Quantitative Research Methods

Introduction
Lecture outline
1. Introduction and overview
a. What is research?
b. What is statistics?

Dr Bhargav Adhvaryu
Semester-1: Monsoon 2013

Dr Bhargav Adhvaryu QRM: Introduction MTech IED CEPT Uni Slide 1 of 15

This document is for use ONLY by students

attending the lectures and should NOT be
circulated and used outside this group of
students.

2. Mathematics review

Introduction and overview

Mathematics review

What is research?
Research is a systematic and organised way of finding answers to
questions.
Systematic because there is a definite set of procedures and steps
(methodology) to be followed. The structure or organisation of
the research methodology will depend on the nature and scope of
the research. However, this is always a planned procedure and is
focused. The accuracy of research outputs are also a function of
the type of research methodology.
Finding answers is the end of all research. Whether it is the
answer to a hypothesis or even a simple question, research is
successful when we find answers. Sometimes the answer is no (or
different from expectations); nonetheless it is still an answer!
Questions are central to research. If there is no question, then the
answer is of no use. Research is focused on relevant, useful, and
important questions. Without a question, research has no focus,
drive, or purpose. (Adapted from: http://linguistics.byu.edu/faculty/henrichsenl/ResearchMethods/)
Dr Bhargav Adhvaryu QRM: Introduction MTech IED CEPT Uni Slide 2 of 15

Mathematics review

Introduction and overview

A generic research process

1. Observation of existing
phenomena/ situation

2. Research questions or problem

3. Review of existing knowledge

(literature review)

Sets the aims and objectives

5. Data analyses (quantitative
or qualitative)

Sets the background or

context of the study

6. Research outcomes, its

evaluation, and conclusions

4. Data collection (or systematic observations)

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Introduction and overview

Mathematics review

Research design(1)

Research design forms the core of a research study and entails

laying out the aims and objectives and selecting appropriate
method of data collection and analysis.

Data collection and analysis could take both quantitative and

qualitative forms.

Quantitative data would be numerical observations. Numerical

and statistical analyses form the core of research methodology.

There are a wide range of quantitative (statistical) techniques and

qualitative techniques available to analyse data, depending on the
nature of data collected.

Some such basic quantative techniques are covered in this course.

Dr Bhargav Adhvaryu QRM: Introduction MTech IED CEPT Uni Slide 4 of 15

Introduction and overview

Mathematics review

Research design(2)

Qualitative data uses non-numerical data such as interview and

focus group transcripts, open-ended survey responses, emails,
notes, feedback forms, photos, videos, etc.

This data in most cases is unstructured, ie the format of recording

data may be different for different respondents.

Sample size may be very small but is focused.

The aim is to gain insight into people's attitudes, behaviour, value

systems, concerns, motivations, aspirations, culture, or lifestyles.

Of course, some minimal quantitative analyses of filtered data

may be necessary.

Dr Bhargav Adhvaryu QRM: Introduction MTech IED CEPT Uni Slide 5 of 15

Introduction and overview

Mathematics review

Qualitative v. quantitative research

Quantitative

Qualitative

"There's no such thing as qualitative data.

Everything is either 1 or 0"
- Fred Kerlinger

"All research ultimately has

a qualitative grounding"
- Donald Campbell

The aim is to classify features, count them, and

construct statistical models in an attempt to
explain what is observed.

The aim is a complete, detailed description.

Researcher knows clearly in advance what they

Researcher may only know roughly in advance
are looking for.
what they are looking for.
Recommended during latter phases of research
Recommended during earlier phases of research
projects.
projects.
All aspects
of the studyof
areQualitative
carefully designed
Features
& Quantitative
Research
The design emerges
as the study unfolds.
before data is collected.
Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or
equipment to collect numerical data.

Researcher is the data gathering instrument.

Data is in the form of numbers and statistics.

Data is in the form of words, pictures, or objects.

Objective - seeks precise measurement and

analysis of target concepts, eg uses surveys,
questionnaires, etc.

Subjective - individuals interpretation of events is

important, eg uses participant observation, indepth interviews, etc.

Quantitative data is more efficient, able to test

hypotheses, but may miss contextual detail.

Qualitative data is more 'rich', time consuming,

and less able to be generalised.

Researcher tends to remain objectively separated Researcher tends to become subjectively

from the subject matter.
immersed in the subject matter.

Source: http://wilderdom.com/research/QualitativeVersusQuantitativeResearch.html (last updated 28 Feb 2007)

(The two quotes above are from Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis. Sage (p. 40)).

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Introduction and overview

Mathematics review

What is statistics?

Statistics is a branch of mathematics that deals with:

Collection, organisation, and visualisation of data
Numerical analysis of data
Describing phenomena
Forecasting/ predictions (mathematical modelling)

Analysis of data has two basic braches:

Simple descriptive statistics
Inferential statistics

Forecasting involves building mathematical models based on past

data that can be used to predict values for the future, eg a
regression model.

