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Channel Capacity Comparison of MIMO Systems with Rician ,Rayleigh Distributions and Nakagami-m
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
MULTIPLE-ANTENNA wireless terminals, which are used along with special signalprocessing techniques to achieve diversity and multiplexing benefits, characterize multipleinputmultiple-output (MIMO) wireless technology. MIMO technology exploits the space
dimensions, in addition to the time and frequency dimensions, to deliver data rates and a quality
of service unmatched otherwise with comparable spectral resources. A MIMO channel is
represented by a channel matrix, whose elements are channel gains between transmitter
receiver antenna pairs. Thus, mathematical tools such as the random matrix theory help the
analysis. Many different techniques have been proposed for the modeling and simulation of
mobile radio channels.
1.1 MIMO SYSTEMS :

In the previous section, we have introduced the conventional single-input single-output
(SISO) communication system, several statistical channel fading models and various important
performance measures. Now we turn our attention to the theme of this thesis, namely, MIMO
systems. In this section, we brief discuss the MIMO fading channel model, benefits of MIMO
systems, as well as some popular transmission schemes proposed to realize the benefits
provided by MIMO systems.
Figure 1.1 illustrates a MIMO system with Nt transmit antennas and Nr receive
antennas. Mathematically, the complex baseband model is characterized by y = Hx + n, (2.18)
where y CNr1 is the received signal at the receiver. x CNt1 is the transmit signal with
sum power constraint E{x x} = P. n CNr1 is the noise vector with E{nn} = 2 I. H
CNrNt is the channel matrix with (i, j)th element corresponding to the multiplicative fading
parameter for the channel between the jth transmit antenna and ith receive antenna.
St. Peters Engineering College
figure 1.1:Diagram of a MIMO systems with Nt transmit antennas and Nr recieve antennas
The characteristic of the MIMO channel is determined by the distribution of the

elements of channel matrix H, which in turn varies according to the underlying physical
propagation environment. For instance, the elements of H can follow Rayleigh distribution,
Rician distribution or Nakagami-m distribution as in the SISO channels. In this thesis, we will
mainly focus on MIMO Nakagami-m, MIMO Rician and MIMO double-scattering fading
channels, the mathematical description of these fading channels will be given in the
corresponding chapters. 2.2.2 Benefits of MIMO Systems The introduction of multiple antennas
into communication systems has offered extra degree of freedom which can be exploited to
provide various gains over conventional SISO systems, i.e., array gain (or power gain), diversity
gain and multiplexing gain. In the following, we give a brief account of these gains.
1.2 Capacity Bounds for MIMO Nakagami-m Fading Channels :

Understanding the fundamental limits of multiple antenna wireless channels has gained
enormous attention from the research community since the invention of MIMO antenna
systems. One important area of research is to derive exact capacity expression or tight capacity
bound, which provides efficient means for evaluating the MIMO channel capacity. And this has
been done for various statistical channel models of interest, e.g., MIMO Rayleigh fading
channels [14, 46, 82, 84, 89] or MIMO Rician fading channels [6, 18, 36, 45, 63, 107].
Although Rayleigh and Rician fading channels are arguably the most popular statistical models
for fading, a more powerful model, namely Nakagami-m fading, was proposed to capture a
variety of physical channel environments.
The generality of Nakagami-m fading channel model not only allows to embrace both
the Rayleigh and Rician fading scenarios, but more importantly, it has been found to be a very
good fitting for the mobile radio channel. However, despite its generality, there has been very
limited works available on the capacity of multiple antenna Nakagami-m fading channels in the
literature. For a SIMO or MISO Nakagami-m fading channel, exact capacity expressions were
obtained. In the latest results of Fraidenraich et. al derived exact capacity formulas for 2 2
and 23 Nakagami-m channels, with the fading parameter m being restricted to be an integer.
This contemporary list of references indicates that despite the need to know the fundamental
limits of Nakagami-m MIMO channels, little is understood. In this chapter, we investigate the
ergodic capacity of MIMO Nakagami-m fading channels with arbitrary real m 1/2 and
arbitrary finite number of antennas at both ends. Two models are considered, namely,
conventional co-located MIMO (C-MIMO) and distributed MIMO (D-MIMO) systems. We
derive tight upper and lower capacity bounds for both models. In addition, a simple and concise
ergodic capacity upper bound is obtained in the high SNR regime, which enables the analysis of
the impact of the channel fading parameter m on the ergodic capacity. Moreover, we also look
into the asymptotic behavior of the ergodic capacity in the large-system limit when the number
of antennas at one or both side(s) goes to infinity.
System Model In this section, we introduce the mathematical models for D-MIMO and
C-MIMO antenna systems. The D-MIMO model reflects the distinctive large-scale fading
effects for each antenna-pair, making it useful for analyzing a MIMO channel with the antennas
distributed in a large area. On the other hand, the C-MIMO model will be used for the analysis
of a traditional point-to-point MIMO channel where the antennas at either side are co-located,
and have the same large-scale fading.
Capacity Bounds for D-MIMO Nakagami-m Channels Here, we consider a D-MIMO
channel which undergos composite Nakagami-m and log-normal fading, and attempt to
derivesimilar capacity bounds for this channel. 38 4.4.1 Ergodic Capacity Upper Bounds
Theorem 4.4 The ergodic capacity of a composite D-MIMO channel is upper bounded by
D D 1 = Nt (Nrm) ln 2 X L i=1 1 X N j=1 wjVi(aj ), where Vi(t) = G 1,3 3,2 P
LNtN0 e 2i t+i Dv i m 1mNr,1,1 1,0 ! , with {aj} N j=1 corresponding to the
zeros of the N-th order Hermite polynomial and {wj} N j=1 are the weight factors tabulated.
Proof: See Appendix B.4. In the proof of Theorem 4.4, Gaussian-Hermite quadratic integration
has been employed to approximate the infinite integral. While can be used to compute the
upper bound for the general composite Nakagami-m and log-normal fading channels, the
computation of Meijer G-function can still be time consuming at extreme low SNRs [e.g., < 15
(dB)].
A simpler expression is possible for the special case such as the Rayleigh and lognormal composite channel, and is given below. Corollary 4.4 The ergodic capacity of a
composite Rayleigh and log-normal D-MIMO fading channel (i.e., m = 1 and = 1) is upper
bounded by DRayleigh D 2 = Nt ln 2 X L i=1 1 X N j=1 wjTi(aj ), where Ti(t) = e
LNtDv i N0 P e 2i t+i PNr1 k=0 Ek+1 LNtDv i N0 P e 2i t+i with En(x)
denoting the exponential integral of order n , and {wj} and {aj} are defined.
Proof: The outline of the proof is similar to that of the general Nakagami-m and lognormal composite channel. Specifically, the proof requires the capacity expression, and the
Gaussian-Hermite quadratic integration approximation. The accuracy of the Gaussian-Hermite
approximation has been studied, which has shown that the approximation is very accurate for N
4. The above capacity bounds, though in closed form, are too complex to gain insights. It is
thus of interest to consider the high SNR regime for simplification, which we do in the
following.
Corollary 4.5 For composite Nakagami-m and log-normal fading channels, in the high
SNR regime, the ergodic capacity upper bound D 1 can be approximated as D 1 D hsnr =
LNt log P LNtN0 + LNt ln 2 h (Nrm) ln m i Ntv X L i=1 log Di + Nt ln 2 X L
i=1 i .
Proof: The above result is quite informative. This clearly indicates the separate effects of
small-scale and largescale fading on the channel ergodic capacity. decomposes the ergodic
capacity into two parts: The first part accounts for the small-scale fading which is equivalent to
a MIMO system with NtL transmit antennas and Nr receive antennas operating in Nakagami-m
fading channels, while the second part explains the large-scale fading effect, plus the path loss
effect on the ergodic capacity. The impact of log-normal fading can also be seen from the mean
fading parameters {i}.
Ergodic Capacity Lower Bounds In this subsection, we derive a lower bound for the
ergodic capacity of the composite log-normal and Nakagami fading channels. To do so,
however, the lower bound for the general D-MIMO system is not available due to the lack of
analytical p.d.f. of the sum of weighted i.i.d. gamma random variables. We thus consider a
special case when the number of ports
CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 REVIEW OF EARLIER WORK :
In this section, a detailed summary of Literature review of spectrum efficiency of
various diversity schemes under different adaptation policies, and interference cancellation
techniques, is discussed.
2.1.1 Capacity Analysis of MIMO:

The increasing demand for transmitting information over a wireless channel has led to
the emergence of Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) technology. The use of multiple
antennas at both ends of a wireless link enables the opening of multiple spatial data pipes
between the transmitter and the receiver within the frequency band of operation for no
additional power expenditure. This leads to a dramatic increase in spectral efficiency, known as
spatial multiplexing gain. MIMO technology has materialised its promise of providing high
information rates without additional spectral requirements, which has been well explained in the
pioneering works of Foschini and Gans and Telatar . There is a considerably large amount of
literature on 13 Rayleigh fading which considers only Non-Line-Of-Sight (NLOS) components.
However, in reality, there are Line-Of-Sight (LOS) components between the transmitter and
receiver which are best described by the Rician fading distribution. In , the author investigates
the capacity limits of MIMO communication system following Rician distribution. In , the
authors arrived at an exact expression for average Mutual Information (MI) rate of MIMO
Rician fading channels when the fading coefficients are independent, but not necessarily
identically distributed.
Research work in has established that the presence of strong LOS components
correlates with the channel sparsity, thereby reducing the number of Degrees of Freedom (DoF).
The presence of NLOS components reduces the correlation between the signals thereby
increasing the rank of the channel matrix. Capacity of spatially correlated MIMO channels has
been obtained in . Both single-sided and double-sided correlation has been considered.tThe
author analyses ergodic capacity for MIMO channels with rank-1 mean matrices. Upper and
lower bounds on the ergodic capacity have been presented. Upper bound on ergodic capacity for
a system undergoing Rician fading for arbitrary Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) and rank of matrix
is derived. Researchers have analysed ergodic capacity for MIMO channels with rank-1 mean
matrices, upper and lower bounds on the ergodic capacity. Moreover, upper bound on ergodic
capacity for a system undergoing Rician fading for arbitrary SNR, and rank of a matrix was also
derived.
2.1.2 Spectrum Efficiency of various fading channels:

Shannon capacity for fading channels was obtained initially with channel side
information at the transmitter and receiver. The capacity of a single-user fading channel was
obtained when the channel fade level is tracked by both the transmitter and the receiver, and by
the receiver alone. In particular, fading channel capacity with channel side information at both
the transmitter and receiver is achieved when the transmitter adapts its power, data rate, and
coding scheme to the channel variation. The optimal power allocation is water-pouring in
time, analogous to water-pouring used to achieve capacity on frequency-selective fading
channels. It has been proved that for independent and identically distributed (i.i.d.) fading, using
receiver side information only, has a lower complexity and the same approximate capacity as
optimally adapting to the channel for the three fading distributions examined. However,
correlated fading, not adapting to the transmitter, causes both a decrease in capacity and an
increase in encoding and decoding complexity. Also, consider two suboptimal adaptation
techniques: channel inversion and truncated channel inversion policy, which adapts transmit
power, but keeps the transmission rate constant. These techniques have very simple encoder and
decoder designs, but exhibit a capacity penalty which can be large in severe fading. Capacity
analysis for all these techniques neglects the effects of estimation error and delay, which will
generally degrade capacity. The tradeoff between these adaptive and nonadaptive techniques is
therefore one of both capacity and complexity.
Assuming that the channel is estimated at the receiver, the adaptive techniques require a
feedback path between the transmitter and the receiver, and some complexity at the transmitter.
The optimal adaptive technique uses variable-rate and variable-power transmission, and the
complexity of its decoding technique is comparable to the complexity of decoding a sequence of

Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) channels in parallel. For the non- 15 adaptive
technique, the code design must make use of channel correlation statistics, and decoder
complexity is proportional to the channel decorrelation time. The optimal adaptive technique
always has the highest capacity, but the increase relative to non-adaptive transmission using
receiver side information only, is small when fading is approximately i.i.d. The suboptimal
adaptive techniques reduce complexity at a cost of decreased capacity. This tradeoff between
achievable data rates and complexity is examined for adaptive and non-adaptive modulation in ,
where adaptive modulation achieves an average data rate within 710 dB of the capacity
derived herein (depending on the required error probability), while non-adaptive modulation
exhibits a severe rate penalty. Trellis codes can be combined with adaptive modulation to
achieve higher rates.
Capacity was obtained when the channel fade level is unknown to both the transmitter
and the receiver for GilbertElliot channel, and for more general Markov channels models. If
the statistics of channel variations are also unknown, then channels with deep fading will
typically have a capacity close to zero. This is because data must be decoded without error,
which is difficult when the location of deep fades are random. In particular, the capacity of a
fading channel with arbitrary variation is at most the capacity of a time-invariant channel under
worst case fading conditions. More details about the capacity of time-varying channels under
these assumptions can be found in Literature on arbitrarily varying channels. The capacity of the
fading channel (Rayleigh, Lognormal, and Nakagami fading) under different side information
conditions was obtained. The adaptive policy with transmitter side information requires more
complexity at the transmitter (and it typically also requires a feedback path between the receiver
and transmitter to obtain the side information). However, the decoder at the receiver is relatively
simple. The nonadaptive policy has a relatively simple transmission scheme, but its code design
must use channel correlation statistics (often unknown), and the decoder 16 complexity is
proportional to the channel decorrelation time. The channel inversion and truncated inversion
policies use codes designed for AWGN channels, and are therefore the least complex to
implement, but in severe fading conditions, they exhibit large capacity losses relative to the
other techniques.
Spectrum efficiency for Rayleigh fading channels under different adaptation policies
with selection combining and maximal ratio combining are derived. Link spectral efficiency,
defined as the average transmitted data rate per unit bandwidth for a specified average transmit
power and Bit Error Rate (BER) was discussed. Over the last three decades, researchers have
looked at various ways to improve link spectral efficiency of wireless systems. The theoretical
spectral efficiency limit of adaptive modulation in Rayleigh fading channels was investigated.
This fading channel model applies to land mobile radio channels without a LOS path between
the transmitter and receiver antennas, as well as to ionospheric and tropospheric scatter
channels. The analyses can also be generalized to Nakagami fading channels. Shannon capacity
of a channel defines its theoretical upper bound for the maximum rate of data transmission at an
arbitrarily small BER without any delay or complexity constraints. Therefore, Shannon capacity
represents an optimistic bound for practical communication schemes, and also serves as a
benchmark against which to compare spectral efficiency of all practical adaptive transmission
schemes. The general theory developed was applied to obtain closed-form expressions for the
capacity of Rayleigh fading channels under different adaptive transmission and diversitycombining techniques. In particular, three adaptation policies were considered: Optimal
simultaneous Power and Rate Adaptation (OPRA), Constant power with Optimal Rate
Adaptation (ORA), and Channel Inversion with Fixed Rate (CIFR). The relative impact of
Maximal Ratio Combining (MRC) and Selection Combining (SC) diversity schemes were
discussed in conjunction with each of these 17 adaptive transmission schemes. The capacity of a
Rayleigh fading channel (with and without diversity) was derived for the optimal adaptation
policy, constant transmit power policy, and channel inversion policy. The capacity of an AWGN
channel is compared to the capacity of a Rayleigh fading channel with optimal rate adaptation,
constant transmit power, and various diversity combining techniques. It was proved that
Optimal power and rate adaptation policy yields a small increase in capacity over optimal rate
adaptation policy, with increase in average received SNR and number of diversity branches. In
addition, channel inversion suffers the largest capacity penalty relative to the other policies.
The capacity of Nakagami Multipath Fading (NMF) channels with an average power
constraint for three adaptation policies has been studied. Theoretical spectral efficiency limits of
adaptive modulation have been discussed in NMF channels. The assumptions are made such
that the channel changes at a rate much slower than the data rate, so the channel remains
constant over hundreds of symbols. NMF channel was assumed so that the Probability Density
Function (PDF) of the received signal amplitude is statistically characterized by the Nakagami
distribution. The time delay in this feedback path is also assumed to be negligible compared to
the rate of channel variation. All these assumptions, which are reasonable for high-speed data
transmission over a slowly-fading channel, allow the transmitter to adapt its power and/or rate
relative to the actual channel state. Closed-form solutions for NMF channel capacity for each
power and rate adaptation strategy are obtained. Also, closed-form expressions for outage
probability, spectral efficiency and average BER assuming perfect channel estimation, and
negligible time delay between channel estimation and signal set adaptation are derived. Results
show that rate adaptation is the key to improve spectrum efficiency. 18 Closed-form expressions
are derived for single-user capacity of MRC diversity systems taking into account the effect of
correlation between the branches. Both the cases of balanced and unbalanced branch SNRs are
dealt with. A slow non-selective Rayleigh fading channel was considered with two kinds of
correlation between branches: 1) equal branch SNRs and same correlation between any pair of
branches; 2) unequal branch SNRs and arbitrary correlation between branches such that the
eigenvalues of the branch covariance matrix are all distinct. The channel was assumed to be
blockstationary and ergodic. Three adaptive transmission schemes are analyzed: 1) optimal
simultaneous power and rate adaptation; (2) optimal rate adaptation with constant transmit
power; and (3) channel inversion with fixed rate. The analysis assumes that the receiver has
perfect knowledge of the branch amplitudes and phases for diversity combining, and that the
transmitter has perfect knowledge of the combined SNR and can adapt to it. Closed-form
expressions are derived for single-user capacity of maximal ratio combining diversity systems
with the considered adaptive transmission schemes, assuming Rayleigh fading channel with two
kinds of correlation. Plots of capacity per unit bandwidth show that for all schemes, spectrum
efficiency decreases with increase in the correlation coefficient. The results show that capacity
for OPRA policy outperforms capacity of ORA policy, capacity of CIFR policy, and capacity of
TIFR policy.
The work of other researchers further extended by deriving closed form expressions for
spectral efficiency in Rician fading channels with varying degrees of freedom. The multipath
Rician fading channels, which are used to model the statistics of signals transmitted through
radio channels, such as cellular radio, have n degrees of freedom (n > 2). The methodology of
10
computing the optimal cutoff level SNR is shown for generalized Rician fading channels with
single antenna reception and L-fold MRC diversity reception. For successful data transmission,
the received SNR must be at least equal to the 19 optimal cutoff level SNR. Closed-form
expressions for spectral efficiency of Generalized Rician fading channels are derived for
different adaptive transmission policies with and without diversity. Closed-form solutions are
derived for single antenna reception (without diversity combining) and maximal ratio diversity
combining cases. Results show that truncated channel inversion adaptation policy is the best
policy for single antenna reception case, while channel inversion with fixed rate policy is the
best policy for the MRC diversity case. Constant transmit power policy provides the lowest
spectrum efficiency as compared to the other policies with and without diversity combining.
Diversity combining yields large capacity gains for channel inversion with fixed rate policy as
compared to the other policies.
Using the PDF of a Rayleigh fading channel with Equal Gain Combining (EGC)
diversity, closed-form expressions for capacities per unit bandwidth are derived for various
adaptation policies. It is assumed throughout our analysis that the variation in the combined
output SNR is tracked perfectly by the receiver. It is also assumed that the variation in the
received signal is sent back to the transmitter via an error-free feedback path. The time delay in
this feedback path is also assumed to be negligible compared to the rate of channel variations.
Results prove that channel inversion with fixed rate policy is best suited for EGC diversity
reception, and constant transmit power policy provides lowest capacity as compared to the other
policies. When diversity combining is used, deep channel fades are generally absent, and so, a
limited amount of transmit power is enough to compensate for fading. Thus, channel inversion
with fixed rate policy which incorporates a fixed modulation and code design technique proves
to be the best adaptation policy for the EGC diversity case. A simulation is performed for each
of the adaptation policies, and compared with the analytical results. Analytical results closely
match with the simulated results. 20
Asymptotic error rate expressions are derived for multi-branch equal gain combining
and selection combining schemes, operating on arbitrarily correlated Rayleigh fading channels.
These closed-form solutions are used to provide rapid and accurate estimation of error rates in
large SNR regions. More importantly, they reveal additional insights into the transmission
11
characteristics of linear diversity combining schemes operating on correlated Rayleigh fading

channels. It is shown that the asymptotic error rates over correlated branches can be obtained by
scaling the asymptotic error rates over independent branches with a factor, det(M), where
det(M) is the determinant of the normalized channel correlation matrix. This relationship is
valid for both coherent and non-coherent signaling. A similar relationship is also established for
outage probabilities of fading channels employing multi-branch diversity reception. In this
work, asymptotic error performance of EGC and SC were studied over N-branch correlated
Rayleigh channels. Of practical value, new compact analytical results were derived that can be
used to provide rapid and accurate error rate and outage probability estimation. Simple
analytical expressions have been developed and have been used to assess the asymptotic error
performance of EGC and SC schemes operating over N-branch arbitrarily correlated Rayleigh
fading channels. Simple relationships between the asymptotic error rates and outage
probabilities of MRC, EGC, and SC diversity operating over correlated channels and
independent channels have been established. It has been shown analytically that the logarithmic
error performance over correlated channels with fixed correlation behaves like the error
performance over independent channels in large SNR regions.
Closed-form expressions for single-user capacity of MRC systems in the presence of
Gaussian channel estimation errors are obtained, taking into account the effect of imperfect
channel estimation at the receiver. The channel considered is slowly varying flat Rayleigh
fading that is also spatially independent. The combiner weights are assumed to be affected by
Gaussian 21 errors at the receiver. Also, closed-form expressions for system capacity when
employing different adaptive transmission schemes, such as (1) optimal power and rate
adaptation, (2) constant power with optimal rate adaptation, and (3) channel inversion with
fixed rate are derived. In addition, channel capacity statistics of MRC schemes are investigated,
which are valid for arbitrary number of receive antennas, including Moment Generating
Function (MGF), Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) and PDF. The contributions of this
paper are two-fold. Firstly, the capacity statistics of MRC receiver subject to Rayleigh fading
for arbitrary number of diversity branches was derived in the presence of Gaussian estimation
errors. Secondly, closed-form expressions for the channel capacity of MRC in independent and
identically distributed (i.i.d.) Rayleigh fading channels was derived with the following adaptive
transmission schemes (1) OPRA; (2) ORA with constant transmit power; and (3) CIFR.
12
Numerical results are shown to illustrate the mathematical derivation of channel capacity per
unit bandwidth as a function of the average received SNR in dB for different adaptation policies
with MRC over slow Rayleigh fading channel with weight estimation errors. Results show that
capacity for OPRA policy outperforms capacity of ORA policy and capacity of TIFR policy
when compared to the other policies. However, capacity of TIFR policy performs the worst
among other policies because it suffers large capacity penalty due to the estimation error,
whereas it is less complex to implement.
2.1.3 Mitigation of Co-Channel Interference:

Optimal Transmit/Receive Diversity (TRD) is one of the most important configurations
for wireless MIMO systems, due to its good performance and ease of implementations. Though
investigated intensively, the performance of optimal TRD in general correlated fading with cochannel interference (CCI) still not well understood. Since the output optimal of the TRD
instantaneous Signal-to-Noise-plus-Interference Ratio (SNIR) is equal to 22 the largest sample
eigenvalues of a quadratic form involving signal and interference channel matrices, directly
determining the PDF of this eigenvalue has been a prevailing approach in Literature. Given the
nonlinearity involved in the quadratic form, however, finding such a PDF is not simple except
for some special channel conditions. This problem is formulated in a totally different
framework, as testing the positive-definiteness of a random matrix, whereby the theory of
matrix-variate distributions can be invoked to obtain exact solutions in terms of special
functions. The solutions are very general, including most of the existing results as a special
case, and allowing for the correlation structures of both signal and interferers to be arbitrary at
both transmitter and receiver ends. The performance issue of MIMO systems was tackled with
optimal TRD over general Rician/Rayleigh and Rayleigh/Rayleigh fading channels in a unified
framework. No attempt is made to compute the distribution function of the largest eigenvalue of
the relevant quadratic form. But rather, the outage problem is formulated as testing the positivedefiniteness of a random matrix. The philosophy behind this is that determining the joint PDF of
this random matrix is much easier than its counterpart for the aforementioned largest sample
eigenvalue.
An analytical framework is developed to characterize the capacity of MIMO
communication systems in the presence of multiple MIMO co-channel interferers and noise .
13
The situation is considered in which transmitters have no channel state information, and all
links undergo Rayleigh fading. The determinant representation is first generalized of
hypergeometric functions with matrix arguments to the case when the argument matrices have
eigenvalues of arbitrary multiplicity. This enables the derivation of the distribution of the
eigenvalues of Gaussian quadratic forms and Wishart matrices with arbitrary correlation, with
applications to both single-user and multiuser MIMO systems. In particular, ergodic mutual
information for MIMO systems was derived in the presence of multiple MIMO interferers. This
analysis is valid for any number 23 of interferers, each with arbitrary number of antennas
having possibly unequal power levels. This framework, therefore, accommodates the study of
distributed MIMO systems and accounts for different spatial positions of the MIMO interferers.
In this work, rich scattering environments were considered in which transmitters have no CSI,
the receiver has perfect CSI, and all links undergo frequency flat Rayleigh fading. The joint
PDF of the eigenvalues of complex Gaussian quadratic forms and Wishart matrices are derived,
with arbitrary multiplicities for the eigenvalues of the associated covariance matrix. The ergodic
capacity of single-user MIMO systems are also derived that accounts for arbitrary power levels
and arbitrary correlation across the transmit antenna elements, or arbitrary correlation at the
receiver side.
The performance of dual branch Switch and Stay Combining (SSC) diversity receivers
operating over correlated Rician fading channels were studied in the presence of correlated
Rayleigh distributed CCI. Fast convergent infinite series representations for both the joint PDF
of the SSC input Signal-to-Interference Ratios (SIRs) and the PDF of the SSC output SIR were
derived. The last one is applied to semi-analytically study the Average Bit Error Probability
(ABEP) of Differential Binary Phase Shift Keying (DBPSK). In this work, a dual SSC receiver
was considered, operating over correlated Rician fading channels in the presence of correlated
Rayleigh CCI. SSC diversity system over correlated Rician fading channel in the presence of
Nakagami-m CCI is considered. This work focussed on Rayleigh CCI and branch correlation
with detailed derivation of formulae needed for assessment of system performance. Actually,
closed-form expressions for both the joint PDF of input SIRs and the PDF of the output SIR at
the SSC receiver were derived. Capitalizing on the last of these expressions, ABEP for DBPSK
was obtained. Moreover, optimal switching threshold that minimizes ABEP was obtained
numerically in order to analyze the effects of fading severity and branch correlation on the
14
minimized ABEP. First, closed-form expressions of 24 the joint PDF of SSC input SIRs was
derived, and it has been used to derive an infinite series representation of the PDF of the SSC
output SIR. Further, ABEP as an important performance criterion was evaluated for DBPSK.
The switching threshold that minimizes the considered ABEP was obtained numerically and
presented for different values of fading severity and branch correlation coefficient. Rapid
convergence of the PDF of the output SIR enables high accuracy of the obtained ABEP.
An algorithm was proposed to reject CCI in 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) Multiple
Input Multiple Output Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (MIMO-OFDM) systems
[39]. An improved channel estimation method and interference rejection algorithm was
discussed. The interference information is measured on the pilot sub-carriers which are sent
regularly in time and frequency. An improved model averaged interference mitigation method
parameterizes the interference and noise spatial-covariancematrix on each carrier as a
combination of several low-rank models, each associated with probability soft information. A
reduced complexity aposteriori receiver was derived based on the low-rank spatial covariance
model. Parameterizing the interference and noise covariance matrix helps in adapting the
receiver for different interference scenarios. Simulation results are provided to demonstrate the
efficacy of the model averaged over interference rejection method applied to MIMO-OFDM
system. In this paper, a CCI mitigation method applicable to a MIMO-OFDM system with time
varying interference was considered. An advanced MIMO detector, an improved channel
estimator and adaptive CCI suppression algorithms were discussed. An improved channel
estimator was proposed and performance results are applicable to 3GPP-LTE. Due to adaptive
resource allocation algorithms, interference and also the number of interferers experienced by
different subcarriers are different and vary with time. The conventional methods do not account
for time variation of the number of interferers, and hence their performance varies with different
25 interference scenarios. A model averaged interference rejection method and an improved
channel estimation method was proposed for interference limited MIMO-OFDM systems like
3GPP-LTE.
CCI cancellation strategy was proposed based on Successive Interference Cancellation
(SIC) for cooperative communication systems. The performance is evaluated in terms of BER in
a Rayleigh fading channel. One of the primary factors in the design of cooperative
15
communication systems is spectrum efficiency. Frequency reuse is typically employed to

provide a high capacity system due to limited amount of radio frequency spectrum resource. In
the frequency reuse system, cancellation strategy of CCI is very much required to maintain a
permissible range of interference for the system. In order to mitigate the effect of CCI, Cleanand Forward (CF) and Minimum Mean Square Error (MMSE) algorithms have been proposed
and analyzed. In this paper, CCI cancellation performance was analyzed and simulated for
cooperative communication systems. MMSE and Zero-Forcing (ZF) algorithm was employed to
cancel the interfering signals in cooperative communication systems. Moreover, SIC scheme
was employed with optimal ordering to choose one of the estimated symbols. BER performance
is evaluated. From simulation results, it was demonstrated that the SIC with optimal ordering
achieves better performance compared to other conventional interference cancellation
algorithms. Also, the SIC scheme with optimal ordering offered performance improvement
compared to simple SIC without optimal ordering. Additionally, it was confirmed that the CCI
cancellation algorithm became more effective for rejection of CCI if it was combined with a
channel coding scheme, such as convolutional coding.
2.1.4 Effects of Co-Channel Interference in MIMO systems:

In,considering channel estimation error and the presence of CCI, the performance of
multiuser MIMO systems was analyzed in wireless systems 26 employing transmit
beamforming and maximum ratio combining. Exact closed-form cumulative distribution
function expressions of the SNIR were derived. Secondly, average capacity of MIMO-MRC
systems was presented with multiuser diversity. In a MIMO-MRC system, Channel State
Information (CSI) is perfectly known at the transmitter and the receiver, and the signals are
combined in such a way that the SNR at the output receiver combiner is maximized. The
performance of MIMO-MRC systems with the assumption of perfect channel estimation in the
presence of CCI was considered in which the authors first analyzed the performance of MIMOMRC systems with channel estimation error. Also, the authors derived exact closed-form
expressions for the statistical distribution of SNIR, the outage probability of SNIR, and the
Average Symbol Error Rate (ASER) with channel estimation error and the presence of CCI.
Exact closed-form expressions were determined for the outage probability of MIMO
systems in Rayleigh fading with maximal ratio diversity combining and CCI. In this work,
16
assuming arbitrary-power interferers and an arbitrary number of transmit and receive antennas,
the SNIR PDF, and an exact closed-form expression were obtained for the outage probability of
MIMO-MRC systems with CCI. These formulas were given as a finite sum of simple terms that
are easily evaluated. A second analytical approach was also presented to obtain the Moment
Generating Function (MGF) of the SNIR, which was used for the analysis of average
probability of error. Numerical results for system outage probability and average error rate
indicated that performance was degraded in the presence of dominant interferers, and an
unbalanced number of antennas at the transmitter and receiver for a fixed total interference
power. In addition, for a fixed total number of transmit and receive antennas, outage probability
and average BER decrease when the transmitter and receiver have the same number of antennas.
27
Turbo packet combining for single carrier broadband MIMO hybrid Automatic
Repeat reQuest (ARQ) transmission with unknown CCI was studied. A new frequency domain
soft MMSE-based signal level combining technique was proposed, where received signals and
Channel Frequency Responses (CFRs) corresponding to all retransmissions are used to decode
the data packet. Also, a recursive implementation algorithm was provided for the introduced
scheme, and show that both its computational complexity and memory requirements were quite
insensitive to ARQ delay, i.e., maximum number of ARQ rounds. Furthermore, it was analyzed
that the asymptotic performance showed that under a sum-rank condition on the CCI MIMO
ARQ channel, the proposed packet combining scheme is not interference-limited. In this work,
efficient turbo receiver techniques were investigated for SC Space Time-Bit Interleaved Coded
Modulations (STBICM) transmission with Chase-type ARQ over broadband MIMO channel
with unknown CCI. By using an identical Cyclic Prefix (CP) word for multiple retransmissions
of a symbol block, transmission combining was performed at the signal level. The frequency
domain soft MMSE packet combiner performed soft Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)
cancellation and retransmission combining in the presence of unknown CCI jointly over all
received signal blocks. The complexity order is only cubic in terms of the number of transmit
antennas. Received signals and CFRs corresponding to all ARQ rounds are used without being
required to be stored in the receiver. Interestingly, it was shown that under a rank-condition on
the MIMO ARQ channel corresponding to unknown CCI, the proposed combining scheme is
not interference-limited, i.e., unknown CCI can be completely removed.
17
An analysis method for determining downlink data throughput was presented in

interference-limited MIMO systems. This approach does not lead to an explicit single formula
which covers all system design parameters. However, cell-wide mean throughputs for any
particular design can be 28 computed using the method described here. The overall impact of
the assumptions made is minor, in terms of getting realistic estimates of cell-wide throughput;
and this holds for a wide range of channel and system parameters besides the set used. The key
novelties in this work were that (1) it treated the total multipath-averaged CCI power as being
that of additive Gaussian noise (the first conjecture noted above); and (2) it exploited the nearLognormality of Lognormal sums to obtain a Lognormal distribution for the total CCI power
(the second conjecture). Taken together, these steps permitted a very simple analytical
framework; it requires only a small amount of simulation and curve fitting to obtain key
analysis inputs for a given set of system and channel parameters.
In communication systems that use OFDM and multiple transmit and receive antennas,
Beam Forming (BF) is conventionally carried out on a subcarrier basis. The computational
requirements are high as dedicated Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) processors are needed for
each antenna. Considerable complexity reductions can be achieved by symbol-wise BF, which
performs transmit and receive BF operations in the time domain, and therefore requires only
one DFT processor per terminal. Symbol-wise BF for mitigation of CCI was investigated on
spatially correlated channels, which are modeled with the Kronecker model. A generalized
framework was considered for symbol-wise BF that also takes CCI into account. From an
information theoretic perspective, it is desirable to maximize mutual information. Since its
maximization in the context of symbol wise BF is infeasible, an alternative optimization metric,
the SNIR before OFDM demodulation was introduced. The analytic optimization of this metric
is not tractable either, but an algorithm is proposed that performs maximization iteratively.
Convergence to local maxima is rare and if it occurs, the local maximum is generally close to
the global maximum. It was confirmed analytically that symbol-wise BF is the optimal BF
scheme when the channel is 29 frequency flat. An iterative algorithm was presented for antenna
weight computation, which converges to the global maximum in most cases. Computer
simulations have demonstrated that this algorithm clearly outperforms a Single Input and Single
Output (SISO) system and a conventional phased array, both of which have no, or only limited
ability to mitigate interference and to exploit spatial diversity. Compared to subcarrier-wise BF,
18
symbol-wise BF significantly reduces computational requirements. The relative performance

gap between the two schemes reduces with increase in spatial correlation, and disappears
completely for full correlation.
2.1.5 Effects of Adjacent Channel Interference :

Frequency channels are a scarce resource in Industrial, Scientific and Medical (ISM)
radio bands used by IEEE 802.11 WLANs. Current radio resource management is often limited
to a small number of non-overlapping channels, which leaves only three possible channels in
the 2.4 GHz band used in IEEE 802.11b/g networks. The presence of Adjacent Channel
Interference (ACI) reduces the effective SINR and therefore, the number of errors in reception
is increased. The effect of ACI was studied and quantified, which is caused by transmissions in
partially overlapping channels. A model was proposed that is able to determine under what
circumstances the use of adjacent channels is justified. The model can also be used to assist
different radio resource management mechanisms (e.g. transmitted power assignments). The
results obtained from simulations, analytical models and practical measurements justify the use
of partially overlapped channels instead of 3-coloring allocations traditionally applied to IEEE
802.11b networks.
The market is demanding higher data throughput rates for new WLAN applications like
multimedia audio and video, streaming media, voice over WLAN, and others that require very
good Quality of Service (QoS) capabilities 30 and lower packet error rates. As a consequence of
an increasing amount of inband and adjacent band interference in the environment for WLAN
equipment, the design of radios and digital filtering has become critical. This white paper
analyzes the sources of ACI and radio design practices that can improve a WLAN's Adjacent
Channel Rejection (ACR) for better overall performance. By following careful design practices,
IEEE 802.11 receivers can be developed with adequate ACR in order to overcome much of the
ACI encountered in WLAN deployments. In addition, power control and other strategies can be
designed into WLAN receivers and transmitters to drastically improve data throughput and
range performance of Access Points (APs) and clients in the presence of in-band RF
interference.
19
To design a highly reliable system, potential interference to the system has to be

identified and taken into consideration. One of the major interference sources is that coming
from other IEEE 802.15.3c devices occupying adjacent channels, commonly known as ACI.
The ACI resistance of a multi-Gbps single carrier Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN)
operating in the 60 GHz millimeter-wave band has been discussed in. The significance of
performance degradation due to ACI is investigated corresponding to varying factors such as
types of modulation and Radio Frequency (RF) hardware impairments. The level of modulation
scheme is found to change the system resistance against ACI considerably.
The performance impact of ACI was evaluated in multi-hop wireless networks based on
dual-radio 802.11a nodes. Although these nodes use chipsets that satisfy transmit-mask
requirements set by the IEEE 802.11 standard, multi-hop performance is still significantly
affected by ACI. That is, the transmitter of a node can interfere with its own receiver on a
different channel; as a result, multi-hop throughput is severely degraded. This 31 degradation is
especially pronounced for IEEE 802.11a. A spectrum analyzer was used with a signal combiner
to quantify ACI under various conditions and propose solutions to mitigate the effect of such
interference on multi-hop forwarding. The technique used, such as increasing channel
separation and antenna distance, mitigates ACI. Field experiments with multi-hop relay have
validated these findings as well as the effectiveness of the solutions.
An adaptive ACI technique was proposed, which improves the system performance
under higher levels of interference. Basically, the idea was to send pilot signals and then to use
them in estimating the amount of ACI in frequency domain. The estimated spectral error was
used to modify tap weights of an adaptive frequency-domain filter. Simulation results reported
suggest that ACI can be effectively reduced with the proposed technique. At the system level,
the requirements of analog front-end channel-select and other filters can be relaxed, resulting in
a cost-effective receiver design.
Adjacent channel interference can result in a reduced network capacity in a multioperator
Wideband
Code
Division
Multiple
Access/Frequency
Division
Duplexing
(WCDMA/FDD) environment. When considering two wide Base Stations (BSs) grids that lie
close to each other to cover a specific area, it was observed that the main interference source is
not ACI, but interference from the neighbouring BSs working on the same channel. It was noted
20
that macro BS is more likely to suffer from ACI when new hotspots are covered with micro BS
by a competitor operator. This fact is due to the longer distance between the user and the macro
BS, as compared to the latter. As the macro carrier may suffer a greater impact on capacity, it
should be protected and placed in the centre channel of the allocated spectrum. This choice is
independent of the number or type of carriers used, assuming that the operator launching a
service uses at least one macro carrier. 32
2.2 REVIEW OF PROPOSED WORK:

Research has been carried out discussing the effects of CCI and ACI under various
scenarios. Also, several algorithms were proposed, and receiver structures were designed to
mitigate interference. System performance in the presence of Co-channel and Adjacent channel
interference has not been addressed yet. This research work extends the analysis of system
performance in the presence of the above mentioned interference scenarios. System
performance under various diversity schemes when subjected to different adaptation policies
have been discussed in several fading environments in this research work. The system
performance is analyzed by deriving analytical expressions for parametric measures considered
under various scenarios in the presence of Co-channel and Adjacent channel interference.
Analytical expressions derived are used to discuss results through various plots. Analytical
results discussed are validated through simulation results of the system considered with realtime parameters. For simulation, the considered system specifications are taken from the
WiMAX IEEE 802.16 standard.
21
CHAPTER-3
DESIGN
3.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM:
Figure 3.1:Block diagram
The general MIMO system is shown in Fig. 1 with NT transmitter antennas and NR
receiver antennas. The signal model represented as: r =Hx+n (1) where r is (NR x 1) received
signal vector, x is (NT x 1) transmitted signal vector, n is (NT x 1) complex additive white
Gaussian noise (AWGN) vector with variance , and H is the (NR x NT) channel matrix. The
channel matrix H represents the effect of the medium on the transmitter receiver links. The
channel matrix
Channel matrix may offer K equivalent parallel sub channels with different mean gains,
where K= rank ( HHH ) min(NTNR).
22
3.2 INTRODUCTION TO WIRELESS COMMUNICATION:

Wireless communication is, by any measure, the most vibrant area and fastest growing
segment of the communication field today. The constantly evolving and developing wireless
technologies are changing the way people live, work, and entertain. Indeed, wireless
communication has now become an integral part of peoples daily life and a critical business
tool with the proliferation of cellular phones and laptop computers. Moreover, the popularity of
wireless communication is set to increase with the development of various new wireless
systems and applications, and such a trend is inevitable due to the advantages inherited from the
nature of wireless communication Benefits of Wireless Communication Compared with the
wireline communication counterpart, wireless communication offers a number of significant
benefits. First, probably the most prominent and important feature of wireless communication is
the provision of convenient and reliable tetherless connectivity.
This offers greater flexibility and mobility. Unlike with a wired connection, people are
no longer tied to their dedicated place, instead, they will be able to move freely and access
network resource from any location within the wireless coverage area. Another direct
consequence of the tetherless connectivity is that wireless communication presents an promising
approach to bring network access to the areas which would be difficult to connect to a wired
network. For instance, possible applications include remote monitoring of natural environments
such as glaciers, volcanoes and bodies of water, monitoring the condition of historic buildings
where wiring is difficult, dangerous, or undesirable. In addition, wireless networks are generally
easier to deploy and setup compared with the wired networks because they remove the need of
extensive cabling and patching, which also implies that wireless networks are more costeffective. This is an extremely desirable benefit for those applications that only employ
temporary networks, for example, trade shows, exhibitions and construction sites.
Finally, the maintenance and management of wireless networks are relatively simple and
low cost. Wire- less networks allow great expandability, i.e., one can easily add users to the
current wireless network with existing equipment without requiring additional wiring, as well as
efficiently removing existing users from the current wireless network. Because of these
23
attractive advantages, wireless communication has captured the attention of the industry and the
imagination of the public. Various wireless networks and applications have been developed to
explore these benefits. In the next section, we briefly review some current wireless systems and
networks in operation. Current Wireless Networks Depending on the service range, mobility and
data transmission rate, wireless networks generally fall into four different categories: Wireless
Personal Area Network (PAN), wireless Local Area Network (LAN), wireless Metropolitan
Area Network (MAN), and wireless Wide Area Network (WAN). 1.2.1
Wireless PAN A wireless PAN is a type of wireless network that interconnects personal
devices within a relatively short range (typically up to 10m or so), e.g., from a laptop to a
nearby printer or from a cell phone to a wireless headset. It can support both low-rate and highrate applications with different technologies. Wireless PAN is standardized under the IEEE
802.15 series . Currently, the market for wireless PAN has been dominated by Bluetooth (IEEE
802.15.1) products, which provide low-rate services with low-power consumption, i.e. wireless
control of and communication between a mobile phone and a hands-free headset, wireless
mouse, keyboard, and wireless game consoles. Another technology under development for lowrate wireless PAN is defined by the ZigBee specification (IEEE 802.15.4) which is intended to
be simpler and less expensive than Bluetooth. For high-rate applications, such as digital
imaging and multimedia services, technologies are under development based on the WiMedia
specification (IEEE 802.15.3).
Overall, the technology for wireless PANs is in its infancy and is undergoing rapid
development and research, and it is expected that this technology will find its application in
various new environments to provide simple, easy to use connection to other devices and
networks. 1.2.2 Wireless LAN A wireless LAN is a type of network that provides high-speed
data to wireless devices which are generally stationary or moving at pedestrian speeds within a
small region, for instance, residential house, office building, university campus, or airport. With
the proliferation of laptops, wireless LAN has become increasingly popular due to its ease of
installation, as well as the location freedom provided. Wireless LAN is standardized under the
IEEE 802.11 series.
At the moment, there are primely three 2 different wireless LAN standards which have been
implemented in the marketplace. IEEE 802.11b is the first standard with wide commercial
24
acceptance and success. It operates in the 2.4 GHz band with a maximum speed of 11Mbps. The
second standard is IEEE 802.11a which operates at 5 GHz band and provides a maximum speed
of 70Mbps by adopting Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) modulation.
Another wireless LAN standard is IEEE 802.11g, which combines the advantages of
802.11b (relatively large coverage) and 802.11a (higher throughput) by defining the application
of the OFDM transmission scheme in the 2.4 GHz band. It can provide access speed of up to
54Mbps. To address the increasing high demand for high-speed high-quality wireless services,
IEEE 802.11n, a new wireless LAN standard has been proposed in 2006, which will
significantly improve the network throughput over previous standards, i.e., it can provide a
maximum speed of 540Mbps.
The proposal is expected to be approved in Jan 2010. 1.2.3 Wireless MAN A wireless
MAN is a type of network which mainly aims at providing broadband wireless access in larger
geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several blocks of buildings to an entire city. Its
main advantage is fast deployment and relatively low cost, and it has been considered as an
attractive alternative solution to the wired last mile access systems such as Digital Subscriber
Line (DSL) and cable modem access, especially for very crowded geographic areas like big
cities and rural areas where wired infrastructure is difficult to deploy. Wireless MAN is
standardized under the IEEE 802.16 series, and is also known as Broadband Wireless Access
standard.
Based on the IEEE 802.16 standard, Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
(WiMAX) technology has been put forward by the industry alliance called the WiMAX Forum.
The initial standard IEEE 802.16d only supports fixed applications which are often referred to
as fixed WiMAX. Later, another amendment IEEE 802.16e introduced support for mobility,
which is known as Mobile WiMAX. WiMAX supports very robust data throughput. The
technology could provide approximately 40Mbps per channel.
However, services across this channel would be shared by multiple customers which
means that the typical rate available to users will be around 3Mbps. A new standard (IEEE
802.16m) intending to provide data rate of 100Mbps for mobile applications and 1 Gbps for
fixed applications is currently under development. The proposed work plan is expected to
25
complete by December 2009 and ready for approval by March 2010. 1.2.4 Wireless WAN A
wireless WAN is a form of network which uses mobile telecommunication cellular network
technologies such as Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS), General Packet
Radio Service (GPRS) or Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) to offer regionally,
nationwide, or even globally voice and date services.
Wireless WAN has gone through rapid development in the last three decades. In 1980s,
the first generation (1G) mobile communication systems were deployed, while the second
generation (2G) mobile systems started to operate since 1990s. Both the 1G and 2G systems
focus primarily on voice communications, while the 2G system has enhanced voice quality and
has better spectrum management over the 1G system. The 2G systems provide data rate in the
range of 9.6 14.4 Kbps. Currently, the third generation (3G) systems have started to roll out at
full pace, and it is expected that 3G systems will provide higher transmission rate: a minimum
speed of 2Mpbs and maximum of 14.4Mbps for stationary users, and 348Kbps in a moving
vehicle.
While the improvement on the quality of service by 3G systems is obvious and impressive,
more emerging applications are calling for higher date rate wireless service. At the moment, the
industry and standardization body have already started to work on the fourth generation (4G)
systems, which is intended to be a complete replacement for the current networks and be able to
provide voice, data, and streamed multimedia to users on an anytime, anywhere basis. It is
expected that the 4G systems will be able to deliver data rate of 1Gbps for stationary
applications and 100Mbps for mobile applications. 1.3 Motivation In the light of the above
description of the current wireless networks, one can conclude that despite significant
improvement on the provision of wireless services, there is an underlying strong demand for
higher date rate wireless services, mainly driven by wireless data applications, as well as users
expectation of wire-equivalent quality wireless service.
Providing such high-rate high-quality wireless services is extremely challenging due to the
inherent harsh wireless propagation environment. Compared to wired communication, wireless
communication faces two fundamental problems that make fast and reliable wireless connection
difficult to achieve, namely, interference and fading (variation of the channel strength over time
and frequency due to the small-scale effect of multipath fading, as well as larger-scale fading
26
effects such as path loss via distance attenuation and shadowing by obstacles such as tall
buildings and mountains). In addition, wireless communication is required to carefully address
the resource management problem, i.e. how to efficiently allocate and utilize power and
spectrum (two principle resources in wireless communication). Responding to these challenges,
multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) antenna systems were proposed independently by
Telatar and Foschini and Gans. By introducing multiple antennas at both sides of the
communication link, MIMO systems are able to substantially increase date rate and improve
reliability without extra spectrum and power resources.
The remarkable prospect of MIMO systems has not only sparked huge research interests
in the research community, but also attracted enormous attentions from the industry and has led
to practical implementation in real communication systems. For instance, MIMO technology
has already been incorporated into various industry standards, i.e., wireless LAN IEEE 802.11n
standard, wireless MAN IEEE 802.16e, Third Generation Partnership Project Long Term 4
Evolution (3GPP-LTE) Release 8 [1].
In general, MIMO technology is likely to become a prominent feature of future wireless
communication systems. The huge potential of MIMO technology has sparked a surge of
research activities, which greatly strengthen our understanding of the fundamental limits and
performance of MIMO channels. However, most of these research works are based on a
relatively simple channel model, for instance, the channel is assumed to be a single random
matrix and is subjected to Rayleigh fading or Rician fading.
On the other hand, the increasing popularity of MIMO technology calls for a better
understanding of the performance of MIMO systems operating in more practical environments.
Motivated by this, this thesis looks into several general and practical channel models,
such as Nakagami-m MIMO fading channels, double-scattering MIMO channels, multi-keyhole
MIMO channels, and AF dual-hop MIMO channels, and investigates the fundamental capacity
limits of these channels, as well as the performance of certain popular signal processing
schemes. The objective of the thesis is to enhance our understanding of MIMO systems
operating in these general MIMO channels, and to derive a set of new analytical results for
understanding the performance of these advanced MIMO systems
27
3.2.1 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SYSTEM:

Typical wireless communication system consists of a transmitter and receiver, as well as
a number of functional blocks which facilitate information transmission. Generally, before the
signal is ready for transmission, it usually goes through the following steps: source coding
(encoding the source message into binary bit stream and removing redundant information),
encryption (providing security for the communication by preventing unauthorized users from
understanding messages), channel coding (adding redundancy to improve the reliability of the
communication system) and modulation (converting digital symbols to waveforms which are
compatible with the transmission channel). Similarly, the signal received at the receiver end
goes through a reverse processing order to recover the original message, i.e., demodulation,
channel decoding, decryption, and source decoding. Figure 3.2 gives a simple illustration of a
typical
Figure 3.2:Schematic diagram of wireless communication system
wireless communication system.In this thesis, we mainly focus on understanding the impact
of fading channels on the performance of communication systems (the dash line block). By doing so, the
input and output relationship of a communication system can be mathematically described by y = hx + n
(2.1) where x is the transmitted symbol, h is the fading channel coefficient, n is the additive white
28
Gaussian noise, and y is the received signal. In the following, we introduce the characteristic of the
channel, and how it affects the performance of the system Software introduction:
3.3 MIMO SYSTEMS:

MULTIPLE-ANTENNA wireless terminals, which are used along with special signalprocessing techniques to achieve diversity and multiplexing benefits, characterize multipleinputmultiple-output (MIMO) wireless technology. MIMO technology exploits the space
dimensions, in addition to the time and frequency dimensions, to deliver data rates and a quality
of service unmatched otherwise with comparable spectral resources. A MIMO channel is
represented by a channel matrix, whose elements are channel gains between transmitter
receiver antenna pairs. Thus, mathematical tools such as the random matrix theory help the
analysis. Many differenttechniques have been proposed for the modelling and simulation of
mobile radio channels.
3.4 RICIAN DISTRIBUTION:

The Rician distribution is appropriate to use when the receivers position is on a line of
sight (LOS) with respect to the transmitter, thus there will be an LOS signal component in the
received signal due to the multipath.
3.4.1 Rician fading:

Ricianfading is a stochastic model for radio propagation anomaly caused by partial
cancellation of a radio signal by itself the signal arrives at the receiver by several different paths
(hence exhibiting multipath interference), and at least one of the paths is changing (lengthening
or shortening). Rician fading occurs when one of the paths, typically a line of sight signal, is
much stronger than the others. In Rician fading, the amplitude gain is characterized by
a distribution.
A Rician fading channel can be described by two parameters:
is the ratio
between the power in the direct path and the power in the other, scattered, paths.
is the total
power from both paths (
), and acts as a scaling factor to the distribution.
The received signal amplitude (not the received signal power)
parameters
and
and
.
29
is then Rice distributed with
The resulting PDF then is:
where
is the 0th order modified Bessel function of the first kind.
3.4.2 Definition:
The Rician distribution has the density function with noncentrality parameter s 0 and
scale parameter > 0, for x > 0. I0 is the zero-order modified Bessel function of the first kind.
If x has a Rician distribution with parameters s and , then (x/)2 has a noncentral chi-square
distribution with two degrees of freedom and noncentrality parameter (s/)2.
3.4.3 Background:
In communications theory, Nakagami distribution,Rician distributions,and Rayleigh
distribution are used to model scattered signals that reach a receiver by multiple paths.
Depending on the density of the scatter, the signal will display different fading characteristics.
Rayleigh and Nakagami distributions are used to model dense scatters, while Rician
distributions model fading with a stronger line-of-sight. Nakagami distributions can be reduced
to Rayleigh distributions, but give more control over the extent of the fading.
3.5 RAYLEIGH DISTRIBUTION:

Rayleigh distributions are used to model scattered signals that reach a receiver by
multiple paths.The Rayleigh distribution is a special case of Weibull distribution A Rayleigh
distribution is often observed when the overall magnitude of a vector is related to its
directional components. One example where the Rayleigh distribution naturally arises is when
wind velocity is analyzed into its orthogonal 2-dimensional vector components. Assuming that
each component is uncorelated, normally distributed with equal variance, and zero mean, then
the overall wind speed (vector magnitude) will be characterized by a Rayleigh distribution. A
second example of the distribution arises in the case of random complex numbers whose real
and imaginary components are i.i.d. (independently and identically distributed) Gaussian with
30
equal variance and zero mean. In that case, the absolute value of the complex number is
Rayleigh-distributed.
3.5.1 Rayleigh Fading:

Rayleigh fading is the specialised model for stochastic fading when there is no line of
sight signal, and is sometimes considered as a special case of the more generalised concept of
Rician fading. In Rayleigh fading, the amplitude gain is characterized by a Rayleigh
Distribution..
3.5.2 Definition:
The Rayleigh pdf is
y=f(xb)=
2
xb
e(
x 2b
3.5.3 Background:
The Rayleigh distribution is a special case of the Weibull distribution. If A and B are the
parameters of the Weibull distribution, then the Rayleigh distribution with parameter b is
G
equivalent to the Weibull distribution with parametersA= 2b and B = 2.
If the component velocities of a particle in the x and y directions are two independent
normal random variables with zero means and equal variances, then the distance the particle
travels
per unit time is
distributed
Rayleigh.In
communications
theory, Nakagami
distribution, Rician dist, and Rayleigh distributions are used to model scattered signals that
reach a receiver by multiple paths. Depending on the density of the scatter, the signal will
display different fading characteristics. Rayleigh and Nakagami distributions are used to model
dense scatters, while Rician distributions model fading with a stronger line-of-sight. Nakagami
distributions can be reduced to Rayleigh distributions, but give more control over the extent of
the fading.
31
3.6 NAKAGAMI-M DISTRIBUTION:

The Nakagami-m distribution is another important distribution used in communication
field to model the statistical fading of the multipath scenarios and was developed from
experimental measurements.
The probability density function for the nakagami is given by
f(x)=2 2 1 () 2 = 2 2 1 ( ) 2 (14)
Where is the second moment and represent the scale parameter, m (m 0.5) is known
as the Nakagami fading parameter or shape parameter, and (.) is the standard Gamma function.
The Nakagami-m distribution covers a wide range of fading conditions; when m=0.5 it is a onesided Gaussian distribution and when m=1, it is a Rayleigh distribution and when m < 1, the
Nakagami model applies a fading scenario that is more severe than Rayleigh fading . The
Nakagami-m distribution is used to generate the channel matrix and determine the related
capacity for the system:
3.6.1 Nakagami fading:

Besides Rayleigh and Rician fading, refined models for the pdf of a signal amplitude
exposed to mobile fading have been suggested.
3.6.2 Nakagami Math:

The distribution of the amplitude and signal power can be used to find probabilities on
signal outages.
If the envelope is Nakagami distributed, the corresponding instantaneous power is

gamma distributed.
The parameter m is called the 'shape factor' of the Nakagami or the gamma distribution.
In the special case m = 1, Rayleigh fading is recovered, with an exponentially

distribution instantaneous power
For m > 1, the fluctuations of the signal strength reduce compared to Rayleigh fading.
32
The Nakagami fading model was initially proposed because it matched empirical results
for short wave ionospheric propagation. In current wireless communication, the main role of the
Nakagami model can be summarized as follows
3.6.3 When does Nakagami Fading occur?
It describes the amplitude of received signal after maximum ratio diversity

combining.After k-branch maximum ratio combining (MRC),with Rayleigh-fading
signals, the resulting signal is Nakagami with m = k. MRC combining of m-Nakagami
fading signals in k branches gives a Nakagami signal with shape factor mk.
The sum of multiple independent and identically distributed Rayleigh fading signals
have a Nakagami distributed signal amplitude.This is particularly relevant to model
interference from multiple sources in a cellular system.
The Nakagami distribution matches some empirical data better than other models
Nakagami fading occurs for multipath scattering with relatively large delay time
spreads with different clusters of reflected waves.Within any one cluster, the phases of
individual reflected waves are random, but the delay times are approximately equal for
all waves. As a result the envelope of each cumulated cluster signal is Rayleigh
distributed. The average time delay is assumed to differ significantly between clusters. If
the delay times also significantly exceed the bit time of a digital link, the different
clusters produce serious intersymbol interference, so the multipath self-interference then
approximates the case of co-channel interference by multiple incoherent Rayleigh-fading
signals.
The Rician and the Nakagami model behave approximately equivalently near their mean
value.This observation has been used in many recent papers to advocate the Nakagami
model as an approximation for situations where a Rician model would be more
appropriate. While this may be accurate for the main body of the probability density, it
becomes highly inaccurate for the tails. As bit errors or outages mainly occur during
33
deep fades, these performance measures are mainly determined by the tail of the
probability density function (for probability to receive a low power).
CHAPTER-4
IMPLEMENTATION
4.1 INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB:
MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates
computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems
and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation. Typical uses include
Math and computation
Algorithm development
Data acquisition
Modeling, simulation, and prototyping
Data analysis, exploration, and visualization
Scientific and engineering graphics
Application development, including graphical user interface building
MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not
require dimensioning. This allows you to solve many technical computing problems, especially
34
those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it would take to write a
program in a scalar non interactive language such as C or FORTRAN.
The name MATLAB stands for matrix laboratory. MATLAB was originally written to
provide easy access to matrix software developed by the LINPACK and EISPACK projects.
Today, MATLAB engines incorporate the LAPACK and BLAS libraries, embedding the state of
the art in software for matrix computation.
MATLAB has evolved over a period of years with input from many users. In university
environments, it is the standard instructional tool for introductory and advanced courses in
mathematics, engineering, and science. In industry, MATLAB is the tool of choice for highproductivity research, development, and analysis.
MATLAB features a family of add-on application-specific solutions called toolboxes.
Very important to most uses of MATLAB, toolboxes allow you to learn and apply specialized
technology. Toolboxes are comprehensive collections of MATLAB functions (M files) that
extend the MATLAB environment to solve particular classes of problems. Areas in which
toolboxes are available include signal processing, control systems, neural networks, fuzzy logic,
wavelets, simulation, and many others.
4.1.1 The MATLAB system:

The MATLAB system consists of five main parts
Development Environment:
This is the set of tools and facilities that help you use MATLAB functions and files.
Many of these tools are graphical user interfaces. It includes the MATLAB desktop and
command window, a command history, an editor and debugger, and browsers for viewing help,
the workspace, files, and the search path.
The MATLAB Mathematical Function Library:
35
This is a vast collection of computational algorithms ranging from elementary functions,

like sum, sine, cosine, and complex arithmetic, to more sophisticated functions like matrix
inverse, matrix Eigen values, Bessel functions, and fast Fourier transforms.
The MATLAB Language:

This is a high-level matrix/array language with control flow statements, functions, data
structures, input/output, and object-oriented programming features. It allows
both
programming in the small to rapidly create quick and dirty throw-away programs, and
programming in the large to create large and complex application programs.
Graphics:
MATLAB has extensive facilities for displaying vectors and matrices as graphs, as well
as annotating and printing these graphs. It includes high-level functions for two-dimensional
and three-dimensional data visualization, image processing, animation, and presentation
graphics. It also includes low-level functions that allow you to fully customize the appearance
of graphics as well as to build complete graphical user interfaces on your MATLAB
applications.
The MATLAB Application Program Interface (API):

This is a library that allows you to write C and FORTRAN programs that interact with
MATLAB. It includes facilities for calling routines from MATLAB (dynamic linking), calling
MATLAB as a computational engine, and for reading and writing MAT-files.
Various toolboxes are there in MATLAB for computing recognition techniques, but we are
using IMAGE PROCESSING toolbox.
4.2 GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE (GUI):

MATLABs Graphical User Interface Development Environment (GUIDE) provides a
rich set of tools for incorporating graphical user interfaces (GUIs) in M-functions. Using
GUIDE, the processes of laying out a GUI (i.e., its buttons, pop-up menus, etc.)and
programming the operation of the GUI are divided conveniently into two easily managed and
36
relatively independent tasks. The resulting graphical M-function is composed of two identically
named (ignoring extensions) files:
A file with extension .fig, called a FIG-file that contains a complete graphical description of
all the functions GUI objects or elements and their spatial arrangement. A FIG-file contains
binary data that does not need to be parsed when he associated GUI-based M-function is
executed.
A file with extension .m, called a GUI M-file, which contains the code that controls the GUI
operation. This file includes functions that are called when the GUI is launched and exited,
and callback functions that are executed when a user interacts with GUI objects for example,
when a button is pushed.
To launch GUIDE from the MATLAB command window, type guide filename
Where filename is the name of an existing FIG-file on the current path. If filename is omitted,
GUIDE opens a new (i.e., blank) window.
37
Figure4.1 GUI Window
A graphical user interface (GUI) is a graphical display in one or more windows

containing controls, called components that enable a user to perform interactive tasks. The user
of the GUI does not have to create a script or type commands at the command line to
accomplish the tasks. Unlike coding programs to accomplish tasks, the user of a GUI need not
understand the details of how the tasks are performed.
GUI components can include menus, toolbars, push buttons, radio buttons, list boxes,
and sliders just to name a few. GUIs created using MATLAB tools can also perform any type of
computation, read and write data files, communicate with other GUIs, and display data as tables
or as plots.
4.3 Software description:

38
Getting Started
If you are new to MATLAB, you should start by reading Manipulating Matrices. The
most important things to learn are how to enter matrices, how to use the: (colon) operator, and
how to invoke functions. After you master the basics, you should read the rest of the sections
below and run the demos.
At the heart of MATLAB is a new language you must learn before you can fully
exploit its power. You can learn the basics of MATLAB quickly, and mastery comes shortly
after. You will be rewarded with high productivity, high-creativity computing power that will
change the way you work.
Introduction - describes the components of the MATLAB system.

