IGORPOLETTI

SILENCE,ROCKS,
GARDENS,DOLPHINS:
THEMUSICOF
TORUTAKEMITSU

SILENCE,ROCKS,GARDENS,DOLPHINS:
THEMUSICOFTORUTAKEMITSU
From Cage I learned life -- or I should say, how to live and the fact that music is not removed from life.
This simple, clear fact has been forgotten. Art and life have become separated, and specialists
are concerned with the skeletons of methodology. Aesthetics led us to music without any relationship
to live sound, mere symbols on paper.
Toru Takemitsu - Writings
INTRODUCTION

Theinitial,despondentproblemconfrontinganyinvestigationofthemusicofanothercultureistoprimarilyunderstandtheaestheticattitudeswhichprevailinthatculture.InthecaseofJapan,thistaskis
madeonlyapparentlyeasierbythehugeavailabilityforstudyofaverylargebodyofJapanesemusic,
playedinitsoriginalsettingandalsoinWesternstyles.BylookingatthecharacteristicwaysaJapanese
composerhandlesthefamiliarmaterialsofWesternmusic,themusicianintheWestcanbegintounderstandtheaestheticattitudesthatunderlieandfinalizeJapanesemusicasawhole.ToruTakemitsu,
oneofJapansleadingcomposersintheWesternstyle,writesmusicwhichisstructuredincyclesona
largeandsmallscaleandinwhichsilencesandthespatialarrangementoftheinstrumentsareoften
criticallyimportantasthenotatedones.
TheseattributesreflecttheJapaneseaestheticconceptofma.Thepresentworkwillbeginwithadiscussionoftheconceptofma andwillthenlookatthreewaysinwhichma canbemanifestedin
music,callingonexamplesfromthemusicofTakemitsu.Intheend,thediscussionofma willmainlyfocussedasadoctrinarybackgroundforananalysisofTakemitsusforemostandmorestructuredpiano
piece,For Away (1973).
THEEMERGINGCONCEPTOFMA

Ma isaneverydaywordfromtheJapaneselanguagemeaningbothspaceandtimeaswellasanumber
ofdifferentshadingsofspaceandtimeincludingthespaceofroomstoliveinandthetimeoftimeto
spare.Ma,asanaestheticconcept,isawayofconceivingofspaceandtimethathasrootsdeepinthe
JapanesepastandcontinuestobereflectedinthebasicconceptsunderlyingJapanesearttoday.Ma,
inthisaestheticsense,isfundamentallydifferentfromtheusualWesternconceptionofseriallyordered
spaceandtime.FortheJapaneseofthepast,spaceandtimewereconceivedofinthesameway,with
noconceptualboundarieswithin.Bothcouldbesuperficiallydefinedasanintervalofmotion.
Thetimebetweenthesettingandrisingofthesun,forinstance,wouldbethoughtofastheinterval
ofwaitingforthesun.TheroadconnectingKyotoandEdo(theoldnameforTokyo)knownastheTokaido,withitsfifty-threestationsorrestingplaces,wouldbethoughtofastheintervalofwalkingorganizedbythestopsforrest.Ma initsaestheticsense,then,referstointervalsofspaceandtimethat
becomemeaningfulonlywhenfilledwithmotion.Theoriginsofthatbecomemeaningfulonlywhen
filledwithmotion.TheoriginsofthisconceptinancientJapanesereligiouspracticeshavebeentraced
byArataIsozakiandaresetforthinhistextsfortheexhibitontheconceptofma entitledMa:Japanese
Time-Space.
Attheheartoftheconceptofma,area....Kamiwerethoughttodescendintosuchenclosedspaces,

whichwereusuallytotallyvacant.Theveryactsofpreparingsuchaspaceandwaitingforkamitodescend
intoithadimmenseinfluenceonlatermodesofspace-timecognition.
Spacewasthoughtofasvoid-likethevacantholyzone-andevenconcreteobjectswerethoughttobe
voidwithin.Kamiwerebelievedtodescendtofillthesevoidswithspiritualforce(chi).Perceivingtheinstant
atwhichthisoccurredbecamedecisivelyimportantforallartisticendeavor.Spacewasperceivedasidentical
witheventsorphenomenaoccurringinit;thatis,spacewasperceivedonly in relation to time flow.
FortheancientJapanese, thereweretwoimportantpartstothereligiousexperiencedescribedinthis
quote.Firstwasthepreparationofanintervalofspacetobeoccupiedbythekami.Secondwasthesetting
asideofanintervaloftimetobespentwaitingforthekamitodescend.Boththespatialandthetemporal
intervalwerethoughttoinvokethemotionsthatfilledthemwithmeaning(thedescentofthekamiorthe
waitingfortheirdescent).Asaresult,emptyintervalsofspaceandtimeingeneralcametobeperceived
asinvitationstosomesortofaction,andallsuchintervalscametobecalledma.IntheproductsofJapanese
art,ma becameameansforinvitingtheactionoftheaudienceasparticipantsintheartwork.
Asanexampleoftheconceptofma expressedinclassicJapanesedesign,considerthefivehundredyear
oldZenRockGardenofRyoan-jiinKyoto.Thisrockgardenconsistsoffifteenlargestonessetoutinfive
smallgroupsinaseaofgraygravel.Thestonesareplacedsothattheviewfromanypointonthebare
deckfacingthegardenisuniqueandnevertakesinallfifteenstonesatonce.Apartfromthis,thereisno
discerniblepatternintheplacementofthestones,andyet,theirarrangementisquiteintentional.Thestones
arethemarkersofaspacedevoidofmeaning,likethevacantspaceoftheancientJapanesereligiousrituals.
Thisspaceremainsmeaninglessuntilsomemotionoccurswithinittogiveitsignificance.Inthecaseofthe
garden,themeaningwillcomenotfromthedescentofkamitofillthevoid,butfromthementalactivityof
somevisitortothegarden.Thefollowingdescription,fromanarticleonthegardenbyEliotDeutsch,capturesperfectlythema-likeemptinessoftheRockGardenofRyoan-jiwhichinvitesthevisitortofillitwith
meaning:
[The garden] tells us that we will find neither an abyss from which we must flee, nor a radiant splendor that
will enrapture us: beyond that it tells us no more. It is an invitation to contemplation.

