Pharmaceutical Biology, 2010; 48(4): 375380

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Antibacterial activity of Thai herbal extracts on acne

involved microorganism
P. Niyomkam1, S. Kaewbumrung1, S. Kaewnpparat2, and P. Panichayupakaranant1
Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Prince of Songkla
University, Hat-Yai, Songkhla, Thailand, and 2Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical
Sciences, Prince of Songkla University, Hat-Yai, Songkhla, Thailand

Abstract
Ethyl acetate and methanol extracts of 18 Thai medicinal plants were investigated for their antibacterial
activity against Propionibacterium acnes, Stapylococcus aureus, and S. epidermidis. Thirteen plant extracts
were capable of inhibiting the growth of P. acnes and S. epidermidis, while 14 plant extracts exhibited an
inhibitory effect on S. aureus. Based on the broth dilution method, the ethyl acetate extract of Alpinia
galanga (L.) Wild. (Zingiberaceae) rhizome showed the strongest antibacterial effect against P. acnes, with
minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) values of 156.0
and 312.0 g/mL, respectively. On the basis of bioassay-guided purification, the ethyl acetate extract was
isolated to afford the antibacterial active compound, which was identified as 1-acetoxychavicol acetate
(1-ACA). 1-ACA had a strong inhibitory effect on P. acnes with MIC and MBC values of 62.0 and 250.0 g/mL,
respectively. Thus, 1-ACA was used as an indicative marker for standardization of A. galanga extract using
high performance liquid chromatography. These results suggest that A. galanga extract could be an interesting agent for further studies on an alternative treatment of acne.
Keywords: Alpinia galanga; 1-acetoxychavicol acetate; Propionibacterium acnes; antibacterial activity;
acne vulgaris

Introduction
Acne vulgaris is a chronic inflammatory skin disorder
involving the pilosebaceous follicles, characterized
by comedones, papules, pustules, cysts, nodules, and
often scars, chiefly on the face, neck, and upper trunk.
It is produced by hyperkeratosis, which retains keratin
and sebum, and the main microorganisms involved are
Propionibacterium acnes and staphylococci. For many
years, antibiotics have been used to treat acne vulgaris.
However, antibiotic resistance has been increasing in
prevalence within the dermatologic setting (Swanson,
2003). To overcome the problem of antibiotic resistance, medicinal plants have been extensively studied
as alternative treatments. In this study, 18 medicinal plants, which have been traditionally used as
antibacterial and anti-inflammatory agents, were

selected (Farnsworth & Bunyapraphatsara, 1992) and

investigated for antibacterial activity against P. acnes.
The plant extract that exhibited the strongest effect
was subjected to isolation of the active compound
using bioassay-guided purification. In addition, the
active compound was used as an indicative marker for
standardization of the plant extract using the reversephase HPLC technique.

Materials and methods

Plant materials
The 18 plant materials used in this study are shown in
Table 1. The plant materials were collected in Songkhla
Province, Thailand, in June 2007. The plant materials
were identified by Associate Professor Pharkphoom

Address for Correspondence: Pharkphoom Panichayupakaranant, PhD, Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of
Pharmaceutical Sciences, Prince of Songkla University, Hat-Yai, Songkhla 90112, Thailand. Tel/Fax: 66-74-428220. E-mail: pharkphoom.p@psu.ac.th
(Received 17 January 2008; revised 11 September 2008; accepted 27 January 2009)
ISSN 1388-0209 print/ISSN 1744-5116 online 2010 Informa UK Ltd
DOI: 10.3109/13880200903150443

http://www.informahealthcare.com/phb

376 P. Niyomkam etal.

Table 1. Plant materials used in this study.
Botanical name
Allium sativum L.
Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd.
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. var. indica
Cassia fistula L.
Dioscorea membranacea Pierre
Eupatorium odoratum L.
Gynura pseudochina var. hispida Thwaites
Impatiens balsamina L.
Mimusops elengi L.
Morinda citrifolia L.
Morus alba L.
Muntingia calabura L.
Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.
Phyllanthus emblica L.
Psidium guajava L.
Punica granatum L.
Senna siamea (Lam.) Irwin & Barneby
Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels

Family
Alliaceae
Zingiberaceae
Meliaceae
Leguminosae
Dioscoreaceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Balsaminaceae
Sapotaceae
Rubiaceae
Moraceae
Tiliaceae
Nelumbonaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Myrtaceae
Punicaceae
Leguminosae
Myrtaceae

Panichayupakaranant and deposited at the herbarium

of the Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Prince of
Songkla University, Thailand.
Preparation of plant extracts
The plant materials were dried at 50C for 12h in a hot air
oven and were ground to powder using a grinder and a
sieve no. 45. The dried powder of the plant materials (20g)
was successively extracted with ethyl acetate (100mL)
under reflux conditions for 1h (2). The marc was then
extracted with methanol (100mL) under reflux conditions
for 1h ( 2). After filtering and evaporating the filtrates to
dryness in vacuo, 36 plant extracts were obtained. The
yields of the plant extracts are shown in Table 2.
Microorganisms and media
Propionibacterium acnes (DMST 14916) was obtained
from the Department of Medical Science Center,
Thailand. Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923) and
Staphylococcus epidermidis (ATCC 14990) were
obtained from the Department of Microbiology, Faculty
of Medicine, Prince of Songkla University and Thailand
Institute of Scientific and Technological Research,
respectively. MuellerHinton agar and MuellerHinton
broth were purchased from Merck. P. acnes was stored in
glycerol broth at 20C before it was used.
General instruments
H and 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra
were recorded on a Fourier transform NMR spectrometer, 500 MHz, model Unity Inova, Varian. An infrared

Voucher number
SKP 006 01 19 01
SKP 206 01 07 01
SKP 112 01 09 01
SKP 097.1 03 06 01
SKP 062 04 13 01
SKP 020 05 15 01
SKP 020 07 16 01
SKP 021 09 02 01
SKP 171 13 05 01
SKP 165 13 03 01
SKP 117 13 01 01
SKP 194 13 03 01
SKP 125 14 14 01
SKP 071 16 05 01
SKP 123 16 07 01
SKP 158 16 07 01
SKP 097.1 03 19 01
SKP 123 05 03 01

Part used
Clove
Rhizomes
Leaves
Pod
Rhizome
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Fruit peel
Leaves
Leaves

(IR) spectrum using the neat technique was recorded on

a Fourier transform IR spectrometer, model Equinox 55,
Bruker. Low-resolution electron ionization mass spectrometry (EIMS) was recorded on a MAT 95 XL mass
spectrometer, Thermofinnigan. Quantitative determination of active substances was performed using a high
performance liqud chromatography (HPLC) system,
Agilent series 1100.
Antibacterial susceptibility testing
Disk diffusion method
The experiment was performed using the method of the
National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards
(NCCLS, 2008) with some modification. P. acnes was
incubated in MuellerHinton agar with 5% blood for
72h under anaerobic conditions, and adjusted to yield
approximately 108 CFU/mL with 0.85% sodium chloride,
compared to the turbidity of McFarland No. 0.5. An aliquot of molten MuellerHinton agar with 5% blood was
used as an agar base. A prepared inoculum was streaked
on the surface of the agar base with a cotton stick. A sterile paper disk (diameter 6mm) was impregnated with
10 L of plant extract (500mg/mL) and the disk was
placed on the agar. The concentration of each plant
extract was 5mg/disk. Dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) was
used as a negative control while a tetracycline hydrochloride disk (30 g/disk) was used as a positive control. Plates were then incubated at 37C for 72h under
anaerobic conditions.
S. aureus and S. epidermidis were incubated in
MuellerHinton agar for 24h at 37C, and adjusted to
yield approximately 108 CFU/mL. The procedures were
the same as mentioned above except that the plates were