Development Environment - introduces the MATLAB development environment,
including information about tools and the MATLAB desktop.

Manipulating Matrices - introduces how to use MATLAB to generate matrices and
perform mathematical operations on matrices.

Graphics - introduces MATLAB graphic capabilities, including information about
plotting data, annotating graphs, and working with images.

Programming with MATLAB - describes how to use the MATLAB language to create
scripts and functions, and manipulate data structures, such as cell arrays and
multidimensional arrays.
4.3.1 INTRODUCTION:
What Is MATLAB?
MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates
computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems
and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation.
Typical uses include:
Math and computation
Algorithm development
39
Modeling, simulation, and prototyping
Data analysis, exploration, and visualization
Scientific and engineering graphics
Application development, including graphical user interface building

MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does
not require dimensioning. This allows you to solve many technical computing problems,
especially those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it would take to
write a program in a scalar noninteractive language such as C or FORTRAN.
The name MATLAB stands for matrix laboratory. MATLAB was originally
written to provide easy access to matrix software developed by the LINPACK and EISPACK
projects. Today, MATLAB uses software developed by the LAPACK and ARPACK projects,
which together represent the state-of-the-art in software for matrix computation.
MATLAB has evolved over a period of years with input from many users. In
university environments, it is the standard instructional tool for introductory and advanced
courses in mathematics, engineering, and science. In industry, MATLAB is the tool of choice
for high-productivity research, development, and analysis.
MATLAB features a family of application-specific solutions called toolboxes.
Very important to most users of MATLAB, toolboxes allow you to learn and apply specialized
technology. Toolboxes are comprehensive collections of MATLAB functions (M-files) that
extend the MATLAB environment to solve particular classes of problems. Areas in which
toolboxes are available include signal processing, control systems, neural networks, fuzzy logic,
wavelets, simulation, and many others.
4.3.2 The MATLAB System:

The MATLAB system consists of five main parts:
Development Environment: This is the set of tools and facilities that help you use
MATLAB functions and files. Many of these tools are graphical user interfaces. It
40
includes the MATLAB desktop and Command Window, a command history, and
browsers for viewing help, the workspace, files, and the search path.
The MATLAB Mathematical Function Library: This is a vast collection of
computational algorithms ranging from elementary functions like sum, sine, cosine, and
complex arithmetic, to more sophisticated functions like matrix inverse, matrix
eigenvalues, Bessel functions, and fast Fourier transforms.

The MATLAB Language: This is a high-level matrix/array language with control
flow statements, functions, data structures, input/output, and object-oriented
programming features. It allows both "programming in the small" to rapidly create quick
and dirty throw-away programs, and "programming in the large" to create complete
large and complex application programs.

Handle Graphics: This is the MATLAB graphics system. It includes high-level
commands for two-dimensional and three-dimensional data visualization, image
processing, animation, and presentation graphics. It also includes low-level commands
that allow you to fully customize the appearance of graphics as well as to build complete
graphical user interfaces on your MATLAB applications.
The MATLAB Application Program Interface (API): This is a library that

allows you to write C and FORTRAN programs that interact with MATLAB. It include
facilities for calling routines from MATLAB (dynamic linking), calling MATLAB as a
computational engine, and for reading and writing MAT-files.
4.3.3 DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT:

Introduction
This chapter provides a brief introduction to starting and quitting MATLAB,
and the tools and functions that help you to work with MATLAB variables and files. For more
information about the topics covered here, see the corresponding topics under Development
Environment in the MATLAB documentation, which is available online as well as in print.
Starting and Quitting MATLAB

Starting MATLAB
41
On a Microsoft Windows platform, to start MATLAB, double-click the

MATLAB shortcut icon on your Windows desktop.
On a UNIX platform, to start MATLAB, type matlab at the operating system
prompt.
After starting MATLAB, the MATLAB desktop opens - see MATLAB Desktop.
You can change the directory in which MATLAB starts, define startup options including
running a script upon startup, and reduce startup time in some situations.
Quitting MATLAB
To end your MATLAB session, select Exit MATLAB from the File menu in the
desktop, or type quit in the Command Window. To execute specified functions each time
MATLAB quits, such as saving the workspace, you can create and run a finish.m script.
MATLAB Desktop
When you start MATLAB, the MATLAB desktop appears, containing tools
(graphical user interfaces) for managing files, variables, and applications associated with
MATLAB.
The first time MATLAB starts, the desktop appears as shown in the following
illustration, although your Launch Pad may contain different entries.
You can change the way your desktop looks by opening, closing, moving, and resizing
the tools in it. You can also move tools outside of the desktop or return them back inside the
desktop (docking). All the desktop tools provide common features such as context menus and
keyboard shortcuts.
You can specify certain characteristics for the desktop tools by selecting
Preferences from the File menu. For example, you can specify the font characteristics for
Command Window text. For more information, click the Help button in the Preferences dialog
box.
42
Desktop Tools
This section provides an introduction to MATLAB's desktop tools. You can
also use MATLAB functions to perform most of the features found in the desktop tools. The
tools are:
Current Directory Browser
Workspace Browser
Array Editor
Editor/Debugger
Command Window
Command History
Launch Pad
Help Browser
Command Window
Use the Command Window to enter variables and run functions and M-files.
Command History
Lines you enter in the Command Window are logged in the Command History
window. In the Command History, you can view previously used functions, and copy and
execute selected lines. To save the input and output from a MATLAB session to a file, use the
diary function.
Running External Programs

You can run external programs from the MATLAB Command Window. The
exclamation point character! is a shell escape and indicates that the rest of the input line is a
command to the operating system. This is useful for invoking utilities or running other programs
without quitting MATLAB. On Linux, for example,!emacs magik.m invokes an editor called
emacs for a file named magik.m. When you quit the external program, the operating system
returns control to MATLAB.
43
Launch Pad
MATLAB's Launch Pad provides easy access to tools, demos, and
documentation.
Help Browser
Use the Help browser to search and view documentation for all your Math
Works products. The Help browser is a Web browser integrated into the MATLAB desktop that
displays HTML documents.
To open the Help browser, click the help button in the toolbar, or type helpbrowser in
the Command Window. The Help browser consists of two panes, the Help Navigator, which you
use to find information, and the display pane, where you view the information.
Help Navigator
Use to Help Navigator to find information. It includes:
Product filter - Set the filter to show documentation only for the products you specify.
Contents tab - View the titles and tables of contents of documentation for your products.
Index tab
- Find specific index entries (selected keywords) in the MathWorks
documentation for your products.
Search tab
- Look for a specific phrase in the documentation. To get help for a specific
function, set the Search type to Function Name.
Favorites tab - View a list of documents you previously designated as favorites.

Display Pan
- After finding documentation using the Help Navigator, view it in the display
pane. While viewing the documentation, you can:
Browse to other pages - Use the arrows at the tops and bottoms of the pages, or use the
back and forward buttons in the toolbar.
44
Bookmark pages
- Click the Add to Favorites button in the toolbar.
Print pages - Click the print button in the toolbar.

Find a term in the page - Type a term in the Find in page field in the toolbar and click Go.
Other features available in the display pane are: copying information,
evaluating a selection, and viewing Web pages.
Current Directory Browser

MATLAB file operations use the current directory and the search path as
reference points. Any file you want to run must either be in the current directory or on the
search path.
Search Path
To determine how to execute functions you call, MATLAB uses a search path to find
M-files and other MATLAB-related files, which are organized in directories on your file system.
Any file you want to run in MATLAB must reside in the current directory or in a directory that
is on the search path. By default, the files supplied with MATLAB and MathWorks toolboxes
are included in the search path.
Workspace Browser
The MATLAB workspace consists of the set of variables (named arrays) built
up during a MATLAB session and stored in memory. You add variables to the workspace by
using functions, running M-files, and loading saved workspaces.
To view the workspace and information about each variable, use the Workspace
browser, or use the functions who and whos. To delete variables from the workspace, select the
variable and select Delete from the Edit menu. Alternatively, use the clear function. The
workspace is not maintained after you end the MATLAB session. To save the workspace to a
file that can be read during a later MATLAB session, select Save Workspace As from the File
menu, or use the save function. This saves the workspace to a binary file called a MAT-file,
45
which has a .mat extension. There are options for saving to different formats. To read in a MATfile, select Import Data from the File menu, or use the load function.
Array Editor
Double-click on a variable in the Workspace browser to see it in the Array
Editor. Use the Array Editor to view and edit a visual representation of one- or two-dimensional
numeric arrays, strings, and cell arrays of strings that are in the workspace.
Editor/Debugger
Use the Editor/Debugger to create and debug M-files, which are programs
you write to runMATLAB functions. The Editor/Debugger provides a graphical user interface
for basic text editing, as well as for M-file debugging.
You can use any text editor to create M-files, such as Emacs, and can use
preferences (accessible from the desktop File menu) to specify that editor as the default. If you
use another editor, you can still use the MATLAB Editor/Debugger for debugging, or you can
use debugging functions, such as dbstop, which sets a breakpoint.
If you just need to view the contents of an M-file, you can display it in the
Command Window by using the type function.
4.4 MANIPULATING MATRICES:

4.4.1 Entering Matrices:
The best way for you to get started with MATLAB is to learn how to handle
matrices. Start MATLAB and follow along with each example.You can enter matrices into
MATLAB in several different ways:
Enter an explicit list of elements.
Load matrices from external data files.
Generate matrices using built-in functions.
Create matrices with your own functions in M-files.
46
Start by entering Drer's matrix as a list of its elements. You have only to follow a few basic
conventions:
Separate the elements of a row with blanks or commas.
Use a semicolon, ; , to indicate the end of each row.
Surround the entire list of elements with square brackets, [ ].
To enter Drer's matrix, simply type in the Command Window

A = [16 3 2 13; 5 10 11 8; 9 6 7 12; 4 15 14 1]
MATLAB displays the matrix you just entered.
A=
16
13
10
11
12
15
14
This exactly matches the numbers in the engraving. Once you have entered the matrix, it
is automatically remembered in the MATLAB workspace. You can refer to it simply as A.
4.4.2 Expressions:
Like most other programming languages, MATLAB provides mathematical
expressions, but unlike most programming languages, these expressions involve entire matrices.
The building blocks of expressions are:
Variables
Numbers
Operators
Functions
Variables
47
MATLAB does not require any type declarations or dimension statements.

When MATLAB encounters a new variable name, it automatically creates the variable and
allocates the appropriate amount of storage. If the variable already exists, MATLAB changes its
contents and, if necessary, allocates new storage. For example,
num_students = 25
Creates a 1-by-1 matrix named num_students and stores the value 25 in its single element.
Variable names consist of a letter, followed by any number of letters, digits, or
underscores. MATLAB uses only the first 31 characters of a variable name. MATLAB is case
sensitive; it distinguishes between uppercase and lowercase letters. A and a are not the same
variable. To view the matrix assigned to any variable, simply enter the variable name.
Numbers
MATLAB uses conventional decimal notation, with an optional decimal point and
leading plus or minus sign, for numbers. Scientific notation uses the letter e to specify a powerof-ten scale factor. Imaginary numbers use either i or j as a suffix. Some examples of legal
numbers are
3
-99
0.0001
9.6397238
1.60210e-20
6.02252e23
1i
-3.14159j
3e5i
All numbers are stored internally using the long format specified by the IEEE
floating-point standard. Floating-point numbers have a finite precision of roughly 16 significant
decimal digits and a finite range of roughly 10-308 to 10+308.
Operators
48
Expressions use familiar arithmetic operators and precedence rules.
Addition
Subtraction
Multiplication
Division
Left division (described in "Matrices and Linear

Algebra" in Using MATLAB)
Power
'
Complex conjugate transpose
()
Specify evaluation order

Table 4.1 operators and Precedence Rules
Functions
MATLAB provides a large number of standard elementary mathematical
functions, including abs, sqrt, exp, and sin. Taking the square root or logarithm of a negative
number is not an error; the appropriate complex result is produced automatically. MATLAB also
provides many more advanced mathematical functions, including Bessel and gamma functions.
Most of these functions accept complex arguments. For a list of the elementary mathematical
functions, type help elfun For a list of more advanced mathematical and matrix functions, type
help specfun help elmat
Some of the functions, like sqrt and sin, are built-in. They are part of the
MATLAB core so they are very efficient, but the computational details are not readily
accessible. Other functions, like gamma and sinh, are implemented in M-files. You can see the
code and even modify it if you want. Several special functions provide values of useful
constants.
Pi
3.14159265...
Imaginary unit, -1
49
Same as i
Eps
Floating-point relative precision, 2-52
Realmin
Smallest floating-point number, 2-1022
Realmax
Largest floating-point number, (2- )21023
Inf
Infinity
NaN
Not-a-number
Table 4.2:Functions
4.5 GUI:
A graphical user interface (GUI) is a user interface built with graphical objects, such as
buttons, text fields, sliders, and menus. In general, these objects already have meanings to most
computer users. For example, when you move a slider, a value changes; when you press an OK
button, your settings are applied and the dialog box is dismissed. Of course, to leverage this
built-in familiarity, you must be consistent in how you use the various GUI-building
components.
Applications that provide GUIs are generally easier to learn and use since the person
using the application does not need to know what commands are available or how they work.
The action that results from a particular user action can be made clear by the design of the
interface.
The sections that follow describe how to create GUIs with MATLAB. This includes
laying out the components, programming them to do specific things in response to user actions,
and saving and launching the GUI; in other words, the mechanics of creating GUIs. This
documentation does not attempt to cover the "art" of good user interface design, which is an
entire field unto itself. Topics covered in this section include:
4.5.1 Creating GUIs with GUIDE:

MATLAB implements GUIs as figure windows containing various styles of
uicontrol objects. You must program each object to perform the intended action when activated
50
by the user of the GUI. In addition, you must be able to save and launch your GUI. All of these
tasks are simplified by GUIDE, MATLAB's graphical user interface development environment.
4.5.2 GUI Development Environment:

The process of implementing a GUI involves two basic tasks:
Laying out the GUI components
Programming the GUI components

GUIDE primarily is a set of layout tools. However, GUIDE also generates an M-
file that contains code to handle the initialization and launching of the GUI. This M-file
provides a framework for the implementation of the callbacks - the functions that execute when
users activate components in the GUI.
4.5.3 The Implementation of a GUI:

While it is possible to write an M-file that contains all the commands to lay out a
GUI, it is easier to use GUIDE to lay out the components interactively and to generate two files
that save and launch the GUI:
A FIG-file - contains a complete description of the GUI figure and all of its children
(uicontrols
and
axes),
as
well
as
the
values
of
all
object
properties.
An M-file - contains the functions that launch and control the GUI and the callbacks, which
are defined as subfunctions. This M-file is referred to as theapplication M-file in this
documentation.
Note that the application M-file does not contain the code that lays out the
uicontrols; this information is saved in the FIG-file.
The following diagram illustrates the parts of a GUI implementation.
51
Figure 4.2 GUI implimentation
4.5.4 Features of the GUIDE-Generated Application M-File:

GUIDE simplifies the creation of GUI applications by automatically generating an Mfile framework directly from your layout. You can then use this framework to code your
application M-file. This approach provides a number of advantages:
The M-file contains code to implement a number of useful features (see Configuring
Application Options for information on these features). The M-file adopts an effective approach
to managing object handles and executing callback routines (see Creating and Storing the
Object Handle Structure for more information). The M-files provides a way to manage global
data (see Managing GUI Data for more information).
The automatically inserted subfunction prototypes for callbacks ensure compatibility
with future releases. For more information, see Generating Callback Function Prototypes for
information on syntax and arguments. You can elect to have GUIDE generate only the FIG-file
and write the application M-file yourself. Keep in mind that there are no uicontrol creation
commands in the application M-file; the layout information is contained in the FIG-file
generated by the Layout Editor.
52
Beginning the Implementation Process

To begin implementing your GUI, proceed to the following sections:
Getting Started with GUIDE - the basics of using GUIDE.

Selecting GUIDE Application Options - set both FIG-file and M-file options.
Using the Layout Editor - begin laying out the GUI.
Understanding the Application M-File - discussion of programming techniques
used in the application M-file.
Application Examples - a collection of examples that illustrate techniques which are useful
for implementing GUIs.
4.6 Command-Line Accessibility:

When MATLAB creates a graph, the figure and axes are included in the list of
children of their respective parents and their handles are available through commands such as
findobj, set, and get. If you issue another plotting command, the output is directed to the current
figure and axes.
GUIs are also created in figure windows. Generally, you do not want GUI figures
to be available as targets for graphics output, since issuing a plotting command could direct the
output to the GUI figure, resulting in the graph appearing in the middle of the GUI.
In contrast, if you create a GUI that contains an axes and you want commands
entered in the command window to display in this axes, you should enable command-line
access.
4.7 User Interface Controls:
53
The Layout Editor component palette contains the user interface controls that you can
use in your GUI. These components are MATLAB uicontrol objects and are programmable via
their Callback properties. This section provides information on these components.
Push Buttons
Sliders
Toggle Buttons
Frames
Radio Buttons
Listboxes
Checkboxes
Popup Menus
Edit Text
Axes
Static Text
Figures
4.7.1 Push Buttons:

Push buttons generate an action when pressed (e.g., an OK button may close a dialog
box and apply settings). When you click down on a push button, it appears depressed; when you
release the mouse, the button's appearance returns to its nondepressed state; and its callback
executes on the button up event.
Properties to Set
String - set this property to the character string you want displayed on the push button.
Tag
- GUIDE uses the Tag property to name the callback subfunction in the application M-
file. Set Tag to a descriptive name (e.g., close_button) before activating the GUI.
Programming the Callback

54
When the user clicks on the push button, its callback executes. Push buttons do
not return a value or maintain a state.
4.7.2 Toggle Buttons:

Toggle buttons generate an action and indicate a binary state (e.g., on or off).
When you click on a toggle button, it appears depressed and remains depressed when you
release the mouse button, at which point the callback executes. A subsequent mouse click
returns the toggle button to the nondepressed state and again executes its callback.
Programming the Callback:

The callback routine needs to query the toggle button to determine what state
it is in. MATLAB sets the Value property equal to the Max property when the toggle button is
depressed (Max is 1 by default) and equal to the Min property when the toggle button is not
depressed (Min is 0 by default).
From the GUIDE Application M-File

The following code illustrates how to program the callback in the GUIDE
application M-file.
function varargout = togglebutton1_Callback(h,eventdata,handles,varargin)
button_state = get(h,'Value');
if button_state == get(h,'Max')
% toggle button is pressed
elseif button_state == get(h,'Min')
% toggle button is not pressed
end
Adding an Image to a Push Button or Toggle Button

55
Assign the CData property an m-by-n-by-3 array of RGB values that define a
truecolor image. For example, the array a defines 16-by-128 truecolor image using random
values between 0 and 1 (generated by rand).
a(:,:,1) = rand(16,128);
a(:,:,2) = rand(16,128);
a(:,:,3) = rand(16,128);
set(h,'CData',a)
4.7.3 Radio Buttons:

Radio buttons are similar to checkboxes, but are intended to be mutually
exclusive within a group of related radio buttons (i.e., only one button is in a selected state at
any given time). To activate a radio button, click the mouse button on the object. The display
indicates the state of the button.
Implementing Mutually Exclusive Behavior

Radio buttons have two states - selected and not selected. You can query and
set the state of a radio button through its Value property:
Value = Max, button is selected.
Value = Min, button is not selected.
To make radio buttons mutually exclusive within a group, the callback for each
radio button must set the Value property to 0 on all other radio buttons in the group. MATLAB
sets the Value property to 1 on the radio button clicked by the user.
The following subfunction, when added to the application M-file, can be called
by each radio button callback. The argument is an array containing the handles of all other radio
buttons in the group that must be deselected.
function mutual_exclude(off)
56
set(off,'Value',0)
Obtaining the Radio Button Handles.

The handles of the radio buttons are available from the handles structure,
which contains the handles of all components in the GUI. This structure is an input argument to
all radio button callbacks.
The following code shows the call to mutual_exclude being made from the first
radio button's callback in a group of four radio buttons.
function varargout = radiobutton1_Callback(h,eventdata,handles,varargin)
off = [handles.radiobutton2,handles.radiobutton3,handles.radiobutton4];
mutual_exclude(off)
% Continue with callback
.
.
.
After setting the radio buttons to the appropriate state, the callback can continue
with its implementation-specific tasks.
4.7.4 Checkboxes:
Check boxes generate an action when clicked and indicate their state as checked
or not checked. Check boxes are useful when providing the user with a number of independent
choices that set a mode (e.g., display a toolbar or generate callback function prototypes).
The Value property indicates the state of the check box by taking on the value of
the Max or Min property (1 and 0 respectively by default):
Value = Max, box is checked.
57
Value = Min, box is not checked.

You can determine the current state of a check box from within its callback by
querying the state of its Value property, as illustrated in the following example:
function checkbox1_Callback(h,eventdata,handles,varargin)
if (get(h,'Value') == get(h,'Max'))
% then checkbox is checked-take approriate action
else
% checkbox is not checked-take approriate action
end
4.7.5 Edit Text:

Edit text controls are fields that enable users to enter or modify text strings.
Use edit text when you want text as input. The String property contains the text entered by the
user.
To obtain the string typed by the user, get the String property in the callback.
function edittext1_Callback(h,eventdata, handles,varargin)
user_string = get(h,'string');
% proceed with callback...
Obtaining Numeric Data from an Edit Test Component

MATLAB returns the value of the edit text String property as a character
string. If you want users to enter numeric values, you must convert the characters to numbers.
You can do this using the str2double command, which converts strings to doubles. If the user
enters non-numeric characters, str2double returns NaN.
58
You can use the following code in the edit text callback. It gets the value of the
String property and converts it to a double. It then checks if the converted value is NaN,
indicating the user entered a non-numeric character (isnan) and displays an error dialog
(errordlg).
function edittext1_Callback(h,eventdata,handles,varargin)
user_entry = str2double(get(h,'string'));
if isnan(user_entry)
errordlg('You must enter a numeric value','Bad Input','modal')
end
% proceed with callback...
Triggering Callback Execution

On UNIX systems, clicking on the menubar of the figure window causes the
edit text callback to execute. However, on Microsoft Windows systems, if an editable text box
has focus, clicking on the menubar does not cause the editable text callback routine to execute.
This behavior is consistent with the respective platform conventions. Clicking on other
components in the GUI execute the callback.
4.7.6 Static Text

Static text controls displays lines of text. Static text is typically used to label other controls,
provide directions to the user, or indicate values associated with a slider. Users cannot change
static text interactively and there is no way to invoke the callback routine associated with it.
4.7.7 Frames:
Frames are boxes that enclose regions of a figure window. Frames can make a user
interface easier to understand by visually grouping related controls. Frames have no callback
routines associated with them and only uicontrols can appear within frames (axes cannot).
59
Placing Components on Top of Frames

Frames are opaque. If you add a frame after adding components that you want to
be positioned within the frame, you need to bring forward those components. Use the Bring to
Front and Send to Back operations in the Layout menu for this purpose.
4.7.8 List Boxes:

List boxes display a list of items and enable users to select one or more items.The
String property contains the list of strings displayed in the list box. The first item in the list has
an index of 1.
The Value property contains the index into the list of strings that correspond to the
selected item. If the user selects multiple items, then Value is a vector of indices.
By default, the first item in the list is highlighted when the list box is first displayed.
If you do not want any item highlighted, then set the Value property to empty, [].
The ListboxTop property defines which string in the list displays as the top most
item when the list box is not large enough to display all list entries. ListboxTop is an index into
the array of strings defined by the String property and must have a value between 1 and the
number of strings. Noninteger values are fixed to the next lowest integer.
Single or Multiple Selection

The values of the Min and Max properties determine whether users can make
single or multiple selections:
If Max - Min > 1, then list boxes allow multiple item selection.
If Max - Min <= 1, then list boxes do not allow multiple item selection.
SelectionType
Listboxes differentiate between single and double clicks on an item and set the figure
SelectionType property to normal or open accordingly. See Triggering Callback Execution for
information on how to program multiple selection.
60
Triggering Callback Execution

MATLAB evaluates the list box's callback after the mouse button is released or
a keypress event (including arrow keys) that changes the Value property (i.e., any time the user
clicks on an item, but not when clicking on the list box scrollbar). This means the callback is
executed after the first click of a double-click on a single item or when the user is making
multiple selections.
In these situations, you need to add another component, such as a Done button
(push button) and program its callback routine to query the list box Value property (and possibly
the figure SelectionType property) instead of creating a callback for the list box. If you are using
the automatically generated application M-file option, you need to either:
Set the list box Callback property to the empty string ('') and remove the callback
subfunction from the application M-file. Leave the callback subfunction stub in the application
M-file so that no code executes when users click on list box items.
The first choice is best if you are sure you will not use the list box callback and
you want to minimize the size and efficiency of the application M-file. However, if you think
you may want to define a callback for the list box at some time, it is simpler to leave the
callback stub in the M-file.
4.7.9 Popup Menus:

Popup menus open to display a list of choices when users press the arrow.
The String property contains the list of string displayed in the popup menu. The
Value property contains the index into the list of strings that correspond to the selected item.
When not open, a popup menu displays the current choice, which is determined
by the index contained in the Value property. The first item in the list has an index of 1.
Popup menus are useful when you want to provide users with a number of
mutually exclusive choices, but do not want to take up the amount of space that a series of radio
buttons requires.
61
Programming the Popup Menu