Ma,therefore,referstoemptyintervalsofspaceortimethatinvitesomesortofactiontofillthemwith
meaning.ThepervasivenessofthisconceptinJapanesecultureisattestedtobytheexamplesofma that
aboundinsomanyareasofJapaneseartanddailylife.Thetraditionalsumiepainter, forinstance, paints
onlypartofthecanvas,leavingemptyspacetobefilledwithmeaningbytheviewer.Thepercussionistin
thendramaisamasteratthedramaticuseofsilencetoinvolvetheaudienceinaperformance.Ananalogoustechniqueisseeninthepoeticformofhaiku,whichisthoughttocommunicatemorethroughwhat
itleavesoutthanthroughwhatitexplicitlystates. EventtheJapanesehomeusuallyhasatouchofma in
thesmall,barealcovecalledatokonomawhichisthoughttodrawthefamilytogethermuchlikethehearth
ofanAmericanhome. Itisnowonder, inlightofallthis, thatma isreflectedinJapanesemusicaswell. In
themusicofTakemitsu,itisafundamentalpartofthemusicalstructure.

MA ANDTHEMUSICOFTAKEMITSU,ANDTHEDOLPHINS

ToruTakemitsuwasbornin1930andraisedinTokyoinamusicalculturewhichhadbeenstronglyinfluencedbyWesternideasandstylesofcompositionsincethemidnineteenthcentury.
Takemitsuwasprimarilyself-taughtwithmanysourcestocreditforhisuniquevoice.Hischoicetobecome
acomposerhappenedlaterinlife.However,hismusicalinfluencesbeganinchildhoodthroughlisteningto
hisfathersextensivejazzandDixielandrecordcollection.Asaresultofthisexposure, almostallofhis

musichasanelementofjazzincludingrhythmic,melodic,andharmonicinflections.Whenhewassevenhe
livedwithhisAunt,whowasaKotoinstructor.1WhiletherehewasexposedtoEasterninstrumentsand
music.However,TakemitsuclaimshisexposuretoJapanesemusicwasmuchlater:Shortlyafterthewar,I
studiedWesternmusic;aftertenyearsIdiscoveredJapanesetraditionalmusic,whichconfusedme.Itappearsthatthetwomostprominentelementsinhismusicweresetinmotionduringhisyouth.Themain
reasonwhyTakemitsucametoJapanesemusiclaterisadirectresultofWorldWarII,whichhadahugeimpactonJapaneseculture.Attheageoffourteenheserved,reluctantly,intheJapanesemilitary.Duringhis
servicehewasstationedinadugoutbaseinthemountainswestofTokyo.
Japanwasanticipatinganinvasionandhadmanytroopsstationedinruralareas.Hehadlimitedexposure
tomusic, especiallyfromtheWest, sinceonlypatrioticsongswereallowedunderthemilitaryregimeof
Japan.
However,asatypeofrewardfortheirhardworkandsacrifice,anofficertookallthechildren-soldiersinto
abackroomandplayedvariouspiecesofmusicfromthewestonarecordplayerwithabambooneedle.
OnerecordthathadanimpactontheyoungTakemitsuwasofLucienneBoyersingingParlez-MoidAmour.
ThisexposurewasanimportantcatalystthatprepotentlypushedTakemitsutowardscomposition;hedubbedthisexperienceasthebirthofhismusicalconsciousness.
AccordingtoTakemitsu, hisstimulusforbecomingacomposerwastheresultofhearingabroadcastof
CesarFrancksPrelude,ChoralandFugueforpianoononeoftheU.S.armedforcesnetworkradiostations.
Afterhearingtheradiobroadcastofthispiece,hewasstruckprofoundlybythequalityofwesterninstrumentalmusic:Ihaddiscoveredasecondkindofmusic,namelytheinstrumental,theabsolutekind.InJapan,
wordandsoundcannotbeseparated.ButhereIwashearinganinstrumentbeingplayedaloneandawakeningastonishingfeelingsinme.Itseemedtomelikeasongofpeace,aprayeroranaspiration,afterIhad
livedthroughsomuchsuffering...Atthatmoment,Idecidedtobecomeacomposer.TheU.S.militaryalso
setupreeducationlibrariesthatTakemitsuusedtostudyscoresbymanywesterncomposers.According
tothecomposer, thefiguresinwesternmusicthatinfluencedhimthemostwereFaure, Debussy, Ravel,
andMessiaen.
Later, American composer John Cage had an impact on his music and philosophical ideas.
WhendiscussingTakemitsusinfluencesfromthewest,Frenchmusicremainstheconstantfocalpoint.The
musicofDebussyprevailsasthemostprominent.Hestated:IlearnedmuchfromthemusicofDebussy.
(Ofcourse, Istudiedinmyownway, butIthinkofhimasmygreatmentor.)Unliketheorchestrationof
Germancomposers,thatofDebussyhasmanymusicalfocuses.Ofcourse,hewasEuropeanwithsensibilities
differentfrommine, yethelearnedfrombothJapanandtheWest, andhisindividualitycreatedaunique
senseoforchestration.AndthatiswhatIlearnedfromhim.
Takemitsuoftenreferstohimselfasaself-taughtcomposer.However,hedidmeetwithJapanesecomposer
YasujiKiyoseformusiclessons.InSeptember1951,Takemitsuandeightofhiscolleaguesdecidedtoform
anew
artisticalliance.Theycreatedaneworganizationso-calledastheExperimentalWorkshop(Jikken Kobo),
whichbecameafeatureontheJapaneseavant-gardesceneforthenextsixyears.Yetfromthisseminalorganization,nomoredifferentfromastudentfraternity,stemminghisaestheticapproachtospaceandtime,
morelaterintenselydeveloped, inhismusicoftenresultsinarrangementsofsoundsthathavemorein
commonwiththeintentionallynon-expressiverocksofRyoan-jithanwiththepurposefularrangementsof
mostWesternmusic.
ForTakemitsu,soundstakeonmeaningonlythroughtheactionofthelistener,notthroughthecomposer
ortheperformer.Thecomposerandperformerareleftwiththetaskofallowingsoundstoreachthe
listenerinaspure(i.e., uninterrupted)aformaspossible.ThisviewcomespoignantlyoutclearlyinTakemitsus
statementsabouthisaimsasacomposer:
What I want to do is not to put sounds in motion towards a goal by controlling them.
Rather, I would prefer to let them free, if possible, without controlling them.
For me, it would be enough to gather the sounds around me and then gently put them in motion.
To move the sounds around the way you drive a car is the worst thing you

