4
COMPRESSIBLE
FLOWS
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
4.1
Conservation of mass,
Conservation of linear momentum,
Conservation of energy,
Equation of state for an ideal gas.
(4.1)
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
R=
(4.2)
(
For ideal gas, internal energy u is a function of temperature T and its
gradient defines the specific heat at constant volume cv:
(
u
cv =
T
(
du
=
dT
2
(
du = cv dT
1
( (
u2 u1 = cv (T2 T1 )
(4.3)
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
(
In thermodynamic texts, enthalpy h is defined as
( ( p (
h = u + = u + RT
(4.4)
(
For ideal gas, enthalpy h is also a function of temperature T and the
gradient defines the specific heat at constant pressure cp:
(
h
cp =
T
(
dh
=
dT
(
2
dh = c p dT
1
( (
h2 h1 = c p (T2 T1 )
(4.5)
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
(
(
dh = du + R dT
(
(
dh du
=
+R
dT dT
c p = cv + R
(4.6)
and, the specific heat ratio k is (also constant for air, k = 1.4)
k=
cp
cv
(4.7)
cp =
kR
k 1
(4.8)
cv =
R
k 1
(4.9)
6
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
(
In thermodynamic texts, with v = 1 being the specific volume, the
relationship for entropy s could be written as
(
(
(
T ds = du + p dv = du + p d (1 )
(4.10)
(
p
dp
(
(
dh = du + d = du + p d (1 ) +
(
dp
dh = T ds +
(4.11)
ds = cv
dT
d (1 )
dT
dp
+R
= cp
R
(1 )
T
T
p
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
s2 s1 = cv ln
T2
+ R ln 1
T1
2
(4.12)
s2 s1 = c p ln
T2
p
R ln 2
T1
p1
(4.13)
cv ln
T2
T
p
+ R ln 1 = 0 = c p ln 2 R ln 2
2
T1
T1
p1
T
T
p
R
kR
ln 2 + R ln 1 = 0 =
ln 2 R ln 2
2
p1
k 1 T1
k 1 T1
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
T2
T1
k ( k 1)
p
= 2 = 2
p1
1
= constant
(4.14)
(4.15)
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
4.2
Ma M =
V
c
(4.16)
>
>
10
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
2.
3.
>
>
= sin 1
c
1
= sin 1
V
M
>
>
11
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
12
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
13
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
14
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
2.
Hypersonic M > 5
>
15
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
16
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
To derive it, lets start from the continuity equation (neglecting higher
order terms):
cA = ( + )(c V )A
c = c V + c V
V = c
From the linear momentum equation:
ccA + (c V )( + )(c V )A = pA ( p + p )A
2c V c(c ) = p
c V = p
c2 =
c=
(4.17)
17
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
c=
p
d k = 0
dp kp d
k +1 = 0
k
p
dp kp
=
=
= kRT
s d
18
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
kp
= kRT
(4.18)
T = 288.15 K
(15C )
R = 286.9 J/kg K
k = 1.401
Hence,
c = 340 .3 m/s = 1225 km/hr
19
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
EXAMPLE 4.1
An aircraft flying at an altitude of 1000 m, passes directly above an
observer. If the aircraft is moving at Mach 1.5 with surrounding
ambient temperature of 20C, obtain the time after which the observer
is able to hear the sound of the aircraft. Use gas constant
R = 287 J/kgK and specific heat ratio k = 1.4.
20
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Since Ma > 1.0, a Mach cone is formed. From the equation for Mach
cone angle:
= sin 1
1
1
= sin 1
= 41.8
M
1.5
tan =
z
z
=
x Vt
z
z
z
=
=
V tan M c tan M kRT tan
1000
=
1.5 1.4(287 )(20 + 273.15) tan 41.8
t=
= 2.17 s
21
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
4.3
2.
