f f f
+ j +k .
x
y
z
f = i + j + k f .
x
y
z
= i + j + k .
x
y
z
Del
Operation
Result
Operation
Result
Multiply by a scalar a
Aa
Operate on a scalar f
AB
AB
443
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Divergence
Lets first compute the form of the divergence in regular Cartesian coordinates. If we let a random vector
F = Fxi + Fy j + Fz k,
then we define
Fy Fz
F
divF = F = i + j + k Fx i + Fy j + Fz k = x +
+
.
x
y
z
x
y
z
Like any dot product, the divergence is a scalar quantity. Also note that, in
general, div F is a function and changes in value from point to point.
Physical Interpretation of the Divergence
The divergence quantifies how much a vector field spreads out, or diverges,
from a given point P. For example, the figure on the left (Figure B.1) has
positive divergence at P, since the vectors of the vector field are all spreading as they move away from P. The figure in the center has zero divergence
everywhere since the vectors are not spreading out at all. This is also easy
to compute, since the vector field is constant everywhere and the derivative
of a constant is zero. The field on the right has negative divergence since the
vectors are coming closer together instead of spreading out.
FIGURE B.1
Vector Fields
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incompressible. For fluids, we use the velocity vector V to talk about the deformation kinematics. The divergence of the velocity vector tells us about the
volumetric strain rate, and when we have V = 0 we say that the flow is
incompressible. This generally allows us to neglect changes in fluid density
and say that density remains constant (Chapter 8, equation 8.9).
Example
Calculate the divergence of
F = xi + yj + zk .
F =
( x ) + ( y ) + (z ) = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3.
x
y
z
This is the vector field shown on the left om Figure B.1. Its divergence is
constant everywhere.
Curl
We can also compute the curl in Cartesian coordinates. Again, let
F = Fxi + Fy j + Fz k,
and calculate
curl F = F =
x
Fx
y
Fy
F F F F F F
= i z y + j x z + k y x .
y
z
y
z z
x x
Fz
446
right hand at P. Point your fingers toward the tail of one of the vectors of F.
Now curl your fingers around in the direction of the tip of the vector. Stick
your thumb out. Since it points toward the +z axis (out of the page), the curl
has a positive k component.
The second vector field G has no visible swirling tendency at all so we
would expect G = 0 . The third vector field doesnt look like it swirls
either, so it also has zero curl.
FIGURE B.2
Vector Fields
Examples
Example 1
Compute the curl of F = yi + xj .
F =
x
y
y
x
= 2k.
z
0
This is the vector field on the left in Figure B.2. As you can see, the analytical
approach demonstrates that the curl is in the positive k direction, as expected.
Example 2
Compute the curl of H = xi + yj + zk , or H(r) = r.
H =
x
x
y
y
= 0.
z
z
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This, as youve probably guessed, is the vector field on the far right in
Figure B.2.
Laplacian
The divergence of the gradient appears so often that it has been given a special name: the Laplacian. It is written as 2 or and, in Cartesian components, has the form
2 f =
2 f 2 f 2 f
+
+
.
x 2 y 2 z 2
F = Fxi + Fy j + Fz k,
we get
2 F = (2 Fx )i + (2 Fy ) j + (2 Fz )k .