Andagain:

can do with them.

My musical form is the direct and natural result which sounds themselves impose,
and nothing can decide beforehand the point of departure. I do not in any way try
to express myself through these sounds, but, by reacting with them,
the work springs forth itself.

Anequaldevotiontoproducingfree, unfetteredsoundsisrequiredoftheperformer.Thisisonereason
whyTakemitsuisinterestedinwritingmusicfortraditionalJapaneseinstruments.Afterhisfirstexperience
withwritingforthebiwa,forinstance,Takemitsuwasstruckbythequalityofsoundthatcouldbeproduced:
Now I became aware of how much in incessant training in Japanese traditional music
meant. Strictly abiding only by the manner transmitted according to tradition, the
player only twangs on the sound handed down by word of mouth.
This can be thought of as a very narrow and destitute world, but all the more because of that,
the freedom of the resulting sound is great and strong.

Theconstraintsimposedbyacenturiesoldtraditionallowthebiwatoproduceasoundthatisfreefrom
alllimitationsofaparticularplayerspersonalityorplayingtechniques.
TakemitsudemandsasimilardisciplinefromplayersonWesterninstruments;forinstance,whenherefers
toperformingastranscending the bodytoallowmusictoemerge.
Thus,forTakemitsu,bothcomposersandperformersareexpectedtoallowsoundstobethemselves,to
developnaturally,unencumberedbyanypersonalexpressiveaims.Withtheirexpressivetrappingsstripped
away,musicalsoundsbecomeliketherocksofaJapaneserockgarden,tellingthelistenernothing,but
inviting,throughtheemptyspacestheydefine,actionsfromthelistenerthatfillthemwithmeaning.Thelistenermustbecomeinvolvedindiscoveringwhatsoundsthemselvescanreveal, orthema -theempty
spaceamongthesounds-willremainmeaninglessvoids.Ma makesitpossibleforacomposertonotate
soundsonpaperwithoutdefiningtheirmeaning;effectively,residinginthisdomain,withMa thereisnonecessityatalltonotatesomething,asthemusicflowsrelentlesslywithnocodificationbuttheoneofthebeholder.Inthissense,ma canbeseenasanalternativetothechanceproceduressomecomposersemploy
to remove themselves from the activities of the sounds they make.
Usinganddeclinatingma,thecomposerisabletodistributesoundsintimeandspacesothattheyaresurroundedbyanemptinessthatinvitesratherthanconveysinterpretationsoftheirmeaning.Soundscome
tobeheardintheirfullpotentialassoundsratherthanasvehiclesforhumanexpression.
Whendenotationisprimaryandconnotationsecondaryanadditionalsystemwouldbenecessaryif
experimentalorotherwiseatypicalvisualormusicalinformationisintroducedasan
eitherdenotedorconnotedelement-asignifier-signifiedrelationshipwithoutthesignification;inTakemitsu
theconceptofdenotationitselfisbalancing.
ThesearchforspecificexamplesofmainTakemitsusmusicmustbeginwithabetterunderstandingof
howmaisexpressedinJapanesecultureingeneral.FortheJapanese,allofthefollowingwouldserve
equallywellasdefinitionsofma:emptyintervalsmarkedoutbyobjectsinspace(e.g.,theemptyintervals
markedoutbytherocksatRyoan-ji); edgeswheretwodifferentworldsmeet(e.g., theedgeseparating
thevacantholyzoneofthekamifromtheoutsideworld);pausesbetweensuccessiveevents(e.g.,therest
stopsonthewalkfromKyototoEdo)....
Thelistcouldgoonandon,butthesethreedefinitionsareespeciallyinterestingbecausetheyeachhave
clearcounterpartsinTakemitsusmusic.Inthefollowingpages,thesedefinitionsofmawillbeexploredfur-

