rate of return
on total capital. Secondly, there is tax saving as interest paid can be charged to income as a
expense before tax calculation.
3. Assets are not required to give as security for raising equity capital. Thus additional funds can be
raised as loan against the security of assets.
Limitations:
Although there are several advantages of issuing equity shares to raise long-term capital.
1. The risks of fluctuating returns due to changes in the level of earnings of the company do not
attract many people to subscribe to equity capital.
2. The value of shares in the market also fluctuate with changes in business conditions, this is
another risk, which many investors want to avoid.
2. Issue of Debentures:
When a company decides to raise loans from the public, the amount of loan is dividend into units
of equal. These units are known as debentures. A debenture is the instrument or certificate issued
by a company to acknowledge its debt. Those who invest money in debentures are known as
debenture holders. They are creditors of the company. Debentures are therefore called creditor
ship securities. The value of each debentures is generally fixed in multiplies of 10 like Rs. 100 or
Rs. 500, or Rs. 1000. Debentures carry a fixed rate of interest, and generally are repayable after a
certain period, which is specified at the time of issue. Depending upon the terms and conditions of
issue there are different types of debentures. There are:
a. Secured or unsecured Debentures and
b. Convertible of Non convertible Debentures.
It debentures are issued on the security of all or some specific assets of the company, they are
known as secured debentures. The assets are mortgaged in favor of the debenture holders.
Debentures, which are not secured by a charge or mortgage of any assets, are called unsecured
debentures. The holders of these debentures are treated as ordinary creditors.
Sometimes under the terms of issue debenture holders are given an option to covert their
debentures into equity shares after a specified period. Or the terms of issue may lay down that
the whole or part of the debentures will be automatically converted into equity shares of a
specified price after a certain period. Such debentures are known as convertible debentures. If
there is no mention of conversion at the time of issue, the debentures are regarded as nonconvertible debentures.

Merits:
Debentures issue is a widely used method of raising long-term finance by companies, due to the
following reasons.
1. Interest payable on Debentures can be fixed at low rates than rate of return on equity shares.
Thus Debentures issue is a cheaper source of finance.
2. Interest paid can be deducted from income tax purpose; there by the amount of tax payable is
reduced.
3. Funds raised for the issue of debentures may be used in business to earn a much higher rate of
return then the rate of interest. As a result the equity shareholders earn more.
4. Another advantage of debenture issue is that funds are available from investors who are not
entitled to have any control over the management of the company.
5. Companies often find it convenient to raise debenture capital from financial institutions, which
prefer to invest in debentures rather than in shares. This is due to the assurance of a fixed return
and repayment after a specified period.
Limitations:
Debenture issue as a source of finance has certain limitations too.
1. It involves a fixed commitment to pay interest regularly even when the company has low
earnings or incurring losses.
2. Debentures issue may not be possible beyond a certain limit due to the inadequacy
of assets to be offered as security.
Methods of Issuing Securities: The firm after deciding the amount to be raised and the type of
securities to be issued, must adopt suitable methods to offer the securities to potential investors.
There are for common methods followed by companies for the purpose.
When securities are offered to the general public a document known as Prospectus, or a notice,
circular or advertisement is issued inviting the public to subscribe to the securities offered thereby
all particulars about the company and the securities offered are made to the public. Brokers are
appointed and one or more banks are authorized to collect subscription.
Some times the entire issue is subscribed by an organization known as Issue House, which in turn
sells the securities to the public at a suitable time.
The company may negotiate with large investors of financial institutions who agree to take over
the securities. This is known as Private Placement of securities.
When an exiting company decides to raise funds by issue of equity shares, it is required under law
to offer the new shares to the existing shareholders. This is described as right issue of equity
shares. But if the existing shareholders decline, the new shares can be
offered to the public.
3. Loans from financial Institutions:
Government with the main object of promoting industrial development has set up a number of
financial institutions. These institutions play an important role as sources of company finance.
Besides they also assist companies to raise funds from other sources. These institutions provide
medium and long-term finance to industrial enterprises at a reason able rate of interest. Thus
companies may obtain direct loan from the financial institutions for expansion or modernization of
existing manufacturing units or for starting a new unit.
Often, the financial institutions subscribe to the industrial debenture issue of companies some of
the institutions (ICICI) and (IDBI) also subscribe to the share issued by companies.
All such institutions also underwrite the public issue of shares and debentures by companies.
Underwriting is an agreement to take over the securities to the extent there is no public response
to the issue. They may guarantee loans, which may be raised by companies from other sources.
Loans in foreign currency may also be granted for the import of machinery and equipment
wherever necessary from these institutions, which stand guarantee for re-payments. Apart from

