Aircraft weight, and its accurate prediction, is critical as it affects all aspects of performance.
Designer must keep weight to a minimum as far as practically possible.
Preliminary estimates possible for take-off weight, empty weight and fuel weight using basic
requirement, specification (assumed mission profile) and initial configuration selection.
WE
= empty weight
Wtfo = trapped (unusable) fuel weight
Wcrew = crew weight
Empty weight sometimes further broken down into:
WE = WME + WFEQ
Where:
WME = manufacturers empty weight
WFEQ = fixed equipment weight
(includes avionics, radar, air-conditioning, APU, etc.)
All textbooks use similar methods whereby comparisons made with existing aircraft.
In Roskam (Vol.1, p.19-30), aircraft classified into one of 12 types and empirical relationship
found for log WE against log WTO.
Categories are:
(1) homebuilt props, (2) single-engine props, (3) twin-engine props, (4) agricultural, (5)
business jets, (6) regional turboprops, (7) transport jets, (8) military trainers, (9) fighters,
(10) military patrol, bombers & transports, (11) flying boats, (12) supersonic cruise.
Most aircraft of reasonably conventional design can be assumed to fit into one of the 12
categories.
New correlations may be made for new categories (e.g. UAVs).
Account may also be made for effects of modern technology (e.g. new materials) method
presented in Roskam Vol.1, p.18.
Raymer method uses Table 3.1 & Fig 3.1 (p.13).
Good starting point is to use existing aircraft with similar role and payload-range capability.
An accurate initial guess will accelerate the iteration process.
This is the sum of the fuel used and the reserve fuel.
WF = WF(used) + WF(res)
Calculated by fuel fraction method.
compares aircraft weights at start and end of particular mission phases.
difference is fuel used during that phase (assuming no payload drop).
overall fraction is product of individual phase fractions.
6. loiter
7. descend
8. taxi
Fuel fractions for fuel-intensive phases (e.g. 4, 5 & 6 above) calculated analytically.
Non fuel-intensive fuel fractions based on experience and obtained from Roskam (Vol 1, p12),
Raymer, etc.
p
cp
L
W
ln 3
D
cl
W4
cl
cj
L
W
ln 3
cl D cl W4
where:
Ecl = climb time (hrs), L/D = lift/drag ratio, cj is sfc for jet a/c (lb/hr/lb), cp is sfc for prop a/c
(lb/hr/hp), Vcl = climb speed (mph), p = prop efficiency, W3 & W4 = a/c weight at start and end of
climb phase.
Initial estimates of L/D, cj or cp, p and Vcl made from Roskam or Raymer databases for
appropriate a/c category.
Alternatively, use approximations, e.g. from Roskam Vol.1, Table 2.1 (W4/W3=0.98 for jet
transport, 0.96 to 0.9 for fighters).
Phase 5 (cruise)
Weight fraction calculated using Breguet range equations.
For prop a/c:
cj
L
W
ln 4
D cl W
5
cr
For jet a/c, range maximised by flying at 1.32 x minimum drag speed and minimising sfc.
wing operates at about 86.7% of maximum L/D value.
cruise-climbing can also extend range.
For prop a/c, range maximised by flying at minimum drag speed and sfc.
wing operates at maximum L/D value.
Initial Estimates of Lift/Drag Ratio (L/D)
Using Roskam (Table 2.2 selected values
cruise
8 - 10
10 12
11 13
13 15
8 10
47
13 15
4-6
loiter
10 - 12
12 - 14
14 16
14 - 18
10 - 14
69
14 18
79
cruise
loiter
Turbojet
0.9
0.8
Low-bypass turbofan
0.8
0.7
High-bypass turbofan
0.5
0.4
Loiter
0.5 - 0.9
0.4 - 0.6
Military trainers
0.5 - 1.0
0.4 - 0.6
Fighters
0.6 - 1.4
0.6 - 0.8
0.5 0.9
0.4 - 0.6
Supersonic cruise
0.7 1.5
0.6 - 0.8
loiter
0.4
0.5
0.4
0.5
Turboprop
0.5
0.6
Take propeller efficiency (p) as 0.8 or 0.7 for fixed-pitch piston-prop in loiter.
