The stress-strain curve (diagram of the material)

1 The force-displacement curve for a traction loaded bar

Let consider a traction loaded bar:
F

- The bar is subjected to an increasing load F

in a testing machine such that F and l can be
measured : for F1, we have the length l1 the
elongation is: 1 = l1 l 0
-

We repeat the operation:

F2 > F1 l 2 2 = l 2 l 0
F3 > F2 > F1 l 3 3 = l 3 l 0
....................................................................
Fn > Fn 1 > ... > F2 > F1 l n n = l n l 0
until rupture .
In (F ) coordinates, we can obtain two kinds of curves, for metallic materials:

F
rupture
ere

F
rupture
ere

a) Bar with low carbon

content

b) Bar with high carbon

content

F
We can obtain the material behavior curve.

( ) curve is known as the traction diagram of the material (stress - strain curve).

But, because

2. Stress strain curve. Hookes Law. Elastic constants.

a) The traction test
These kinds of tests are standardized. The specimen is a standard bar.

The stress :

Fi
A0

where:
Fi the applied force;
A0 the initial section surface.

The strain :

i =

li l0
l0

where li is the bar length for the Fi force and l0 is the initial bar length.
The ( ) stress strain curves have the same allure as the (F ) force displacement curves.

E
C

Re H

E
C

ReL

Rm = r

R P0.2

Rm = r

e
p

O
O

We can observe 4 important points:

1)

- proportional limit
- the point until the stress is proportional to strain by the relationship:

=E , Hookes law,

where
N
E = (longitudinal) modulus of elasticity or Youngs modulus, E
2
mm

E = tg ;

E = the slope of the line OA;

- steel: E = 21 10 4 N / mm 2
- wood : E = 10 4 N / mm 2

The zone of linearity is very important in most engineering applications. Strength calculations are
aimed at limiting values of stress, so this level does not exceed.

2)

e - elastic limit

- the point until the material has a perfectly elastic behavior.

The elastic limit of a material is defined to be the maximum stress that can be developed in the
material without causing permanent set (residual deformation). It is found that for the most elastic
materials, the elastic limit has approximately the same value as the proportional limit of the material,
and in technical literature, the proportional limit is called (though incorrectly) the proportional elastic
limit.
Note: The deformation per unit of length (strain) retained by the bar after the load (and stress) has
been reduced to zero is called the permanent set or merely the set. For the bar subjected to the stress
, if the load is released gradually, the stress strain curve will be represented by a straight line
parallel to the straight line portion of the curve below the proportional limit.

B
C
A
C

D
C

O
C

N = 0
N = ON 0 !

M
C

remanent

N
C

Elastic behavior perfect elastic body, it doesnt exist remanent or residual deformations
(permanent set).
Conventionally a material has an elastic behavior, if there are very small remanent deformations:
rem = 0.01%(0.0001) e = elastic limit (point B).
- p e the error is not so great;
- liniarity

3)

elasticity;

c - yield strength (yield point )

y

- there are certain materials, such as mild steel, that have a stress-strain diagram, characterized
by a flat, horizontal portion (CD) that follows immediately after the elastic and proportional limit.
Thus, when this stress is reached, the strains continue to increase without any increase in stress. This
stress is called yield point the minimum stress in the test specimen of the material at which the
material deforms appreciably without an increase in stress.
Usually, when a bar is a part of a machine or structure, the change in length (or shape) that occurs
while the stress is at the yield-point value is often sufficient to damage the load-resisting function of
the machine or structure, although perhaps a greater load than the yield-point load would be required
to cause collapse or fracture of the machine or structure.
The deformation that occurs when the yield-point stress is first reached starts as localized slip
bands visible as strain markings called Luders lines; the slip planes or bands are often approximately
in the direction of the maximum shearing stress. But the slip usually starts at a point of stress
concentration or at a defect or a weak point in the material.
The tension specimen becomes deformed and inelastic strains will occur. The names upper and
lower yield points are sometimes used to indicate the two yield points ( ReH , ReL ).
Usually, the stress on the landing C'D defines the apparent yield limit (yield strength).

 c = Re =

4)

Fc
A0

r - ultimate strength (

u)

- A brittle material breaks when stressed to the ultimate strength, whereas a ductile material
continues to stretch. The ultimate strength of a material, then, is defined to be the maximum stress
that can be developed in the material as determined from the original cross section of the bar or
specimen; the cross section of the bar of a ductile material decreases somewhat as the bar is stressed
above the yield strength and particularly as it is stressed beyond the ultimate strength .
The yield point and the ultimate strength are principal parameters to characterize a material.

