Title: CHARACTERISTICS OF AND RAYS

Aim: To investigate some characteristics of and rays.

Apparatus/Materials: Beta Source, Gamma source, Geiger tube, ST360 Counter, Lead Sheets,
Aluminium Sheets, Plastic Sheets.

Diagram:

DIAGRAM SHOWING SETUP OF APPARATUS IN THE EXPERIMENT USED TO INVESTIGATE

SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF AND RAYS

Theory:
Radiation is a process of energy being emitted in the form of particles or waves. Radiation is
emitted from atoms that are changing. Most radiation is naturally occurring; some radiation is
manmade. In general, the following kinds of radiation are monitored for purposes of radiation
protection: alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, x-rays and neutrons. The GeigerMller
tube (or G-M tube) is the sensing element of the Geiger counter instrument used for the detection
of ionizing radiation. The tube consists of a chamber filled with an inert gas at low-pressure
(about 0.1 atmosphere). The chamber contains two electrodes, between which there is a potential
difference of several hundred volts. The walls of the tube are either metal or have their inside
surface coated with a conductor to form the cathode, while the anode is a wire in the center of the
chamber.
Sources from which radioactivity can be obtained:
Source
Sr90

Radiation

Co60

The sources are of such low strength that they do not present a radiation hazard. However,
rupturing of the sources may lead to ingestion of radioactive material and this would be a serious
health hazard. For this reason the sources should be handled with care. Some of the sources are
designed to emit preferentially in one direction. Before using each source you should therefore
test for this with the Geiger counter.
2.

Equipment

The operation of the Geiger tube is described in the references. It is connected to the Scaling
Unit by a cable which also transmits the voltage applied across the electrodes of the tube. The
required voltage is 700 V and is set by a dial on the Scaling Unit. At low count rates each
charged particle or ray photon passing through the Geiger tube causes it to discharge and the
resulting electrical pulse actuates the counting circuits.
The ST360 counter and Geiger tube are shown below. The display is able to show the number of
counts, the time passed, rate, voltage and alarm point. You may set any of the above by pressing
the display select button then using the up and down buttons. An LED will light up next to the
selected option on the display. On the left hand side of the counter you will see three buttons
Count, Stop , Reset and two LEDs. When the counter is counting the LED above COUNT will
be on. When it has stopped the LED above STOP will be on.

Variables:
Manipulated- The thickness of blocking material (m) and type of blocking material (lead
aluminium, etc.)
Responding- The count per minute and the level of penetration
Controlled- The Background Count, the gamma and beta sources used, distance between source
and counter, distance between the source and blocking materials

Procedure:
Background count:
1

A 1- minute count which=h was expressed in counts/min was taken with all sources far
from the detector and in a position they will occupy for the duration of the experiment.

Gamma source strength:

2

The strength of the sources was noted on them in microcuries (Ci). A rough estimate of
the strength of the gamma source was made.

A one minute count was taken with the gamma source about 6.0 cm from the Geiger tube.
The source was assumed to be isotropic. Of those particles emitted, only a fraction enter
the Geiger tube and were counted.

The fraction was A/4 r2, where A is the effective area of the detector window (64 mm2)
and r is the distance of the source from the face of the detector in mm.

The total number of disintegrations in the source per unit time was determined and hence
the strength of source was calculated in curies.

Penetration of Materials by Radiation:

6

A 60 second background count was taken with all sources far from the detector.

The gamma source was placed in the holder (in the third row slot of the stand). A 60
second count was taken.

The following materials were placed in turn between the source and the tube (in the top
slot of the stand), being very careful not to disturb the position of either the source or the
tube. a 60 second count for each material was taken:

0.250 lead

0.032alumnium

0.032 lead

0.125
aluminium

The corrected count rates were then calculated, ignoring the coincidence error. The
resulting count/min was found.

10 For each of the materials the percentage transmission through each of the materials used
was found. The results were tabulated and commented on.
11 The beta source was placed in the holder (in the third row slot of the stand). A 60 second
count was taken.
12 The following materials were placed in turn between the source and the tube (in the top
slot of the stand), being very careful not to disturb the position of either the source or the
tube. a 60 second count for each material was taken:

0.125
aluminium

0.080
aluminium

0.032
aluminium

0.100
aluminium

0.063
aluminium

0.025
aluminium

0.090
aluminium

0.050
aluminium

0.020
aluminium

13 Corrected count rates were calculated, ignoring the coincidence error. The resulting
count/min was found.
14 For each of the thickness the percentage transmission through each of the materials used
was found. The results were tabulated.
15 A graph of percentage transmission vs. aluminium thickness was plotted for the beta

source.

Data Collected:
Table Showing The Various Counts and Percentage Transmission Obtained For and rays
When They Pass Through Materials Of Varying Thickness
Thickness
(Inches)

(x10-2 m)

Count
(per 200s)

Corrected
Count
(per 200s)

Corrected
Count
(per minute)

Percentage
Transmission
(%)

Using Gamma Source

None

0.000

0.000

7906

7807

2342.1

100

Lead

0.250

0.635

3090

2991

897.3

38

Lead

0.032

0.081

5292

5193

1557.9

66.5

Aluminium

0.125

0.318

5607

5508

1652.4

70.5

Aluminium

0.032

0.081

5956

5857

1757.1

75.0

Using Beta Source

None

0.000

0.000

13,485

13,386

4015.8

100

Aluminium

0.125

0.318

87

0.00

Aluminium

0.090

0.229

308

209

62.7

1.60

Aluminium

0.063

0.160

1130

1031

309.3

7.70

Aluminium

0.040

0.102

3604

3505

1051.5

26.20

Aluminium

0.032

0.081

4924

4825

1447.5

36.04

Aluminium

0.020

0.051

7338

7239

2171.7

54.08

Background (200 seconds )