therwithreferencetospecificpiecesbyTakemitsu,andtheunderstandingobtainedofmawillthenbe
appliedtoananalysisofTakemitsuspianopieceFor Away.
ThestructureofForAwaywillbefoundtodepend,ateverylevel,onintervalsof ma.
Thefirstdefinitionofmatobeconsideredismaasanemptyintervalinspacebetweentwoormorethings
thatinvitesmotion,contemplation,orsomeotherformofhumanactivitytogiveitmeaning.Thisdefinition
ofmahassomeclaimstobeingthemostbasicofthethreesinceitbearscloserresemblancetotheorigins
ofthewordintheancientJapanesereligiousrituals.RecallhowtheancientJapanesemarkedoutanempty
spacewhichwasthoughttoinvitethedescentoftheirkami.Inthesameway,Takemitsuusesunusualspatial
arrangementsinhismusictoinvitethelistenertoenterintotheemptyspacesbetweenthesounds.These
spatialarrangementscanbeaccuratelydescribedintermsofma,asTakemitsuhimselfhasconfirmed.
Anexampleofthisfirstmeaningofma canbefoundinTakemitsuspieceDistance (1972),writtenforthe
oboistHeinzHolligerandscoredforoboeandsho,atraditionalJapaneseinstrumentoftheGagakuorchestra.
Inhisinstructionstotheperformers,Takemitsuaskstheoboisttostandclosetotheaudiencewiththesho
playerbehindtheoboeandasfartothebackofthestageaspossible.Theaimofthisarrangementcanbest
beunderstoodbycontrastingitwithamoretypicalwayinwhichWesterncomposershaveusedspace.
Whereasacomposermightcommonlypositioninstrumentsinvariousareasofastageorconcerthallto
allowthesoundtoconvergeonthelistenerfromdifferentangles,Takemitsuhasconfirmedthathisaimin
Distancewastoinvolvethelistenerinthemusicinadifferentway,bysettingupaspatialarrangementwhich,
inonecriticswords,forces[thelistener]tocreateanactivespace(themaofJapaneseaesthetics)between
thetwoinstruments.Thelisteneristhusputinapositionwherehemustparticipateactivelytocreatethis
virtualspacewherethesoundeventsthatrelatethetwoinstrumentshappen.
TakemitsusconceptionoftheemptyspaceinDistance issimilartotheconceptionofspacefoundinthe
RockGardenofRyoan-ji.LiketherocksatRyoan-ji,thesoundsourcesinDistancemerelymarkoutan
emptyspacewhich,initself,tellsthelistenernothing.Itisonlythelistenerswillingnesstobecomeaparticipant
inthemusic,throughcontemplation,thatfillsthespacewithmeaning.TakemitsususeofaWesternandaJapaneseinstrumentinDistancepointstoasecondwayinwhichmacanberealizedthroughmusicalmaterials.
ThejuxtapositionoftheWesternoboeandJapaneseshomightatfirstseemparadoxical,inlightofTakemitsus
strongfeelingsaboutthedifferencesthatseparatethesoundworldsofJapanandtheWest:
Japanese instruments, for example the biwa [zither] and the shakuhachi
[end-blown bamboo flute] produce sounds that are very vivid and near to man. The moment I hear
one of these sounds I see a whole world before me: this is music for me. When I hold such an instrument
in my hands and play it, I am nearer to the essence of music than when I compose something new for this instrument. On the other hand, the sound of European instruments is already very abstract
(removed from nature).
The two categories of sound belong to different worlds.

Bycombingthesetwoworldsinthesamecomposition,however,Takemitsuasksthelistenertobecomeinvolvedinhismusicinanewway,asthemediuminwhichtwootherwisedisconnectedworldscometogether.
Thelistenerbecomesakindofbridge,linkingseparateworldsofsound.Theseconddefinitionofmawewill
consider,then,ismaasanintervaloredgebetweenseparateworldswaitingtobebridged.Theintervalin
DistanceseparatingthesoundworldsofJapanandtheWest, waitingtobebridgedbythelistener, isone
example;butsoistheintervalbetweentheworldsofnatureandofman.TheoriginalmeaningoftheJapanese
wordforbridge,hashi,wasnotsomuchabridgeinthephysicalsense,asabridgingofthemabetweentwo
worlds.HereishowArataIsozakiexplainstherelationshipbetweenthewordshashiandma:
Anedgewasconceivedofastheedgeofoneworld, implyingtheexistenceofanotherworldbeyondit.
Anythingthatcrossed,filled,connectedorprojectedintotheinterimmabetweentwoedgeswascalleda
hashiIsozakiexpandsfurtherontheJapaneseconceptofedgesembodiedinthewordma:

Originally, ma meant the distance between two points. Later it came to indicate
a space surrounded by walls on four sides - that is, a room. As this development of the
meaning of the word ma suggests, living spaces may originally have been walless,
empty zones with a post in each of the four corners

Thisconceptofroomswithoutwalls,orrather,roomsinwhichthewallsareopeningsintoother
worlds,isechoedinthefollowingstatementbyTakemitsu:
Nature must be part of music as it is part of a Japanese house. In the West you build
houses with walls to separate you from nature. You cut windows in rooms and see
nature like paintings in a frame. That is wrong.