AV d + V dA + A dV = 0
Dividing by AV gives:
d
dA dV
+
=0
A
V
(4.19)
22
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
+ V dV = 0
Dividing by V2:
dp
dV
+
=0
V 2 V
(4.20)
dA dp
=0
A V 2
dA
dp
d
dp
=
=
2
A V
V 2
V2
1
dp
d
23
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
dA
dV
=
A
V
V2
1 2
c
dV
=
1 M 2
V
Subsonic flow
(Ma < 1)
Supersonic flow
(Ma > 1)
dA > 0
dp > 0
dV < 0
dA > 0
dp < 0
dV > 0
dA < 0
dp < 0
dV > 0
dA < 0
dp > 0
dV < 0
(4.21)
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
dA dV dV
dV
V V
(
1 M 2 )
=
= d
A
V
V
V
c c
ln
= d (12 M 2 )
= 12 M 2
0
= M dM
= d (12 M 2 )
M
= 0 exp 12 M 2
0
= 1 exp( 12 M 2 ) < 0.05
0
M < 0.320 0.3
25
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
p
=
=
=
constant
0
k 0k
p0
p
p0
dp
+d V
p 01 k
1
2
p0
p 10 k dp
=
+ d 12 V 2 = 0
1k
0 p
V
dp
+
d 12 V 2 = 0
1k
0
p
p
p 01 k p 1 k +1
2
1
+ 2V
0 1 1 k p
V
0
=0
26
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
k p0 p 1 2
2V = 0
k 1 0
(4.22)
kR
(T0 T ) 12 V 2 = c p (T0 T ) 12 V 2 = 0
k 1
(4.23)
(
From the relationship above, total/stagnation enthalpy h0 could be
defined:
(
h0 = c pT0 = c pT + 12 V 2 = pemalar
(4.24)
1
k 1 kRT 2c 2 k 1 T
2
27
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
T0
=1+
T
1
2
(k 1)M 2
(4.25)
T0
T
k ( k 1)
p
= 0 = 0
p
1
2
(k 1)M 2 ]k (k 1)
(4.26)
0
= [1 +
1
2
(k 1)M 2 ]1 (k 1)
(4.27)
28
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
p 2
=
p0 1 + k
k ( k 1)
1 ( k 1)
2
=
0 1 + k
(4.28)
p p0 = 0.5283 ,
0 = 0.6339
AV = A V
A V
=
A
V
29
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
) (T
A
kRT
1 0
=
=
A
Ma kRT Ma ( 0 )
A
1 1 + (k 1) Ma
=
A Ma 1 + 12 (k 1)
1
2
T0
(T T0 )
k +1
2 ( k 1)
(4.29)
30
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
m& ma x = AV = A kRT
For air (k = 1.4), values from Eq. 4.25-29 are easier to be extracted
from the Isentropic Air Flow Table (Appendix A).
31
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Eq. 4.29 can be used in the design of nozzles and diffusers for
supersonic flows.
Ma < 1
Ma = 1
Ma > 1
Supersonic nozzle
Ma > 1
Ma = 1
Ma < 1
Supersonic diffuser
32
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
33
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
34
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
EXAMPLE 4.2
35
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
p0
p = 76.27(304 )
p
= 23186 kPa (abs) = 23.2 MPa (abs)
p0 =
T0
T = 3.45(180 )
T
= 621 K
T0 =
p0 p = p0 p = 1.893 , T0 T = T0 T * = 1.2
*
Hence,
p*
1
(23.2)
p =
p0 =
p0
1.893
*
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
T*
1
(621)
T =
T0 =
T0
1.2
*
= 518 K
c * = kRT = 1.4(287 )(518)
= 456 m/s
(c) Flow velocity:
V = M c = M kRT
= 3.5 1.4(287 )(180 )
= 941 m/s
37
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
EXAMPLE 4.3
38
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
M = 0.097 (subsonic)
, M = 3.368 (supersoni c)
p0 p = 1.006 , T0 T = 1.002
Hence,
p=
p
1
(1013) = 1007 kPa (abs)
p0 =
1.006
p0
T=
T
1
(300) = 299 K
T0 =
T0
1.002
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
p0 p = 63.13 , T0 T = 3.269
Hence,
p=
p
1
(1013) = 16.0 kPa (abs)
p0 =
p0
63.13
T=
T
1
(300) = 91.8 K
T0 =
T0
3.269
40
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
4.4
M > 1.0
V>c
Subsonic
Supersonic
41
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
p, , T , s
M ,V , p0
(
h0
increases
decreases
no change
M>1
M>1
M>1
M<1
M<1
Normal shock
Oblique shock
Bow shock
42
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
43
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Continuity equation
1V1 = 2V2
2.
Momentum equation
( p1 p2 )A = m& (V2 V1 )
3.
4.