Prop aircraft - Initial estimates of cp (lb/hr/hp) & p
Using Roskam (Table 2.2):
Single engine
Twin engine
Regional turboprops
Military trainers
Fighters
Military patrol, bombers & transports
Flying boats, amphibious
Cruise
0.5 0.7, 0.8
0.5 0.7, 0.82
0.4 0.6, 0.85
0.4 0.6, 0.82
0.5 0.7, 0.82
0.4 0.7, 0.82
0.5 0.7, 0.82
loiter
0.5 0.7, 0.7
0.5 0.7, 0.72
0.5 0.7, 0.77
0.4 0.6, 0.77
0.5 0.7, 0.77
0.5 0.7, 0.77
0.5 0.7, 0.77
Phase 6 (loiter)
Fuel fraction (W6/W5) found from appropriate endurance equation as in Phase 4.
For jet a/c, best loiter at minimum drag speed (maximum L/D value); for prop a/c at minimum
power speed.
Phase 7 (descent)
W7/W6 = 0.99.
Phase 8 (taxi)
W8/W7 = 0.992.
Overall Fuel Fraction (Mff)
W W W W W W W W
M ff = 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
W7 W6 W5 W4 W3 W2 W1 WTO
Mission fuel used (WF(used))
WF (used ) = (1 M ff ) WTO =
Pturn = 2
g n 2 1
Treated as separate sortie phase with change in total weight but no fuel change.
6
Fuel fraction taken as 1 but subsequent phases corrected to allow for payload drop weight
change.
Roskam Vol.1 pp.63-64 gives details.
e.g. if W5 and W6 are weights before and after payload drops:
W5 =
W5 W4 W3 W2 W1
WTO
W4 W3 W2 W1 WTO
W6 = W5 WPL
Phase 4 (climb)
W4/W3 = 0.98.
The climb phase should also be given credit in the range calculation.
Assuming a typical climb rate of 2500 ft/min at a speed at 275 kts then it takes 14 minutes to climb to
35,000 ft.
Range covered in this time is approximately (14/60) x 275 = 64 nm.
Phase 5 (cruise)
Cruise Mach number of 0.82 at altitude of 35,000 ft equates to cruise speed of 473 kts.
Using eq. (7b):
V
Rcr =
cj
L
W
ln 4
cr D cl W5
Assumptions of L/D = 16 and cj = 0.5 lb/hr/lb with a range of 1500 64 (=1436 nm) yield a
value of:
W5/W4 = 0.909
Phase 6 (loiter)
Using eq. (6b):
1 L
W
Ecl = ln 3
c D cl
W4
j cl
Assumptions of L/D = 18 and cj = 0.6 lb/hr/lb.
No range credit assumed for loiter phase.
Substitution of data into eq. (6b) yields:
W6/W5 = 0.967
Phase 7 (descent)
No credit given for range.
W7/W6 = 0.99.
Phase 8 (fly to alternate & descend)
May be found using eq. (6b) again.
Cruise will now take place at lower speed and altitude than optimum assume cruise speed of
250 kts (FAR 25), L/D of 10 and cj of 0.9 lb/hr/lb.
Gives: W8/W7 = 0.965
Phase 9 (landing, taxi & shutdown)
No credit given for range.
W9/W8 = 0.992.
Overall mission fuel fraction (Mff)
found from eq. (8) (with additional term for W9/W8)
= 0.992x0.965x0.99x0.967x0.909x0.98x0.995x0.99x0.99
= 0.796
Using eq. (9), WF = 0.204 WTO = 25,908 lbs
Phase 9 (landing, taxi & shutdown)
8
10
11