Strain hardening (DE)

After the ultimate strength of a ductile material is developed, this begins to neck down (EF),
thereby rapidly reducing the area of cross section at the neck-down section and the load required to
cause the bar to continue to stretch decreases. The load on the bar at the instant of rupture is called
the breaking or rupture load.
- ultimate strength : r = Rm =

Fmax
Ao

a) r is a conventional value:
- Fm rupture load,

- A0 = initial area, not neck-down section.

b) we are interested in the quality of the material!

Another characteristics:
a) Ultimate strain :

r =

lu l0
100 [%]
l0

where :

lu

- final length, measured after rupture.

b) Rupture neck-down:

Z=

A0 Au
100 [%]
A0

unde :

Au - neck-down section, at breaking.


C
)

0, 2 R p

0, 2

N
O
)

= 0,2%

For the materials without yield landing, we define the yield strength c as the maximum stress that
can be developed in a test specimen of the material without causing more than a specified permissible
set. A value of 0.2% (which means a set of 0.002 mm/mm) frequently is specified as the permissible
set for metals ( 0, 2 ).

c)

curve (torsion loading)

= G

E
C

G shearing modulus of elasticity

Gsteel = 8.4 10 4 N / mm 2

C
B
C

D
C

A
C

r
p

O
C

d) Lateral Strain Poissons Ratio

b1
b0

a1

l0

a0

l1
z

The bar decreases in section as the load increases. The ratio of the lateral strain to the longitudinal
strain is a constant denoted by and is called Poissons ratio.
l l
l1 > l 0 x = 1 0
l0

a1 < a 0 y =

b1 b0
b0

a1 a 0
a0
Experimentally, in the proportional zone of the diagram:
> 0

y = x x
y < 0
z = x

z < 0
b1 < b0 z =

= lateral strain coefficient = Poissons ratio

steel = 0.3 .
Note:

E ,G ,

- characteristics of a material.

e) Isotropy

y = z = x the material has the same behavior along the transversal axes.

Isotropic behavior: (E , G , ) = ct , any loading direction.

Anisotropic materials are materials with preferential directions (crystals, laminated material).

II.3 Linear-elastic model in Deformable Body Mechanics

1) The hypothesis of continuous and homogeneous environment

The material is continuous and homogeneous the material fills the all space bounded by its volume
and has the same physical properties at all points.
- The hypothesis is necessary to define the stress:
F dF
=
p = lim
A0 A
dA

2) The isotropy hypothesis

The material is isotropic when the same characteristics are any direction. It depends on the material
processing conditions.

3) The perfect elasticity hypothesis

After the removal of external forces the body returns to its original.

4) The hypothesis of linear deformation under the action of applied loads.

The Hookes law is valid:

= E
= G
5) The hypothesis of small deformations
deformations are very small in relation to the body size.
F

x
F

- reality: L1<L
But we admit: L1 L (there are infinitely small
deformations)
M1 = F L
we admit to maintain the original size.

L1

We use the initial structure dimensions for calculation (called the first order calculation).
The second order calculation: the equations are written for the deformed state of the system.

6) SaintVenants hypothesis
Regardless of the load application, away from the point of application, the material behaves the same.
It follows that the load can be replaced by an equivalent load and this change doesnt influence far
away.

The bar as one-dimensional model

The hypotheses 1 - 6 + the Plane Sections Hypothesis (Bernoullis hypothesis)
Liniarity

we can apply the principle of superposition.

Partial effects can be added.

The order of consideration of the tasks doesnt matter, the final effect is the same.

- we can obtain information regarding the system of axes

variation of the stresses
maximum stress.

STRESS =

effort
geometrical characteristic of the sec tion