Energy equation
(
(
(
h0 = h1 + 12 V12 = h2 + 12 V22
p1 + 1V12 = p2 + 2V22
Speed of sound
c 2 = kRT = k p
44
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
c12
V12
c22
V22
c
c
+
=
+
=
+
k 1 2
k 1 2
k 1 2
c12
V12
c22
V22
k + 1 2
+
=
c =
+
2(k 1)
k 1 2
k 1 2
(k + 1)c 2 12 (k 1)V12
2
c22 = 12 (k + 1)c 12 (k 1)V22
c12 =
1
2
45
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
= V2 V1
kV1 kV2
k + 1 c*
k 1
k + 1 c*
k 1
V1
+
V2 = V2 V1
2 kV1
2
2 kV2
2
2
k +1
c*
k 1
(V2 V1 )
(V2 V1 ) = V2 V1
+
2k
V1V2
2k
46
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
k + 1 c*
k 1
+
=1
2k V1V2
2k
2
c * = V1V2
(4.30)
V22
2
c12 k 1 2
c 22 k 1
k + 1 V 2 + k + 1 k + 1 V 2 + k + 1 = 1
2
1
2
2
2 + k 1 2 + k 1 = k + 1
M
M
1
2
c*2
V12
47
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
M =
2
2
1+
kM
1
2
2
1
(k 1)M 12
12 (k 1)
(4.31)
(
2 V1 V12 V12
k + 1)V12
=
=
=
=
1 V2 V1V2 c 2 2c12 + (k 1)V12
(k + 1)M 12
2
=
1 2 + (k 1)M 12
(4.32)
48
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
p 2 p1 1V12
=
p1
p1
V2
1
V1
kV12 V2
= 2 1
c1 V1
= kM 12 1 1
2
p2
2k
=1+
M 12 1
p1
k +1
(4.33)
RT
obtained from the ideal gas equation
and = c pT :
(
T2 p2 1 h2
=
= (
T1
p1 2 h1
2
T2
2k
2 + (k 1)M 1
2
M1 1
= 1+
2
T1 k + 1
(k + 1)M 1
(4.34)
49
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
If
s2 s1 = cv ln
T2
T
p
+ R ln 1 = c p ln 2 R ln 2
T1
T1
p1
2
M1 = 1:
M1 > 1:
M1 < 1:
s 2 s1 = 0
s2 s1 > 0
s2 s1 < 0
T01 = T0 2
(4.35)
50
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
s2 s1 = c p ln
T0 2
p
p
R ln 0 2 = R ln 0 2
T01
p 01
p 01
p0 2
s s
= exp 2 1
p01
R
p0 2 p0 2 p01
=
p1
p01 p1
(4.36)
(4.37)
For air (k = 1.4), Eq. 4.31-37 are easier obtained from the Normal
Shock Properties Table (Appendix B).
51
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Figure 4.11
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
EXAMPLE 4.4
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Hence,
p2 =
p2
p1 = 4.5(101.3) = 456 kPa (abs)
p1
T2 =
T2
T1 = 1.687(288) = 486 K
T1
cp =
kR 1.4(287 )
=
= 1005 J/kg K
k 1 1.4 1
s 2 s1 = c p ln
T2
p
R ln 2 = 1005 ln(1.687 ) 287 ln(4.5)
T1
p1
= 93.6 J/kg K
54
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
EXAMPLE 4.5
M = 0 .6
55
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
M = 1.3
M = 3 .0
56
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
4.5
2.
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Continuity equation
V = constant
2.
dV
=0
V
3.
4 w dx
+ V dV = 0
D
Energy equation
(
(
h + 12 V 2 = h0 = c pT0 = c pT + 12 V 2
c p dT + V dV = 0
58
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
4.
5.
dp d dT
=
+
p
f =
8 w
w = 18 fV 2 = 18 fkpM 2
dx
dV
kM 2
=
=
f
D
V
21 M 2
59
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
dp0 d 0
dx
=
= 12 kM 2 f
0
p0
D
dT k (k 1)M 4 dx
=
f
D
T
2 1 M 2
2
1
dM 2
dx
2 1 + 2 (k 1)M
= kM
f
2
2
D
M
1 M
M =1
L
1 M 2
dx
2
dM
f
=
0 D
1 + 12 (k 1)M 2 kM 4
L
1 M 2 k + 1 (k + 1)M 2
= f
ln
+
2
D
2k
(
)
kM 2
k
M
2
1
+
(4.38)
60
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
M =1
dT
=
M
T
1+
(k 1)
1
(k 1)M 2
2
1
2
dM 2
T
k +1
=
T 2 + (k 1)M 2
(4.39)
(k + 1)M 2
V
M kRT
T
=
=M
=
2
V
T
kRT
2 + (k 1)M
V 2 + (k 1)M 2
=
=
V (k + 1)M 2
12
(4.40)
12
(4.41)
T
p
=
T
p
61
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
(k + 1)
p
1
=
p M 2 + (k 1)M 2
12
(4.42)
p0 p0 p p
=
p0
p p p0
p0
1 2 + (k 1)M 2
=
k +1
p 0 M
( k +1) 2 ( k 1)
(4.43)
62
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Subsonic
Supersonic
63
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Figure 4.13
64
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Continuity equation
( p1 p2 )A = m& (V2 V1 )
3.