Antibacterial activity of Thai herbal extracts 377

Table 2. Yield of ethyl acetate (EtOAc) and methanol (MeOH) extracts
of medicinal plants.
%Yield (w/w)
Medicinal plant
EtOAc ext.
MeOH ext.
A. sativum
0.29
3.68
A. galanga
1.20
23.00
A. indica var. indica
4.33
10.01
C. fistula
0.51
37.96
D. membranacea
1.3
10.1
E. odoratum
11.94
15.53
G. pseudochina var.
6.40
5.83
hispida
I. balsamina
11.02
12.39
M. elengi
4.32
17.59
M. citrifolia
7.55
12.89
M. alba
3.00
3.60
M. calabura
9.45
13.32
N. nucifera
3.60
13.06
P. emblica
9.23
10.77
P. guajava
6.07
16.69
P. granatum
3.38
29.64
S. siamea
6.90
15.26
S. cumini
2.29
9.61

incubated at 37C for 24h under normal conditions. All

disk diffusion tests were performed in three separate
experiments and the antibacterial activity is expressed
as the mean of the inhibition diameters (mm).
Determination of minimum inhibitory and bactericidal
concentration
The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC) were determined
by microdilution assay (NCCLS, 2008). The cultures
were prepared in 24h and 72h broth cultures of P. acnes,
S. aureus, and S. epidermidis, respectively. The MIC was
defined as the lowest concentration of compound to
inhibit the growth of microorganisms and the MBC was
defined as the lowest concentration of compound to kill
the microorganisms.
Bioassay-guided isolation
The ethyl acetate extract of Alpinia galanga rhizome
(44.1g) was fractionated with silica gel vacuum chromatography eluted with hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate,
and methanol, respectively. The collected fractions were
pooled with the aid of their thin layer chromatographic
chromatograms and subjected to investigation of antibacterial activity against P. acnes. The active fraction
(fraction II) was further purified by Sephadex LH-20 gel
filtration chromatography eluted with methanol. The
active fraction (fraction I) obtained from the Sephadex
LH-20 column was further purified by silica gel column
chromatography eluted with a mixture of chloroform

and hexane (1:1). A colorless oily liquid, AP1 (696mg),

was obtained from the pooled active fraction (fraction
III).
Identification of AP1
Colorless oily liquid, IR (neat) cm1: 1745 (C=O), 1644,
1605 (C=C, Ar), 1200 (C-O); EIMS: m/z 234 [M+], 192
[M C2H2O]+, 150 [M 2C2H2O]+; 1H-NMR (500 MHz, in
CDCl3) ppm: 7.38 (2H, ddd, J = 8.5, 4.6, 2.7 Hz), 7.09
(2H, ddd, J = 8.5, 4.6, 2.7 Hz), 6.27 (1H, d, J = 5.9 Hz), 5.99
(1H, ddd, J = 17.2, 10.4, 5.9 Hz), 5.31 (1H, ddd, J = 17.2,
1.2, 1.2 Hz), 5.26 (1H, ddd, J = 10.4, 1.2, 1.2 Hz), 2.11 (3H,
S), 2.30 (3H, S); 13C-NMR (125 MHz, in CDCl3) ppm:
169.4, 169.9, 150.4, 136.4, 136.0 (2), 128.4 (2), 121.6,
117.0, 75.5, 21.1, 21.2.
Quantitative determination of 1-ACA
The authentic 1-acetoxychavicol acetate (1-ACA) isolated from A. galanga was used as the standard compound for quantitative determination. The calibration
curve of 1-ACA was established at the concentration
range between 0.06 and 20mg/mL. HPLC analysis
was carried out using an Agilent series 1100 system
equipped with a photodiode-array detector (PDA)
and autosampler. Separation was achieved at 25C on
a 150mm 4.6mm i.d. TSK-gel ODS-80Ts column. The
mobile phase consisted of methanolwater (gradient
elution from 40%, v/v, methanol to 55%, v/v, methanol
in 20min) and was pumped at a flow rate of 1mL/min.
The injection volume was 10 L. The quantitative wavelength was set at 226nm. All the samples were analyzed
in triplicate.