the national level institutions mentioned above, there are a number of similar institutions set up
in different states of India. The state-level financial institutions are known as State Financial
Corporation, State Industrial Development Corporations, State Industrial Investment Corporation
and the like. The objectives of these institutions are similar to those of the national-level
institutions. But they are mainly concerned with the development of medium and small-scale
industrial units. Thus, smaller companies depend on state level institutions as a source of medium
and long-term finance for the expansion and modernization of their enterprise.
4. Retained Profits:
Successful companies do not distribute the whole of their profits as dividend to shareholders but
reinvest a part of the profits. The amount of profit reinvested in the business of a company is
known as retained profit. It is shown as reserve in the accounts. The surplus profits retained and
reinvested may be regarded as an internal source of finance. Hence, this method of financing is
known as self-financing. It is also called sloughing back of profits.
Since profits belong to the shareholders, the amount of retained profit is treated as ownership
fund. It serves the purpose of medium and long-term finance. The total amount of ownership
capital of a company can be determined by adding the share capital and accumulated reserves.
Merits:
This source of finance is considered to be better than other sources for the following reasons.
1. As an internal source, it is more dependable than external sources. It is not necessary to
consider investors preference.
2. Use of retained profit does not involve any cost to be incurred for raising the funds. Expenses on
prospectus, advertising, etc, can be avoided.
3. There is no fixed commitment to pay dividend on the profits reinvested. It is a part of risk
capital like equity share capital.
4. Control over the management of the company remains unaffected, as there is no addition to
the number of shareholder.
5. It does not require the security of assets, which can be used for raising additional funds in the
form of loan.
Limitations:
However, there are certain limitations on the part of retained profit.
1. Only well established companies can be avail of this sources of finance. Even for such
companies retained profits cannot be used to an unlimited extent.
2. Accumulation of reserves often attract competition in the market,
3. With the increased earnings, shareholders expect a high rate of dividend to be paid.
4. Growth of companies through internal financing may attract government restrictions as it leads
to concentration of economic power.
5. Public Deposits:
An important source of medium term finance which companies make use of is public deposits.
This requires advertisement to be issued inviting the general public of deposits. This requires
advertisement to be issued inviting the general public to deposit their savings with the company.
The period of deposit may extend up to three yeas. The rate of interest offered is generally higher
than the interest on bank deposits. Against the deposit, the company mentioning the amount, rate
of interest, time of repayment and such other information issues a receipt.
Since the public deposits are unsecured loans, profitable companies enjoying public confidence
only can be able to attract public deposits. Even for such companies there are rules prescribed by
government limited its use.

Sources of Short Term Finance

The major sources of short-term finance are discussed below:
1. Trade credit: Trade credit is a common source of short-term finance available to all companies.
It refers to the amount payable to the suppliers of raw materials, goods etc. after an agreed
period, which is generally less than a year. It is customary for all business firms to allow credit
facility to their customers in trade business. Thus, it is an automatic source of finance. With the
increase in production and corresponding purchases, the amount due to the creditors also
increases. Thereby part of the funds required for increased production is financed by the creditors.
The more important advantages of trade credit as a source of short-term finance are the
following:
It is readily available according to the prevailing customs. There are no special efforts to be made
to avail of it. Trade credit is a flexible source of finance.
It can be easily adjusted to the changing needs for purchases. Where there is an open account for
any creditor failure to pay the amounts on time due to temporary difficulties does not involve any
serious consequence Creditors often adjust the time of payment in view of continued dealings.
It is an economical source of finance.
However, the liability on account of trade credit cannot be neglected. Payment has to be made
regularly. If the company is required to accept a bill of exchange or to issue a promissory note
against the credit, payment must be made on the maturity of the bill or note. It is a legal
commitment and must be honored; otherwise legal action will follow to recover the dues.
2. Bank loans and advances: Money advanced or granted as loan by commercial banks is known
as bank credit. Companies generally secure bank credit to meet their current operating expenses.
The most common forms are cash credit and overdraft facilities. Under the cash credit
arrangement the maximum limit of credit is fixed in advance on the security of goods and
materials in stock or against the personal security of directors. The total amount drawn is not to
exceed the limit fixed. Interest is charged on the amount actually drawn and outstanding. During
the period of credit, the company can draw, repay and again draw amounts with in the maximum
limit. In the case of overdraft, the company is allowed to overdraw its current account up to the
sanctioned limit. This facility is also allowed either against personal security or the security of
assets. Interest is charged on the amount actually overdrawn, not on the sanctioned limit.
The advantage of bank credit as a source of short-term finance is that the amount can be adjusted
according to the changing needs of finance. The rate of interest on bank credit is fairly high. But
the burden is no excessive because it is used for short periods and is compensated by profitable
use of the funds.
Commercial banks also advance money by discounting bills of exchange. A company having sold
goods on credit may draw bills of exchange on the customers for their acceptance. A bill is an
order in writing requiring the customer to pay the specified amount after a certain period (say 60
days or 90 days). After acceptance of the bill, the company can drawn the amount as an advance
from many
commercial banks on payment of a discount. The amount of discount, which is equal to the
interest for the period of the bill, and the balance, is available to the company. Bill discounting is
thus another source of short-term finance available from the commercial banks.
3. Short term loans from finance companies: Short-term funds may be available from finance
companies on the security of assets. Some finance companies also provide funds according to the
value of bills receivable or amount due from the customers of the borrowing company, which they
take over.