Byincorporatingdifferenttypesofsoundsinhismusic,amongthemthesoundsofnature,Takemitsu
invitesthelistenertoovercomethewallsthatareoftenerectedbetweendifferentworldsofsound.
Thenextmusicalexample,Stanza II (1971)forharpandtape,createsanenvironmentwherethe
soundsofnaturemeetwiththreeotherdistincttypesofsound:soundsoftheharp,electronicsounds,
andsoundsofhumanactivity.Thepieceopenswiththeharpmusicunfoldingaboveelectronicsounds
thatdevelopintoaslowlywaveringdrone. Later, thesoundsofnature(birdsong)andaroomfulof
humanactivityareaddedinanarrangementofsoundtypeswhichmightatfirstseemtomakeno
moresensethanthearrangementofstonesintheRockGardenofRyoan-ji.Yet,asatRyoan-ji,itisthis
veryarrangementthatinvitesthelistenertoenterintothemabetweenthedifferentsounds.There
arenoimpassablewallsbetweenthesesounds-onlyedges,waitingtobecrossedbythehashiinthe
mindsoflisteners.Takemitsuavoidsgivinggreaterdefinitiontothisarrangementofsoundtypes,preferringinsteadtoleaveittolistenerstofindtheirownmeaninginthemaoredgeswherethefourdifferentsoundworlds-harp,electronics,nature,andmanmeet.Inthisexample,ma hasbeenseento
arisefromtheedgesbetweencontrastingsoundworlds.Asimilarconceptionofmawasseeninthe
combinationofJapaneseandWesterninstrumentsinDistance,butDistancealsoshowedhowmacan
arisefromaspatialseparationbetweensoundsources.Inbothofthesepieces,theuseofmaprovides
thelistenerwithaninvitationtobecomeactivelyinvolvedinthesoundworldofthemusic.Thethird
meaningofthewordmaremindsusthatthesilence worldofapieceofmusicdemandsthelisteners
activecontemplationaswell.
Macanbeavoidmomentofwaitingbetweentwoevents,or(quotingfromtheIwanamiDictionary
ofAncientTerms),thenaturalpauseorintervalbetweentwoormorephenomenaoccurringcontinuously.Thismanifestationofmaoriginated, onceagain, intheancientJapaneseritualofinvitingthe
kamitodescendtoearth.RecallhowIsozakidescribesthisritual:theintervalbetweenthemarkingoff
oftheholyspaceandthedescentofthekamitofillthatspacewasoneofintenseandquietwaiting.
RecurrencesoftheseintervalsofwaitingorganizedthepaceoflifeinmuchthesamewayastheplacementofsteppingstonesleadingtoaJapaneseteahouseorganizesthebreathingrhythmoftheone
whotraversesthem.Cyclicphenomenafootstepsoverstones,thetollingofatemplebell,therecurringdescentsofthekamiareallseriesofeventsconnectedbyperiodsofquietandintensewaiting.
Sound,too,ispartofacyclethatincludesperiodsofintensewaiting:periodsof
silence.InthecyclesofTakemitsusmusic,silenceisjustasimportantanelementas
sound:
Every living thing has its sound and cycle. . . . Music, too, is a permanent
oscillation,
developing with silent intervals of irregular duration between the sounds,
like thelanguage of dolphins.

Figure 1
Tomakethevoidofsilenceliveistomakelivetheinfinityofsounds.Soundsandsilenceareequal....
Iwouldliketoachieveasoundasintenseassilence.
Silenceinmusicorganizesthebreathingrhythmsofperformersinobviousways. Inthenextmusical
example,TakemitsusGarden Rain (1974)fortenbrassinstruments,thebreathingrhythmsoftheperformersareexactlyattunedtothebreathingrhythmsofthemusicbecausetemposaretobechosen
onthebasisofhowlongtheopeningprogressionsoftwoorafewchordscanbesustainedinasingle
breath(Fig. 1).

Figure 2
Silencesoccurbetweentheadjacentprogressions,providingintervalsduringwhichtheplayerscanbreatheaswellasintervalsofmatobebridgedbythelistener.Thelengthsofthesilencesareadjustedtobe
roughlyinproportiontothelengthsofthephrasesthatfollow(phrasesof12,14,13,181/2,and24time
unitsareprecededbysilencesof11/2,2,2,3,and4units,respectively).Inthewaythattheydrawthelistenerintothecyclesofsound,thesilencesinGardenRainbecomemomentsofthemostintensecommunication.Takemitsueventriestoincludethesilencethatprecedesthestartofthemusicandfollows
itsendaspartofthecycleofthepiecebyinstructingthatthefirstsoundistoenterppppandwithout
any

accentandthelastistodieawayfor4+timeunits!
Thema orsilentintervalsofwaitingbetweenthephrasesinthisexample,requirethelistenertomake
connectionsandbecomepartofthecyclesofthemusic.CyclesaremanifestedinGardenRaininanumberofotherwaysaswell.Theoverallformofthepiececouldbedescribedinlettersasabcbca.Fig. 2
showstheendingofthepiece,specificallythesecondcsectionandthereturntothesustainedchordsof
theasection.Noticehowthebeginningphraseplayedbythemutedfirsttrumpetisechoedfourtimes
atsuccessivelycloserintervalsintheotherinstruments.Thisisfollowedbytwobriefstatementsofthe
chordprogressionsfromthebeginning,whichbringthepiecetoaclose.
TheimagepointsoutthecyclesinTakemitsusmusiconanumberofdifferentlevels:eachstatementof
themutedtrumpetmelodycompletesacyclethatwasinitiatedwiththeprecedingstatement;thereturn
ofthecyclesofsustainedchordsconnectedbysilenceisitselftheendofalargercyclecoveringthepiece
asawhole;andthereturnofsilence(orrather,theambientsoundoftheroom)attheendofthepiece
completesacycleencompassinghigherleveleventsthatoccurredbeforethepiecebeganandafterit
ended.Theperceptionofacycleinthislattersenseisreinforcedbytheinstructionsforenteringand
dyingawayatthebeginningandendofthepiece.Iwouldliketosuggestthateachofthesecyclesconsists
ofpairsofeventsconnectedbyperiodsofquiet(notnecessarilysilentordevoidofsoundsatall)waiting
whichdependfortheirmeaningonthebridgesbuiltinthemindofthelistener.Inthisway,theyallreflect
theaestheticqualityofma,thequalityofintervalsinvitinghumaninvolvement.
MA PARTICLES,IFANY,INTHEPIANOPIECEFOR AWAY