Dr Bhargav Adhvaryu QRM: Introduction MTech IED CEPT Uni Slide 7 of 15

Introduction and overview

Mathematics review

Simple descriptive statistics

This branch of statistics deals with summarising data in terms of

time and space, and provides a single comprehensive measure
that meaningfully explains the characteristics of the data set.

Examples:
Tables, charts, and graphs
Frequency distributions (eg, histograms)
Measures of central tendency (eg, mean, median, mode, etc)
Measures of dispersion (eg, standard deviation)
Index numbers

SDS measures are intended to describe the data set based on

which they are calculated. The understanding CANNOT be
extended to other data sets.
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Introduction and overview

Mathematics review

Inferential statistics

This branch of statistics deals with:

Drawing a small set of data (sample) from all possible
observations (population)
Analysing this sample data set
Drawing inferences (conclusion) from such analysis that could
be extended to the population.
Association between variables and its strength
Predictions

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Mathematics review

Introduction and overview

Types of numbers
Natural numbers ()
Eg, , , , , ,
Whole numbers (0)
Eg, , , , , , ,

Integers ()
Eg,, , , , , , , , , , ,

Rational numbers ()
Those that can be expressed as
fractions (ie,

Note that .

0)

Irrational numbers
Those that can NOT be
expressed as fractions
(ie, Eg:
Eg,

, ,

0)

Real numbers ()
Rational + Irrational numbers

The convention is to show:

Variables in roman typeface
Constants (parameters) in
Greek letters
, , ,
, , ,(
)

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Introduction and overview

Mathematics review

Scientific notation, operations

Scientific notation (also sometimes referred to as engineering
notations) is expressed in the form 10 to the power.
2042 = 2.042 103
0.000569 = 5.69 104
In spreadsheets (eg, Excel), the notation is expressed as:
2.042 E+3 = 2.042 103
5.69 E4 = 5.69 104
Remember the BODMAS (or BEDMAS or BIDMAS or PEDMAS) rule,
which states that order of operations is:

Brackets (Parentheses),
Orders (ie, powers of Indices or Exponents)
Division
Multiplication
Addition
Find the answer to:
Subtraction
4/2*(2+3)+(2*(2)^2)^2-12/6
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Mathematics review

Introduction and overview

Basic algebraic operations

Laws of indices

Sum and product symbols

x 0 1, x 1 x

x a x b x a b

1
x
x
1
a
x a
x

(x ) x
a b

a
b

xa
a b

x
xb
a

( xy ) x y
a

i 1

ab

End-point
(upper limit)
Symbol

SUM
n

x
i 1

x1 x2 x3 ... xn

Start-point
(lower limit)

xa
a
y

PROUDCT
n

x1 x2 x3 ... xn

i 1

x i y i x 1 y 1 x 2 y 2 x 3 y 3 ... x n y n

j 1

i 1

x ij x 1 1 x 1 2 ... x 1 n x 2 1 x 2 2 ... x 2 n x n 1 x n 2 ... x n n

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Mathematics review

Introduction and overview

Logarithms and exponentials(1)

Logarithm of a number is the power (exponent) to which it must be raised to obtain a given number:

103 1000
log10 1000 3
In general, terms:

bx y
logb ( y) x

The LHS of this equation is said as logarithm of y to base b. In the above case, it
would be logarithm of 1000 to base 10.

Often, the number e (which equals 2.718281828) is used as the base logarithms, in which case it is
called natural logarithm and is denoted by ln, say eg:

ln(5) 1.6

e 1.6 5

ln(10) 2.3

e 2.3 10

Laws of logarithm

ln(ab) ln(a) ln(b)

a
ln ln(a) ln(b)
b
ln x n n ln(x)

Alternative
notation:

Example of solving and

indicial equation using
laws of logarithm

exp(1.6) 5
exp(2.3) 10
3 x 81

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x ln( 3 ) ln( 81 )

ln( 81 )
4
ln( 3 )

Introduction and overview

Mathematics review

Logarithms and exponentials(2)

An exponential function is one which contains ex . e is a constant having an approximate value of
2.7183 (sf4). As discussed in the previous slide, the exponent arises from the natural laws of growth
and decay and is used as a base for natural logarithms.
The definition of e is a follows:

Graph of y=exp(x) and y=exp(-x)

lim 1 e
n
n

OR

n0

1
e
n!

As the value of n tend

to infinity, e will tend
to 2.71828

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Mathematics review

Introduction and overview

Exponential and sub-exponential growth

Exponential growth

Sub-exponential growth

where,

the base is constant

x is the variable.
Graph of

( )

and

eg, 2 0 ,2 1 , 2 2 , 2 3 , 2 4 ,...

where,

x the base

is constant.
Graph of

is variable

and

eg, 0 2 ,1 2 , 2 2 , 3 2 ,4 2 ,...

( )

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