Capital Budgeting: It is the process of making investment decision in long-term assets or courses
of action and planning of expenditure and the benefit, which spread over a no. of years
Nature of Capital Budgeting:
1. Generating investment proposals
2. Estimating & Evaluating cash flows
3. Selection of projects
4. Monitoring and Re-evaluating
Scope of Capital Budgeting:
Multi-year
Planning, finance, decision-making, & Implementation
Operating budget impact
Capital Budgeting Process:
1. Project Generation
2. Project Evaluation
3. Project Selection
4. Project execution
Capital budgeting Techniques:
The capital budgeting appraisal methods are techniques of evaluation of investment proposal will
help the company to decide upon the desirability of an investment proposal depending upon
their; relative income generating capacity and rank them in order of their desirability. These
methods provide the company a set of norms on the basis of which either it has to accept or reject
the investment proposal. The most widely accepted techniques used in estimating the costreturns of investment projects can be grouped under two categories.
1. Traditional methods
2. Discounted Cash flow methods
1. Traditional methods
These methods are based on the principles to determine the desirability of an investment project
on the basis of its useful life and expected returns. These methods depend upon the accounting
information available from the books of accounts of the company. These will not take into account
the concept of time value of money, which is a significant factor to determine the desirability of a
project in terms of present value.
A. Pay-back period method: It is the most popular and widely recognized traditional method of
evaluating the investment proposals. It can be defined, as the number of years required to
recover the original cash out lay invested in a project.
According to Weston & Brigham, The pay back period is the number of years it takes the firm to
recover its original investment by net returns before depreciation, but after taxes.
According to James. C. Vanhorne, The payback period is the number of years required to recover
initial cash investment.
The pay back period is also called payout or payoff period. This period is calculated by dividing the
cost of the project by the annual earnings after tax but before depreciation under this method the
projects are ranked on the basis of the length of the payback period. A project with the shortest
payback period will be given the highest rank and taken as the best investment. The shorter the
payback period, the less risky the investment is the formula for payback period is:
Cash outlay (or) original cost of project
Pay-back period =
------------------------------------------Annual cash inflow

Merits:
1. It is one of the earliest methods of evaluating the investment projects.
2. It is simple to understand and to compute.
3. It dose not involve any cost for computation of the payback period
4. It is one of the widely used methods in small scale industry sector
5. It can be computed on the basis of accounting information available from the books.
Demerits:
1. This method fails to take into account the cash flows received by the company after the pay
back period.
2. It doesnt take into account the interest factor involved in an investment outlay.
3. It doesnt take into account the interest factor involved in an investment outlay.
4. It is not consistent with the objective of maximizing the market value of the companys share.
5. It fails to consider the pattern of cash inflows i. e., the magnitude and timing of cash in flows.
B. Accounting (or) Average rate of return method (ARR):
It is an accounting method, which uses the accounting information repeated by the financial
statements to measure the probability of an investment proposal. It can be determine by dividing
the average income after taxes by the average investment i.e., the average book value after
depreciation.
According to Soloman, accounting rate of return on an investment can be calculated as the ratio
of accounting net income to the initial investment, i.e.,
Average net income after taxes
ARR=
----------------------------------------- X 100
Average Investment
Total Income after Taxes
Average net income after taxes = --------------------------------No. Of Years

Average investment

Total Investment
---------------------2

On the basis of this method, the company can select all those projects whos ARR is higher than
the minimum rate established by the company. It can reject the projects with an ARR lower than
the expected rate of return. This method can also help the management to rank the proposal on
the basis of ARR. A highest rank will be given to a project with highest ARR, where as a lowest rank
to a project with lowest ARR.
Merits:
1. It is very simple to understand and calculate.
2. It can be readily computed with the help of the available accounting data.
3. It uses the entire stream of earning to calculate the ARR.
Demerits:
1. It is not based on cash flows generated by a project.
2. This method does not consider the objective of wealth maximization
3. IT ignores the length of the projects useful life.
4. It does not take into account the fact that the profits can be re-invested.