Wehavetracedtheconceptofma throughthreedifferentmanifestationsinTakemitsusmusic:maachievedthroughspatialseparationofinstrumentsinaspecialway(thefront/backseparationofDistance),ma
achievedthroughjuxtapositionsofdifferentsoundworlds(theJapaneseandWesternsoundworldsof
Distanceortheelectronic,natural,human,andharpisticsoundworldsofStanzaII),andmaachieved
throughintervalsofsilencebetweensounds(thesilencesofGardenRain).Justamomentago,Isuggested
thatthislastmeaningofthewordma canincludeintervalsofcontrastbetweenrecurrencesofsimilar
soundevents.Iwouldliketoshowhowconstruingmainthiswayhelpstomakesenseofthestructure
ofTakemitsusmusic, evenwhenspatialseparations, timbraldifferences, orsilencesdonotseemtobe
operatinginanyobviousway.
For Away (1973)forpiano,hasonlyoneeighthnoteofsilenceinitsentirelength,and,becauseitisasolo
piece,cannotmakeuseofthekindsofspatialandtimbralseparationsfoundinDistanceandStanzaII.Yet,
inexpandingthethirdmeaningofmatoincludeintervalsofcontrastaswellasintervalsofsilencebetween
recurringevents, wecanfindexamplesofmaoperatingoneverylevelofForAway. Ofcourse, inthis
sense,anypieceofmusicwhichmakesuseofrepetitionsofeventsseparatedbyintervalsofcontrasting
events(anysonataformmovementbyMozartorHaydn,forexample)canbesaidtohavetheaesthetic
qualityofma.InForAway,though,theserepetitionsofeventsconnectedinthemindsofthelistenersare
theprincipalmeansusedtotietogetherthemusiconbothasmallandlargescale.Forpurposesofthis
study,thesekindsofrepetitionswillbereferredtoascyclesoroscillations.
Letusbeginonaverysmallscale.InFig. 3,whichistheopeningofFor Away,themusicIhaveenclosedin
thefirstboxconsistsofacycledescendingfromandreturningtoB.TherepetitionoftheBisanevent
easilyconnectedinthelistenersmindthroughthebriefcollectionofinterveningnotes. However, this
cyclealsocontainsthegermofasecondcyclewhichextendstotheendofthefirstline,therepetitions
ofEsandBsthatslowlydieaway.ThisentirefirstlineconstituteswhatIwillcallagroup,thatis,simply,
themusicoccurringbetweenanytwosolidbarlines(evans-like?).
Stillathird,andlarger,cyclecanbeseentobeinitiatedintheboxinthisfirstgroup.TheC,whichinthe
availablerecordingsofthispieceneverseemtoendureaslongasthescoreindicates,isrepeatedasthe
firstnoteofthesecondgroup,againinvitinglistenerstobuildintheir
mindsthementalbridgethattiesthegroupstogether.Allsuchrepetitionsofnotesinthe

Figure 3

sameregister,otherthantheconstantlyrecurringEsandBs,havebeenmarkedonthefigurewithdotted
arrows.Thinkofthesearrowsashashiorbridges,ifyoulike,whichyoubuildinyourmindasyoulistento
thepiece.NotethatTakemitsudrawshisowndottedlineconnectingthetwoCsinthefirstandsecond
lines.Wehaveseenhowtheconceptofmatiestogetherboththefirstmotiveandthefirstgroupasa
whole,andwehavebeguntoseehowmatiesthefirstgrouptothesecond.Stayingnowwiththishigher
level,wecanobservethatthereareothercyclesclearlydefinedbyrepetitionsofelementsbetweenthese