You can program the popup menu callback to work by checking only the index
of the item selected (contained in the Value property) or you can obtain the actual string
contained in the selected item.
This callback checks the index of the selected item and uses a switch statement
to take action based on the value. If the contents of the popup menu is fixed, then you can use
this approach.
function varargout = popupmenu1_Callback(h,eventdata,handles,varargin)
val = get(h,'Value');
switch val
case 1
% The user selected the first item
case 2
% The user selected the second item
% etc.
This callback obtains the actual string selected in the popup menu. It uses the
value to index into the list of strings. This approach may be useful if your program dynamically
loads the contents of the popup menu based on user action and you need to obtain the selected
string. Note that it is necessary to convert the value returned by the String property from a cell
array to a string.
function varargout = popupmenu1_Callback(h,eventdata,handles,varargin)
val = get(h,'Value');
string_list = get(h,'String');
selected_string = string_list{val}; % convert from cell array to string % etc.
62
Enabling or Disabling Controls

You can control whether a control responds to mouse button clicks by setting the
Enable property. Controls have three states:
on
- The control is operational
off
- The control is disabled and its label (set by the string property) is
grayed out.
inactive - The control is disabled, but its label is not grayed out.
When a control is disabled, clicking on it with the left mouse button does not
execute its callback routine. However, the left-click causes two other callback routines to
execute:
First the figure WindowButtonDownFcn callback executes. Then the control's
ButtonDownFcn callback executes.
A right mouse button click on a disabled control posts a context menu, if one is
defined for that control. See the Enable property description for more details.
4.7.10 Axes:
Axes enable your GUI to display graphics (e.g., graphs and images). Like all graphics
objects, axes have properties that you can set to control many aspects of its behavior and
appearance. See Axes Properties for general information on axes objects.
Axes Callbacks
Axes are not uicontrol objects, but can be programmed to execute a callback
when users click a mouse button in the axes. Use the axes ButtonDownFcn property to define
the callback.
63
Plotting to Axes in GUIs

GUIs that contain axes should ensure the Command-line accessibility option in the
Application Options dialog is set to Callback (the default). This enables you to issue plotting
commands from callbacks without explicitly specifying the target axes.
GUIs with Multiple Axes

If a GUI has multiple axes, you should explicitly specify which axes you want to
target when you issue plotting commands. You can do this using the axes command and the
handles structure. For example,
axes(handles.axes1)
makes the axes whose Tag property is axes1 the current axes, and therefore the target for
plotting commands. You can switch the current axes whenever you want to target a different
axes. See GUI with Multiple Axes for and example that uses two axes.
4.7.11 Figure:
Figures are the windows that contain the GUI you design with the Layout Editor.
See the description of figure properties for information on what figure characteristics you can
control.
Source code:
Rician Distribution:
clear all
clc
%Rician capacity
snr=10;
for i = 1:10
snr = snr +2;
c=(log(1+10^(snr/10)))/log(2);
x(i)=snr;
y(i)=c;
end
figure
plot(x,y,'-','LineWidth',1.5)
hold on
64
% capacity of MIMO Link with NR=2, NT=2

NR=2;
rand('state',456321)
snr=10;
for i=1:10;
snr=snr+2;
for j=1:10000;
c(j)=(NR*log(1+(10^(snr/10))*abs(normrnd(1,0)))/log(2));
end
yy(i)=mean(c);
xx(i)=snr;
end
plot(xx,yy,':','LineWidth',1.5)
NR=3;
snr=10;
for i=1:10;
snr=snr+2;
for j=1:10000;
end
yy(i)=mean(c);
xx(i)=snr;
end
plot(xx,yy,'-.','LineWidth',1.5)
NR=4;
snr=10;
for i=1:10;
snr=snr+2;
for j=1:10000;
end
yy(i)=mean(c);
xx(i)=snr;
end
plot(xx,yy,'--','LineWidth',1.5)
xlabel('SNR(dB)')
ylabel('Capacity (bit/s/Hz)')
grid on
legend('Racian Capacity','MIMO, NT=NR=2','MIMO, NT=NR=3','MIMO,
NT=NR=4',2)
title('MIMO Capacity')
print -deps -tiff -r300 capmimo
65
Rayleigh Distribution:
clear all
clc
%Rayleigh capacity
snr=15;
for i = 1:10
snr = snr +2;
c=(log(1+10^(snr/10)))/log(2);
x(i)=snr;
y(i)=c;
end
figure
hold on
NR=2;
snr=15;
for i=1:10;
snr=snr+2;
for j=1:10000;
end
yy(i)=mean(c);
xx(i)=snr;
end
NR=3;
snr=15;
for i=1:10;
snr=snr+2;
for j=1:10000;
end
yy(i)=mean(c);
xx(i)=snr;
end
NR=4;
snr=15;
for i=1:10;
snr=snr+2;
for j=1:10000;
end
66
yy(i)=mean(c);
xx(i)=snr;
end
xlabel('SNR(dB)')
grid on
legend('Rayleigh Capacity','MIMO, NT=NR=2','MIMO, NT=NR=3','MIMO,
NT=NR=4',2)
Nakagami-m Distribution:
clear all
clc
%Nakagami capacity
snr=-15;
for i = 1:10
snr = snr +2;
c=(log(1+10^(snr/10)))/log(2);
x(i)=snr;
y(i)=c;
end
figure
hold on
NR=2;
snr=-15;
for i=1:10;
snr=snr+2;
for j=1:10000;
end
yy(i)=mean(c);
xx(i)=snr;
end
NR=3;
snr=-15;
for i=1:10;
snr=snr+2;
for j=1:10000;
end
67
yy(i)=mean(c);
xx(i)=snr;
end
NR=4;
snr=-15;
for i=1:10;
snr=snr+2;
for j=1:10000;
end
yy(i)=mean(c);
xx(i)=snr;
end
xlabel('SNR(dB)')
grid on
legend('Nakagami Capacity','MIMO, NT=NR=2','MIMO, NT=NR=3','MIMO,
NT=NR=4',2)
68
CHAPTER-5
SIMULATION RESULTS
In this paper, MATLAB m-file and Simulink is used to verify the model and simulate the effects
of several types of distributions (Rician, Rayleigh and Nakagami-m) for a MIMO system under
flat fading to generate the channel matrix.
The simulation is done for several pairs of NR and NT as detailed in Table below:
Case
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
Number of Transmitter (NT)

1
2
3
4
Number of Receiver(NR)
1
2
3
4
Table 5.1:Several Pairs of NR and NT
A. RICIAN DISTRIBUTION
The first distribution considered is Rice distribution with three different sets of non-centrality
parameter s and parameter . The capacity of the system (in term of b/s/Hz), for each set of the
Rice distribution parameters, is calculated for each case in Table 1 over awide range of SNR (10 dB to 30 dB). Each of the eight cases is represented with capacitycurves using
different colors and special marker symbols. The first set of parameters is unity non-centrality
parameter (s = 1) and unity scale parameter (b = 1). The achieved results are shown in Fig. 2.
From the inspection of the Fig .5.1 , and for the 1st curve (NT = 1, NR = 1), its obvious that the
capacity is increased as signal to noise ratio (SNR) increases with respect to eq. (5) which is
relate to the generating channel matrix H by Rician distribution as in eq. (9).
For the 2nd case (NT = 2, NR= 2), the capacity is improved for the same values of SNR
comparing to the1st one because of increasing number of antennas in both transmitter and
receiver sides.
69
The 3rd case (NT = 3 and NR = 3) shows that the capacity is increased for the same values of
SNR comparing to the first and 2nd case. The capacity increasingcorresponds to the HRicianin
approximating exponential manner.
The 4th case (NT = 4 and NR = 4) shows that the capacity is increased for the same values of
SNR comparing to previous cases in more approximating exponential behavior.
Figure 5.1:The channel capacity with Rician distribution (s=1,b=1)
B. RAYLEIGH Distribution
The capacity of the system (in term of b/s/Hz), for each set of the Weibull distribution
parameters is calculated for each case in Table 1 over a wide range ofSNR (-10 dB to 30
dB).The results of Fig. 5.2, illustrates variation of capacity with number of employed antennas.
The capacity is increasing function to the number of antennas in both transmitter andreceiver
sides and manner similar to that of Rician distribution.
Comparing with results in Fig.5.1, the capacity with Rayleigh distribution is lower in value
comparing to that with Rician distribution (s =1, b = 1).
70
Figure 5.2:The channel Capacity With Rayleigh Distribution
C. NAKAGAMI-M DISTRIBUTION
As for both Rician and Rayleigh distributions, the capacity of the system (in term of b/s/Hz) is
calculated for each case in Table 1 over a wide range of SNR (10 dB to 30 dB). The first set of
evaluation parameters is the scale parameter ( = 1), m shape parameter (m = 1). The obtained
results are depicted in Fig.5.3. However, comparing the results with that in Fig.5.2, it seen that
the capacity of first case (NT = 1, NR = 1) with Nakagami-m is greater than that with Rayleigh
distribution for the same value of SNR. While, the capacity for the (2nd up to 4th cases) are
lower than those with Rayleigh distribution at the same SNR.
71
Figure 5.3:The Channel Capacity with Nakagami-m distribution
The set of parameters is the scale parameter ( = 2) and shape parameter (m = 2). The achieved
results are illustrated in Fig. 5.3
Fig. 5 .3 shows that the capacity is increasing function to the number of antennas in both
transmitter and receiver sides, as that in Fig. 4, but with a slightly increase in the capacity for
the same SNR and number of antenna pairs.
ADVANTAGES
72
More number of people can accommodate the single channel

Call rejection will be less
Multiplexing Benefits
MIMO technology exploits the space dimensions, in addition to the time and frequency
dimensions.
APPLICATIONS
73
Spatial modulation for multiple anenna wireless systems.
cellular communications.
74
CONCLUSION
The obtained results give an inspection to the influence of the distribution selection over
the capacity of multi-input multi-output MIMO system estimation and led to better
understanding of the effect of each distribution and how it can be used to approximate different
environments. The change of the evaluation parameters of each distribution, for the same
number of antenna pair at receiver and transmitter and SNR,led to different value of capacity
since its effect the generating of H matrix. Also, the investigating of more channel distributions
is benefit led to better modelling of channel for different operation scenarios and various
environments.
FUTURE SCOPE
75
REFERENCES
76
[1] B.P. Lathi, ZhiDingModern Digital and Analog Communication System.

[2] C. E. Shannon, Mathematical Theory of Communication.
[3] John G. Proakis, Masoud S., Communication System Engineering, 2nd Ed., PHI learning
private limited, 2009.
[4] Nakagami-m: A Novel Stochastic Model for Fading Channels. [5] BengtHolter , The
capacity of MIMO channe.l
77
78
79
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Channel Capacity Comparison of MIMO Systems with Rician ,Rayleigh Distributions and Nakagami-m

1.1 MIMO SYSTEMS :

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The characteristic of the MIMO channel is determined by the distribution of the

1.2 Capacity Bounds for MIMO Nakagami-m Fading Channels :

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2.1.1 Capacity Analysis of MIMO:

2.1.2 Spectrum Efficiency of various fading channels:

complexity of its decoding technique is comparable to the complexity of decoding a sequence of

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characteristics of linear diversity combining schemes operating on correlated Rayleigh fading

2.1.3 Mitigation of Co-Channel Interference:

communication systems is spectrum efficiency. Frequency reuse is typically employed to

2.1.4 Effects of Co-Channel Interference in MIMO systems:

An analysis method for determining downlink data throughput was presented in

symbol-wise BF significantly reduces computational requirements. The relative performance

2.1.5 Effects of Adjacent Channel Interference :

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To design a highly reliable system, potential interference to the system has to be

2.2 REVIEW OF PROPOSED WORK:

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Figure 3.1:Block diagram

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3.2 INTRODUCTION TO WIRELESS COMMUNICATION:

3.2.1 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SYSTEM:

Figure 3.2:Schematic diagram of wireless communication system

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3.3 MIMO SYSTEMS:

3.4 RICIAN DISTRIBUTION:

3.4.1 Rician fading:

power from both paths (

), and acts as a scaling factor to the distribution.

The received signal amplitude (not the received signal power)

is then Rice distributed with

The resulting PDF then is:

is the 0th order modified Bessel function of the first kind.

3.5 RAYLEIGH DISTRIBUTION:

3.5.1 Rayleigh Fading:

per unit time is

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3.6 NAKAGAMI-M DISTRIBUTION:

3.6.1 Nakagami fading:

3.6.2 Nakagami Math:

If the envelope is Nakagami distributed, the corresponding instantaneous power is

In the special case m = 1, Rayleigh fading is recovered, with an exponentially

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3.6.3 When does Nakagami Fading occur?

It describes the amplitude of received signal after maximum ratio diversity

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Math and computation

Modeling, simulation, and prototyping

Data analysis, exploration, and visualization

Scientific and engineering graphics

Application development, including graphical user interface building

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4.1.1 The MATLAB system:

The MATLAB Mathematical Function Library:

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This is a vast collection of computational algorithms ranging from elementary functions,

The MATLAB Language:

The MATLAB Application Program Interface (API):

4.2 GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE (GUI):