A. DISCOUNTED CASH FLOW METHODS:

Time Value of Money: future value with int.
PV Factor(Discounting factor): Present value factors are used to discount the future cash flows
(both inflows & outflows) to their present value. (PV charts)
1. Net present value methods (NPV):
Def: Ezra Solomon: It is a present value of future returns, discounted at the required rate of
return minus the present value of the cost inflows of the cost if the investment.
Formula:
i)
NPV = (PVCFAT) (PVC)
NPV = Present value of future cash inflows after taxes Present value of actual investment.
Where,
PVCFAT refers to the present value of future cash inflows after taxes.
PVC refers to value of original investment or capital
How to calculate:
From PV factor table, identify the factors of Re.1 for the given discount rate
Multiply the cashflows with corresponding PV factor to find the products
DCF = PV x CFAT
Fond the sum of products (If sum is positive, the project is profitable, if negative, it is not
profitable, In case of projects with different NPVs choose the project with highest NPV.)
NPV > 1 = The project earns more than discount rate
NPV = 1 = The project earns same as discount rate
NPV < 1 = The project earns less than discount rate
2. Internal Rate of Return Method (IIR)
Weston and Brigham: The internal rate is the interest rate that equates the present value of
the expected future receipts to the investment outlay.
From Table:
Project cost
Factor = -------------------------Annual cash inflows
Value compare with PV table
(or)
Formula for exact %:
P1 - Q
IRR = L + --------- X D
P1 P2
Where,
L Lower discount rate
P1 Present value of cash inflows at lower rate.
P2 Present value of cash inflows at higher rate.
Q - Actual investment
D Difference in Discount rates.

3. Probability Index Method (PI)

Def : This method is obtained cloth slight modification of the NPV method. The present value of
cash inflows are divide by the present value of cash out flows, while NPV is a absolute measure,
the PI is a relative measure.
Formula :
Sum of present value of cash inflows
PI =
------------------------------------------------Sum of present value of cash outflows
Value compare with PV table.
Merits:
1. It recognizes the time value of money.
2. It is based on the entire cash flows generated during the useful life of the asset.
3. It is consistent with the objective of maximization of wealth of the owners.
4. The ranking of projects is independent of the discount rate used for determining the present
value.
Demerits:
1. It is different to understand and use.
2. The NPV is calculated by using the cost of capital as a discount rate. But the concept of cost of
capital. If self is difficult to understood and determine.
3. It does not give solutions when the comparable projects are involved in different amounts of
investment.
4. It does not give correct answer to a question whether alternative projects or limited funds are
available with unequal lines.
CAPITAL BUDGETING TECHNIQUES-PROBLEMS
TRADITIONAL METHODS
1. Pay-back period method (PBP):
Formula:
Original cost of the project
PBP = ----------------------------------Annual cash inflows
Ex:1 = Total cost of project=50000
Cash flows for 4 years are: 25000
50000
PBP = --------- = 2 years
25000
Ex:2- Cost of Project: Rs.50000
Life: 5 years
Inflows as follows:
Year
Cash Inflows(Rs.)
Cumulative CI
1
24000
24000
2
26000
50000
3
20000
70000
4
17000
87000
5
16000
103000

Ex:3 A company considering 2 capital budgeting proposals. Life: 6 years

Cash flows are:
Year
A: Cash flows (Cr.) B. Cash flows(Cr.)
100
100
1
50
20
2
40
20
3
20
20
4
10
20
5
20
6
20
Sol:
Year A: Cash
Cum. A
B. Cash
Cum. B
flows
flows
1
50
50
20
20
2
40
90
20
40
3
20
110
20
60
4
10
120
20
80
5
20
100
6
20
120
A = 2 years + (10/20) = 2.5 years
B = 5 years

2. Average/Accounting rate of return method (ARR)

Avg. net income after taxes
ARR = ------------------------------------ X 100
Average Investment
(Actual Investment)
Avg. net income after taxes:
Total Income after taxes
=
-------------------------------No. of years
Total investment
Avg. Investment = ----------------------2
Ex:1: A Company is considering 2 proposals.
Internal cutoff rate is 15%. Which can be acceptable under ARR. If
i) A& B are independent proposals?
ii) A & B are mutually exclusive proposals?
The Expected PAT as follows:
Year
End of year
1
2
3
4
5
6

A (In crores)
100
50
40
20
10
-

B (In crores)
100
20
20
20
20
20
20

Sol:
(50+40+20+10)/4
ARR of A = -------------------------- = 0.30 for 30%
100

(20+20+20+20+20+20)/6
ARR of B = ------------------------------- = 0.20 for 20%
100

A & B are independent proposals:

Since the ARRs exceed the cutoff rate of 15%
A & B are mutually exclusive proposals:
Since the both are exceeded cutoff rate, But A is selected because of higher ARR

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