firsttwogroups.Theboxinthesecondgroupenclosesamotiveanalogoustotheoneinthefirst:that
is,anoscillationinitiatingamotionthatdiesawayintherestofthegroup.TheE/B repetitionsofthe
firstgroupreappearaspartofthisdyingaway.NoticehowthepeculiardynamicofthesecondD in
thisline,mpinacontextofgraduallydyingawayps,makessensewhenthenoteisseen
asconnectedtothelouderD earlierinthegroupratherthanthenotesthatimmediatelysurround
it.TheoneproblematicelementinthissecondgroupisthehighAintroducedalongwiththesecond
D . However, asthearrowshows, thisinitiatesacyclethatconnectsthesecondgrouptothethird.
ThethirdgroupisinmanywaystheleasttypicalofthefivethatIseeasmakingupthefirsthalfofthe
openingsectionofFor Away. Itstempoisdifferent; althoughitcontainsamotiveroughlysimilartothe
boxedmotivesintheearliergroups,themotiveislocatedinthemiddleofthegroupratherthanatthe
beginning;andtheoscillatingrepetitionsoftheEsandBshavedisappeared.Itsoverallshapecould
indeedbecharacterizedasacycleawayfromandbacktothehighCandA, buttheveryfactofthis
groupsbeingatypicalhelpstogiveshapetothefirstfivegroupsasawhole,becausetheelementsthat
disappearingroup3reappearingroups4and5.
Bynow,itisprobablybecomingapparenttoyouhowthisprocessworks.Everypairofgroupsisbridged
togetherbythecyclicrepetitionofatleastoneprominentAccordingtomyinterpretation,theopening
selectionofForAwayconsistsofeightgroupsdividedintosub-sectionsoffiveandthreegroupsrespectively.Thefirstsubsectionendsinthemiddleofpage2(bottomlineofFig. 3)andthesecondcarries
tothemiddlelineofpage3.
Inaddition,everynote,saveone,inthefirstfivegroupsisinvolvedinsomekindofcycleofrepetitions
whichmustbebridgedinthemindofthelistener.Eitherthenoteispartofoneoftheboxedmotives,
oritisrepeatedatsomesmallorlargeintervalinthesameregister.Theoneexceptiontothisrule,the
highFinthefourthline,couldconceivablybeacopyistserror(shoulditbeanAandthereforebetied
totheearlierAinthesameregister?),or,lesslikely,itmayberelatedtosomeFsandBsthatoccurtogetherlaterinthesecondhalfofthissection(notinthesameregister,however).
BeforeleavingthisfirstsectionofForAwaytolookattheoverallstructureofthepiece,Iwouldliketo
pointoutanotherthingthatinvitesthelistenertotietogetherthemusicoftheseopeninggroups:one
ofthemostprominentaudiblefeaturesofthefirstfivegroupsisthetritoneoscillationthatresultsfrom
thefrequentrepetitionofthenotesEandB. Inthefourthgroupanewtritoneappears, consistingof
thenotesFandC.
Thesenotes, alongwithE, willbecomethemostprominentrecurringnotesinthethreegroupsthat
makeupthelasthalfoftheopeningsectionofForAway(groups6through8,notshownonfigure3).
TheshiftfromanE/BoscillationtooscillationsinvolvingF, B, andCisoneofthemostobviousthings
markingthedivisionoftheopeningofFor Away intotwolargehalves.
ThisexamplefromtheopeningofForAwayhasshownhowtheconceptofmacanbeexpandedto
helpexplainthewayTakemitsusmusicistiedtogetheronasmallscale. Fig. 4 summarizeslarger-scale
patternsofrepetitioninForAwaythatcallonthelistenertomakeconnectionsaswell. Sectionsof
similarmusicareplaced,inthefigure,onthesamehorizontallevel.Onlythebeginningsofsectionsare
shown, togiveanideaofthemotivic, rhythmic, andharmoniccharacterofeachtypeofsection.The
orderofeventsinthepieceisshowninthefigureasprogressingfromlefttorightaccordingtothetime
scaleatthebottomofthepage.Thefirstsectionofthepieceisthelasttorecur,requiringthelongest
hashiormentalbridge.Theothersectionsrecuratsuccessivelyshorterintervals. Fromthefigure, itis
clearthattheoverallshapeofForAwayisitselfacycleorarch,requiringatleastthreedifferentlevels
ofconnectioninthelistenersmind.Sothatwedontforgetthemanysmalllevelsofbridgesinthepiece,
thefirstexamplesofeachtypeofsectionaremarkedtoshowtheseaswell.
Youcanseeinthisfiguretheextremesintherangeofcyclesofrepetitionthatinvolvethelistenerin
makingconnectionsoneverylevelofthemusic,fromconnectionsbetweentwocloselyrecurringnotes
toconnectionsinvolvingsectionsrepeatingatwideintervals.Inbeingthehashithatmakestheseconnections,thelistenerbecomesanessentialpartofthesoundcyclesthatmakeupTakemitsusmusic.
Apartthesoundcycles,itsimportantthemention,inTakemitsumusicalworld,thepictorialandgra-

Figure 4

phicapproachthatunderliesallhiscompositions,andinparticularthespecialattentionhepaystothe
methodsofdrawingusedintheukiyoe prints;ukie artistsutilizedaWesternmethodoflinearperspective
thatwasintroducedtoJapanatthattime.

TAKEMITSUSMUSIC,THEROCKSANDTHERETURNOFTHEDOLPHINS

Wehaveseenhowtheconceptofma -emptyintervalsinvitingbutnotnecessarilyimplyinghumaninvolvement-isreflectedinTakemitsusmusicthroughemptyspacesinvitingcontemplation,edgesbetween
worldsrequiringaconnectingbridgeorhashi,andpausesorvoidmomentsbetweeneventscallingfor
concentratedwaiting.Further,wehaveseenhowmacanhelptomakesenseofthestructureofTakemitsusmusiconmanydifferentlevels.MaimpartsaspecialqualitytoTakemitsusmusicwhichdistinguishes
itfrommostWesternmusic.Thereisasensethatthemusicprogressesnotsomuchthroughtheplaying
outoflarge-scaledirectedmotionsinmeasuredtimeasthroughthesuccessionofirregularspacingsbetweenrecurringsoundevents.Themusicsoundstimeless,non-developmental,arrhythmic,fullofspace..
..AllofthesetraitsserveasremindersthatTakemitsusmusic,inspiteofitsmanypointsofcontactwith
theWest,retainsasenseofmotionwhichisfirmlyrootedinJapanesewaysofconceivingofspaceand
time.
DescriptionsofJapanesetraditionalmusicarefullofattemptstodepictinwordsthesenseofmotionin
Japanesemusic.WilliamMalmsdescriptionofGagaku (literallyelegantorcelebrativemusic-themusic
oftheImperialcourt)asmovingfrompillartopillarofinstrumentaltime-markingsoundcouldbeextendedtocoverJapanesemusicasawhole.
Everysoundorcombinationofsoundsstandsonitsownlikeapillar,andthereislittlemorethanempty
spacelinkingonepillartothenext.Yet,totheJapanesetheemptyspaceisjustasimportantasthepillars
ofsound.HisaoKwanze,oneofJapansforemostsingersandactorsofthendrama,usedtostressto
hisstudentsthecreativefunctionofthisemptyspaceinnmusic:Inthemusicaswellasinactingthe
pauseisneveralesseningofintensity, butonthecontrarytheprojectionofhighestintensityintothe
emptyspaceofthepause.ThesewordsechowhatwasstatedbyZeami, themasterofn, overfive
centuriesearlier:Wherethereisnoactionistheintervalbetweentwoperformances.Tomaketheintervalinteresting,itisnecessarytomaintainthespiritthatconnectsthetwoperformanceswithoutrelaxingthetension.Tothatend, onemustpayattentiontoallthespellsbetweenbreathsofanutai[n
song]andbetweenwordsandactionswithoutrelievingthetension....
One must unite the space between two performances by the spirit, in a state
of perfect selflessness, a state in which there is no concern for oneself.

