Light Emitting Diode (LED) Principles

The Key mechanism of the Light emission in LEDs is

Band - to -Band recombination (radiation)

Not ANY recombination produces the RADIATION.

In case of indirect transitions, the recombination
produces phonons rather than photons.

This is the case for Si.

Si cannot be used for efficient LEDs

Non-equilibrium conditions:
If the concentration of e-h pairs increases,
n = n+n0;
p = p+p0;
the recombination rate also increases:

0
RSP
= Br n0 p0

ex
RSP
= Br p n0 + n p0 + n p

Thermal generation rate G does not change as it does not depend on n and p
Rex is the excess recombination rate producing the light

Forward biased p-n junction and light emission

Excess electrons

Excess holes

n p = n p 0 eqV / kT
p p = p0

pn = pn0 eqV / kT
nn = n0

pn nn = p0 n0 eqV / kT

pn nn = p0 n0 eqV / kT

pn nn = n i2 eqV / kT

pn nn = n i2 eqV / kT

Under the forward bias,

The change in the electron concentration in the p-region:
Excess electrons

n p = n p n p 0 = n p 0 (eqV / kT 1); p 0

ex
RSP
= Br p n0 + n p0 + n p = Br n p0 ;
ex
n = n p 0 ( eqV / kT 1); RSP
= Br n p 0 p p 0 ( eqV / kT 1)
ex
0
RSP
( eqV / kT 1)
= RSP

Under the forward bias,

The change in the hole concentration in the n-region:

Excess holes

pn = pn pn0 = pn0 ( eqV / kT 1); n 0

ex
= Br p n0 + n p0 + n p = Br p n0 ;
RSP
ex
p = pn0 ( eqV / kT 1); RSP
= Br pn0 nn0 ( eqV / kT 1)
ex
0
RSP
( eqV / kT 1)
= RSP

Under the forward bias,

Excess electrons

Excess holes

On both n- and p-sides of the forward-biased p-n junction the excess

recombination rate increases exponentially with the bias:
ex
0
RSP
= RSP
( eqV / kT 1)

The forward current of p-n junction:

I = I S ( eqV / kT 1)

Hence, recombination rate increases linearly with the forward current:

RSPex ~ I

Color of the light emitted by LEDs

The emitted photon energy,
h g;
(for band-to-band recombination).

Typical LED structure:

LED efficiency
LED efficiency = Optical Power/Consumed power
The overall efficiency, consists, in general of 3 components:

in - injection efficiency,

r - recombination efficiency,

e - extraction efficiency.
(1) The Injection efficiency
determines how efficiently injected carriers contribute into recombination
When the injection occurs,

Light emission results from n and p recombination.

in - injection efficiency (cont.)

Injection efficiency as a function of junction doping
Consider n-side of the junction, close to the junction plane (x = 0):
p = pn0 [exp (qV/kT) 1] >> pn0;
n 0; nn0 ND;
Rnex = B nn0 p ND pn = ND pn0 [exp (qV/kT) 1] ;
pn0 = ni2/n0 ni2/ND;
Hence,
R = B ND ni2/NDexp(qV/kT) =

R = B ni2 exp(qV/kT)
1. R does not depend on the doping.
2. The R values are same for the p-side of the p-n junction.
3. Under normal injection conditions, the injection
efficiency does not depend on the p- and n- doping levels.

High-brightness LEDs:
Strong injection in asymmetric p-n junction.
Consider n+ - p junction, ND >> NA
When the forward voltage applied is very high,

np ~ exp(qV/kT) >> pp

Injected
Injectedelectrons
electrons
Holes redistribute to
compensate the excess electron charge

pp0 NA
np0 ni2/ NA
x

This condition is referred to as strong injection

For strong injection into p-side:

np(0) = np0 exp(qV/kT) >> pp(0);
Due to the charge neutrality:
pp(0) = np(0) >> NA
Rp(0) = B np(0) pp(0) B np(0)2
= B (ni2/NA)2 exp(2qV/kT)
On the n-side, the injection still remains normal, because

pn < nn ~ ND
Rn(0) = ni2 exp(qV/kT)
Total recombination rate (on the n- and p-sides, at x = 0):

R (0) = B (ni2/NA)2 exp(2qV/kT) + ni2 exp(qV/kT)

The recombination rate increases with decreasing NA;

For strongly asymmetrical p-n junctions, the current formed by

highly-doped region (the electron current in n+ - p junction)
contributes primarily into the recombination rate of LED
Therefore, the injection efficiency (for n+ - p junction),
i = (Ie/I0) = Ie/ (Ie +Ih)
The current components of the p-n junctions are:

I e = qA

De n p0
Le

ISn

De n p 0
i = qA

L
e

(e

qV/kT

-1

Dh pn0 qV/kT
I h = qA
e
-1
Lh

From these,

De n p0
Dh pn0
qA
qA
+

Le
Lh

ISp

De n p0 / Le

=
De n p0 / Le + Dh pn0 / Lh

To increase i, pn0 has to be minimal, i.e. ND needs to be maximized

2) r - recombination efficiency
In the presence of defects, some electron-hole pairs recombine without emitting photons:
non- radiative recombination.
The rate of non-radiative
recombination,

Rnr =

The rate of radiative

recombination,

Rr =

nr

nr is non-radiative

r is radiative

recombination lifetime

recombination lifetime

Total recombination rate,

RSp = Rr + Rnr
The recombination efficiency

nr
Rr
=
r =
Rr + Rnr nr + r

From

We can express

Using the lifetime definition,

At very high excitation level,

n >> n0, p0, and
Rspex = Br (n)2

Radiative lifetime decreases with pumping helps increasing recombination efficiency

Efficiency

Optical
power

Typical recombination efficiency current dependence

for p-n junction with high trap (defect) concentration

Current
Radiation efficiency
increases

Heating decreases
the efficiency