Results and discussion

Among 36 plant extracts that were investigated for
antibacterial activity, 13 plant extracts including the
ethyl acetate extracts of Allium sativum L. (Alliaceae),
Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd. (Zingiberaceae), Eupatorium
odoratum L. (Asteraceae), Phyllanthus emblica L.
(Euphorbiaceae), and Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels
(Myrtaceae) and the methanol extracts of A. galanga,
E. odoratum, Gynura pseudochina var. hispida Thwaites
(Asteraceae), P. emblica, Psidium guajava L. (Myrtaceae),
Punica granatum L. (Punicaceae), Senna siamea (Lam.)
Irwin & Barneby (Leguminosae), and S. cumini were
capable of inhibiting the growth of P. acnes at the concentration of 5mg/disk. Both ethyl acetate and methanol
extracts of A. galanga, P. emblica, and S. cumini exhibited an inhibitory effect on all tested microorganisms,
implying that their active components should be either
less polar or polar compounds. Only the ethyl acetate
extracts of A. sativum and E. odoratum exhibited an

378 P. Niyomkam etal.

inhibitory effect on all tested microorganisms, implying
that their active components should be less polar compounds, while only the methanol extract of P. guajava
exhibited an inhibitory effect on all tested microorganisms, implying that its active components should be
polar compounds. All antibacterial active extracts were
subsequently subjected to determination of MIC and
MBC values.
Determination of the MIC and MBC values of the
herbal extracts demonstrated that the ethyl acetate

extract of A. galanga showed the strongest antibacterial activity against P. acnes, with MIC and MBC values
of 156 and 312 g/mL, respectively (Tables 3 and 4).
Although the ethyl acetate extract of A. sativum showed
interesting inhibitory activities on S. aureus and S. epidermidis with MIC values of 78 and 19.5 g/mL, the MIC
and MBC values against P. acnes were higher than those
of A. galaga. In the case of the methanol extract, only
P. emblica exhibited interesting inhibitory activities on
all tested microorganisms, with MIC and MBC values

Table 3. Minimum inhibitory concentration of the herbal extracts.

Minimum inhibitory concentration (g/mL)
P. acnes
S. aureus
Medicinal plant
EtOAc ext.
MeOH ext.
EtOAc ext.
MeOH ext.
A. sativum
312.0
N/A
78.0
N/A
625.0
>5.0103
A. galanga
156.0
>5.0103
A. indica var. indica

E. odoratum
312.0
5.0103
625.0

G. pseudochina var.

1.25103
hispida
I. balsamina

2.5103
M. elengi

625.0
M. calabura

2.5103
N. nucifera

1.25103
3
312.0
312.0
312.0
P. emblica
2.510
P. guajava

625.0
625.0
312.0
P. granatum

156.0

625.0

N/A
S. siamea

1.0104
312.0
625.0
S. cumini
312.0
1.25103
Tetracycline
0.15
, not performed due to no inhibition zone.

312.0

156.0

0.30

Table 4. Minimum bactericidal concentration of the herbal extracts.

Minimum bactericidal concentration (g/mL)
P. acnes
S. aureus
Medicinal plant
EtOAc
MeOH
EtOAc
MeOH
A. sativum
625.0

312.0

A. galanga
312.0

1.25103
A. indica var. indica

E. odoratum
625.0
5.0103
1.25103

G. pseudochina var.

1.0104
hispida
I. balsamina

5.0103
M. elengi

625.0
M. calabura

2.5103
N. nucifera

1.25103
3
625.0
625.0
312.0
P. emblica
5.010
625.0
625.0
P. guajava

1.25103

1.25103
P. granatum

1.25103

S. siamea

>104
1.25103
625.0
S. cumini
312.0
1.25103
Tetracycline
4.9
, not performed due to no inhibition zone.