Energy equation
( 1 2 ( 1 2
&
&
Q = m h2 + 2 V2 h1 2 V1
4.
(
Q& Q (
q= =
= h0 2 h01
m& m
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
p
k +1
=
p
1 + kM 2
T
(1 + k )M
=
T 1 + kM 2
(4.45)
2
(4.46)
1 + kM 2
V
=
=
(1 + k )M 2
V
p0
1+ k
=
p 0 1 + kM 2
(4.44)
2 + (k 1)M 2
k +1
(4.47)
k ( k 1)
(4.48)
66
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Property
Heating
Cooling
Subsonic
Supersonic
Subsonic
Supersonic
0 Ma 1 k
Ma, V
T0
T
0 Ma 1 k
p,
p0, 0
s
(
)
( 1 k Ma 1)
(
)
( 1 k Ma 1)
67
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
4.6
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
1
c
=
V M
(4.49)
Continuity equation
1Vn1 = 2Vn 2
2.
p1 p2 = 2Vn22 1Vn21
3.
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
4.
Energy equation
(
(
h1 + 12 Vn21 + 12 Vt12 = h2 + 12 Vn22 + 12 Vt 22 = h0
Vt1 = Vt 2 = Vt = constant
Thus, relations 1, 2 and 4 are similar to the case of normal shock, but
V and Ma need to be taken in its normal components:
V n1
= M 1 sin
c1
(4.50)
Vn 2
= M 2 sin ( )
c2
(4.51)
M n1 =
M n2 =
70
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Solving for :
)
)
2 cot M 12 sin 2 1
tan =
2 + M 12 k + cos 2 2
(4.52)
2.
71
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
73
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
EXAMPLE 4.6
Shock angle ,
Downstream Mach number M2,
Downstream pressure p2,
Total pressure downstream p02, measured by a Pitot tube.
M1 = 2.0
p1 = 70 kPa
10
74
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
39.3
(b) Normal component of M1:
M n1 M 1 sin 2.0 sin 39.3 1.267
From App. B:
M n 2 0.8031 ,
p 2 p1 1.707 ,
p 0 2 p1 2.609
M2
p2
p1 1.70770 119 kPa (abs)
p1
75
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
p0 2
p1 2.60970 183 kPa (abs)
p1
76
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
4.7
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
1.
2.
3.
78
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
1+
dV
cos
=
V
cos cos d sin sin d
79
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
dV
cos
1
=
=
V
cos d sin 1 d tan
Using series expansion (for x < 1) and neglecting high order terms:
1
= 1 + x + x 2 + x3 + L
1 x
1+
dV
= 1 + d tan + L
V
d =
dV V
tan
80
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
= sin 1
1
M
tan =
1
M 2 1
d = M 2 1
dV
V
(4.53)
d =
M2
M1
M 2 1
dV
V
81
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
ln V = ln M + ln c
dV dM dc
=
+
M
c
V
T
k 1 2
k 1 2
c0
c = c 0 1 +
M
M
= 0 =1+
2
2
c
T
k 1
M
1
dc
dM
2
dM dV =
=
k 1 2
k 1 2 M
c
V
1+
1+
M
M
2
2
1 2
Hence,
2
d = 2 1 =
M2
M1
M 2 1 dM
k 1 2 M
1+
M
2
(4.54)
82
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
(M )
M2
M1
M 2 1 dM
k 1 2 M
M
1+
2
(M ) =
k +1
tan 1
k 1
k 1 2
M 1 tan 1 M 2 1
k +1
(4.55)
Eq. 4.55 and Eq. 4.49 is given in Appendix C for air (k = 1.4 ) .
83
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
EXAMPLE 4.7
84
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
1 = 11.91, 1 = 41.81
2 = 1 + 1 = 11.91 + 20 = 31.91
From App. C, for 2 = 31.91:
2 = 26.95 , M 2 = 2.207
From App. A, for M1 = 1.5:
p01 p1 = 3.671, T01 T1 = 1.45
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Therefore,
p2
p 2 p 0 2 p 01
1
13.67181.5 27.7 kPa (abs)
p1
10.81
p0 2 p01 p1
T2
T2 T0 2 T01
1
11.45256 188 K
T1
1.975
T0 2 T01 T1
p 0 2 p 01
T0 2 T01
p 01
p1 3.67181.5 299 kPa (abs)
p1
T01
T1 1.45256 371 K
T1
86