Japaneseinterestinwherethereisnoaction.Thisattitudeisreflectedmostobviouslyintheincreased
importanceofsilenceincontemporarymusic,butitisseenaswellinanurgetowardsself-effacement
whichleadsmanycomposerstoadopttechniquesofchanceorofmathematicalprecisioninorderto
solvethedilemmaofhowtonotatesoundsonpaperwithoutdeterminingtheirmeaning.Thisurgetowardsself-effacementhasaudibleresults. HighlyorganizedmusiclikeBoulezsStructures orMessiaens
Mode de Valeurs et dIntensites hasmuchthesamestatic,spaciouseffectasJapanesemusic.LikeTakemitsus
For Away,thesepiecescanbeenjoyedbylistenerswhofind,inthealmostchancerecurrenceofisolated
notesorsoundevents,ampleopportunitytobecomeinvolvedinthemusic.Musicwrittenusingrandom
processeshasasimilareffect; itaskslistenerstobecomeinvolvedinfindingtheirownmeaningamong
orbetweensounds,wherenonehasbeensuppliedbythecomposer.JohnCage,asoneoftheforemost
practitionersofthistypeofmusic, hasspokenforcefullyoftheneedtoallowlistenersthefreedomto
findtheirownmeaninginsound.Thisaimcanbeaccomplished, accordingtoCage, inaworldwhere
spaceisleftaroundeachpersonandaroundeachsound.Cagefindsavisionofsuchaworldintheideas
ofBuckminsterFuller:describes the world to us as an ensemble of spheres between where there is a void, a
necessary space.Wehaveastrongtendencytoforgetthatspace.Weleapacrossittoestablishourrelationshipsandconnections.Webelievewecanslipasinacontinuityfromonesoundtothenext,from

onethoughttothenext.Inreality,wefalldownandwedontevenrealizeit!Welive,butlivingmeanscrossing
throughtheworldofrelationshipsorrepresentations.Yet,weneverseeourselvesintheactofcrossingthat
world!
CageurgesustoacceptFullersworld,wherethespacebetweendifferentspheresisacknowledgedandrecognizedasimportant.Itisaworldwheremeaningisleftopen,tobedeterminedaseachindividualseesfit.
ThereisafundamentaldifferencebetweentheemptyspaceswhichCageurgesuponusandtheJapanese
conceptofma.ThisdifferenceisreflectedinthecontrastbetweenCagesmusicandthemusicofTakemitsu.
Lettingsoundsbethemselves, forCage, consistslargelyofemployingrandomprocessestoremovehiswill
fromsoundsthatarewrittendown.ForTakemitsu,ontheotherhand,itisstillpossibletowriteafullynotated
musicdevoidofchanceelementsbysimplypayingstrictheedtothenaturaltendenciesofthesoundsthemselves.
Inotherwords,Cagesnegationofthewillisfullyreplaced,forTakemitsu,bythecogentpossibilityoftranscendingtheaforementionedwillthroughdiscipline.Ifthewillofthecomposercansubjectitselftothenaturesof
thesoundsthemselvesasthedeterminantsofthecompositionalprocess,thenthemusicthatresultswillbecomethedirectandnaturalresultwhichsoundsthemselvesimpose.
Theemptyspacesleftbetweenthesoundswillbefeltascompelling,asinvitationstotheactiveinvolvement
ofthelistener,asma.
Takemitsusmusic,then,providesuswithalensthroughwhichtoviewJapanesemusicasawhole.Inthismusic
wefindtheidealsofinvolvementofthelistener,proximitytonature,andacceptanceofsoundandsilencein
alltheirformsexpressedthroughthemathatisleftbetweensounds.ThisMA isnot,so,apassive,emptyspace,
liketheemptyspacesresultingfromthenegationofwillinchanceortotallycontrolledmusic.Asfirstglance
thesilenceissyntaxandespressivemotionforce.
SELECTEDREADINGS

Burt,Peter.The Music of Toru Takemitsu.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2001.

Griffiths,Paul.Modern Music and After.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1995.
Ohtake,Neriko.Creative Sources for the Music of Toru Takemitsu.London:ScolarPress,1993.
Takemitsu,Toru.Confronting Silence.Berkley:FallenLeafPress,1995.
Titon,Jeff.Worlds of Music.NewYork:SchrimerBooks,1996.
Cage,John.Silence.Cambridge,Massachusetts:TheM.I.T.Press,1961
Harich-Schneider,Eta.A History of Japanese Music.London:OxfordUniversityPress,1973.
Isozaki,Arata.Texts to the exhibit Ma: Japanese Time-Space.ReprintedaspartofMa:
JapaneseTime-Space,TheJapanArchitect54(February1979):69-81.
Iwanami
Dictionary
of
Ancient
Terms. Quoted in Ma: Japanese Time-Space,
TheJapanArchitect54(February1979):70.
Ma: Space Full of Meaning in Japanese Culture.TheEast17(August1981):53-57.
Zeami,Kakyo.QuotedinMa:SpaceFullofMeaninginJapaneseCulture,TheEast
17(August1981):55.
Wade,BonnieC.;Music in Japan. Experiencing Music, Expressing Culture,OxfordUniversityPress,2005
Tamba,Akira,La Thorie et lesthtique musicale japonaises. PublicationsOrientalesdeFrance,1988
SCORES
Takemitsu,Toru.For Away.Paris:EditionsSalabert,1973