S. epidermidis
EtOAc ext.
MeOH ext.
19.5
N/A
625.0
>5.0103

1.25103
625.0

9.7

312.0
2.5103
625.0
312.0
312.0

312.0
0.04

S. epidermidis
EtOAc
MeOH
78.0

1.25103

1.25103
1.25103

625.0

1.25103

625.0
2.5103
625.0
312.0
625.0

312.0
4.9

Antibacterial activity of Thai herbal extracts 379

of 312 g/mL for S. aureus and S. epidermidis and MIC
and MBC values of 312 and 625 g/mL, respectively, for
P. acnes (Tables 3 and 4).
In this study, the ethyl acetate extract of A. galanga
was selected and subjected to isolation of the antibacterial active compound using bioassay-guided purification. Isolation of the ethyl acetate extract using silica gel
vacuum chromatography gave 10 fractions of the isolate.
Investigation of the antibacterial activity against P. acnes
of each fraction showed that fraction II exhibited antibacterial activity stronger than any other of the fractions
(Table 5).
Further purification of fraction II by Sephadex
LH-20 gel filtration column gave two pooled fractions. Pooled fraction I showed an inhibitory effect
with inhibition zone of 34mm. Thus, fraction I was
subjected to further purification using silica gel
Table 5. Antibacterial activity of the pooled fractions isolated by
silica gel vacuum column against P. acnes.
Inhibition zone
Fraction
Yield (g)
(mm)
MIC (g/mL)
I
4.3
14
>5000
II
13.7
42
312
III
12.4
42
312
IV
8.5
40
625
V
1.5
46
1250
VI
1.7
20
1250
VII
0.8
18
1250
VIII
0.5
10
1250
IX
0.6
n.i.

X
0.4
n.i.

n.i., no inhibition zone; , not performed due to no inhibition zone.

Table 6. Antibacterial activity of the pooled fractions isolated by
silica gel column against P. acnes.
Fraction
Yield (g)
Inhibition zone (mm) MIC (g/mL)
I
0.25
14.7
>5000
II
0.42
23.7
156
III
0.70
32.0
78
IV
0.86
27.0
156
V
0.02
12.7
1250

O
O

CH2

O
H 3C

CH3

Figure 1. Structure of 1-acetoxychavicol acetate.

column chromatography to produce five pooled

fractions. A colorless oily liquid (AP1) was obtained
from fraction III, which gave the highest inhibitory
effect with an MIC value of 78 g/mL (Table 6). On
the basis of the spectroscopic data, AP1 was identified
as a phenylpropanoid compound named 1-acetoxychavicol acetate (1-ACA) (Figure 1).
It has been reported that 1-ACA possesses various
biological activities, such as antitumor (Itokawa et al.,
1987; Kondo et al., 1993; Moffatt et al., 2000; Zheng
etal., 2002; Ito etal, 2005; Azuma etal., 2006; Campbell
etal., 2007), anti-inflammation (Nakamura etal., 1998;
Morikawa et al., 2005), antifungal (Janssen & Scheffer,
1985), antiviral (Ye & Li, 2006), antioxidative (Kubota
et al., 2001), and xanthine oxidase inhibitory activity
(Noro et al., 1988). Although it has been reported that
the ethanol extract of A. galanga exhibits antibacterial
activity against S. aureus (Oonmetta-aree et al., 2006),
the antibacterial activity of 1-ACA has not yet been
reported.
Thus, 1-ACA was subjected to evaluation of
antibacterial activity against P. acnes, S. aureus, and
S. epidermidis. It was found that 1-ACA possessed
antibacterial activity against P. acnes, S. aureus, and S.
epidermidis with MIC values of 62, 250, and 250 g/mL,
respectively, and MBC values of 250, 1000, and 1000
g/mL, respectively. The results indicated that P. acnes
was more sensitive to 1-ACA than were S. aureus and
S. epidermidis. This is the first report on the antibacterial activity of 1-ACA against anaerobic bacteria. These
results indicated that A. galanga extract possessed
antibacterial activity against an acne involved microorganism through the active constituent, 1-ACA. Thus,
1-ACA could be recommended as an indicative marker
for the standardization of A. galanga extract.
The optimal conditions for quantitative analysis
of 1-ACA in A. galanga extract were examined using
reverse-phase HPLC. Baseline separation of 1-ACA was
achieved within 30min. The retention time of 1-ACA
was 26min (data not shown). The identity of the 1-ACA
peak was confirmed by comparison of its absorption
spectrum produced by photodiode-array detector with
the authentic compound. The linearity of the HPLC
method was evaluated using standard samples at six
concentrations between 0.6 and 20.0 g/mL. It exhibited
good linearity over the evaluated range with correlation
coefficient 0.9994. On the basis of the HPLC analysis,
the ethyl acetate extract of A. galanga was composed of
1-ACA 76.10.62%, w/w.
The results from this study indicate that A. galanga
extract might be an antibacterial agent for an alternative treatment of acne, and 1-ACA is recommended as
the standard marker for standardization of the extract.

380 P. Niyomkam etal.

Declaration of interest
The authors wish to thank the Graduate School, Prince of
Songkla University, for support in the form of a research
grant. The authors alone are responsible for the content
and writing of the paper.

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