99

Calculations:
Corrected Count Rate
The corrected count for gamma radiation when passing through an aluminium sheet of thickness
0.318 x 10-2m is :
Count per 200 background count per 200
5607 99 = 5508 counts per 200 s
The corrected count for beta radiation per minute when passing through an aluminium sheet of
thickness 0.318 x 10-2m is :
200 s 5508 counts
60s x counts
Therefore: in 60 seconds there are 2342.1 counts
Percentage Transmission (%)
= (Count Rate per minute with blocking material/ count rate per
minute without blocking material) x 100
For 0.250 inches Lead with gamma source
Percentage Transmission= (897.3/2342.1) x 100
Percentage Transmission= 38.3 %
Fraction Entering the Tube
Fraction Entering the Tube= A/(4r^2 )
= 64(7) /(4(60)2 )
= 64 / 45238.9
1.41 x 10-3
Strength of Gamma Source
1.41 x 10-3 = 2338 counts/min
1 = 2342.1/ 1.41 x 10-3
= 1661063.83 counts/min
= 27,684 counts/sec
1Ci = 3.7 x 1010

Strength = 1 count per sec / 1 Ci

= 27,684 / 3.7 x 1010
= 0.748 Ci
Strength of Beta Source
1.41 x 10-3 = 4015.8 counts/min
1 =4015.8 / 1.41 x 10-3
= 2848085.106 counts/min
= 47,468.09 counts/sec
1Ci = 3.7 x 1010
Strength = 1 count per sec / 1 Ci
= 47468.09 / 3.7 x 1010
= 1.282 Ci

Discussion:
From the results obtained it can be seen that the count rate of gamma radiation in the initial
stages was lower than the count rate of beta radiation this is due to the beta source being stronger
than the gamma source.
As the gamma source is exposed to lead of thickness 0.635 x 10-2 m the count rate decreases from
2342.1 per minute to 897.3. However when it is exposed to a lead sheet which is less thick (a
thickness of 0.081 x 10-2m) the count rate increases to 1557.9 counts per minute. This indicates
that an increase in the thickness of lead results in a decrease in the count rate. Likewise for the
aluminium sheet when the thickness is decreased from 0.318 x 10-2m to 0.081 x 10-2m , the
count rate increases from 1652.4 per minute to 1757.1 per minute . When both gamma and beta
are blocked by aluminium of thickness 0.081 x 10-2m the beta source has a percentage
transmission of 36% while the gamma source has a percentage transmission of 75%. The count
rates per minute were 1447 counts per minute for the beta source and 1757 counts per minute for
the gamma source. From this it can be said that the gamma source has a higher penetrating power
than the beta source. When both sources were subjected to a specific blocking material of equal
thickness the gamma source has a greater percentage transmission and it registers more counts
per minute.
When exposed to aluminium sheets of high thickness it was recognized that the counts per
minutes for beta radiation were low whilst the counts per minute for thinner aluminium sheets
were higher. This means that the thicker the aluminium sheet the lower the count rate while the
lower the thickness the higher the count rate. An example of this is seen with the aluminium
sheet of thickness 0.318 x10-2m is placed above the radioactive source and a count rate is virtual
zero. However when the thickness of aluminium is decreased to 0.051 x 10-2m the count rate
increases to 2171.7 counts per minute.

The overall trend is established within the graph where Percentage Transmission (%) is plotted
against aluminium thickness. It is noticed that based on the graph that as the thickness of the
aluminium increases the percentage transmission decreases. This explain why the count rate
decrease as the thickness of the material increases , as when the thickness of the material
increases less radiation enters the Geiger Muller tube for detection .
Between both sources of radiation it is recognized that gamma possess the greatest penetrating
power as when an aluminium sheet of 0.318 x 10-2m is placed above the gamma source a count
rate of 1652.4 counts per minutes is observed . However when an aluminium sheet of thickness
0.318 x 10-2m is placed above the beta source the count rate was virtually 0. This indicates that
the beta rays possess a lower penetrating ability than gamma rays as when exposed to aluminium
sheets of the same thickness a count rate is only observed for gamma.
A similar pattern is observed when both sources of radiation are exposed to a sheet of aluminium
of size 0.081 x 10-2m. The count rate for the gamma was 5956 counts per minute, while the
count rate was 4825 counts per minute for the beta indicating that gamma has the higher
penetrating power.

Precautions:
1. Ensure all connections are secured and are neat and tidy.
2. Ensure to avoid any form of direct contact with the radioactive sources.
3. Ensure not to disturb the position of the source or the tube when putting in the blocking
materials

Source of Error:
1. The sources may not have been isotropic and as such it would not emit equally in all
directions. Therefore the count rate recorded may not be the true or maximum counts per
minute.
2. The presence of electronic devices which emit radiation may have impacted the count
observed on the counter at varying points in time.

Conclusion: From this experiment it may be concluded that Gamma radiation is more
penetrative than beta emission as it is possessed a higher count rate when exposed to materials
of similar thickness. From the graph and the results obtained it can also be seen that as the
thickness of the blocking material increases the percentage transmission of the radiation from the
source decreases.