Level Sensors

Point Sensing: Probes only sense level

at a discreet point. (High/Low alarms)
Continuous: Sense tank level as
percent of span of the probes
capabilities
Ultrasonic: Sound waves. Temp
dependent, irregular materials cause
false echos. Heavy vapor can distort
sound waves. Heavy foam interferes
with echo.
Radar: Uses 10GHz waves. Unaffected
by temperature changes. Good for
foam, good for heavy vapor.
Nuclear: No penetration of the vessel
is needed. High cost, licenses and
periodic inspections. Difficult to
dispose of spent radioactive materials.
Hydrostatic: Requires constant
density. If head pressure in tank is not
ATM, have to use a differential
pressure.
Temperature/Pressure Sensors:
Thermocouples: Two electrical
conductors made from different
allows. Seekback voltage is

to

temp difference
Resistance Temp. Devices (RTD): Good
for accurate, long term, stable
measurements. Linearity is common.
Temp coeff

R R0
= 100
(100R0)

. Self-

heating occurs from current in wires.

Flowmeters
Magnetic: Infer the velocity of the
moving fluid by measuring a
generated voltage. Require conductive
fluid. More expensive.
Orifice Plate: This plate with a hole in
the mid.
Pressure is detected on either side of
plate. Only work when supplied with a
developed flow. Cheap to install but
cause significant energy loss due to
the pressure drop.
Coriolis Flowmeter (mass flow):
Based on the effects of the Coriolis
force. Applies a vibrating force to a
pair of curbed tubes through which
fluid passes, creating the Coriolis
Effect.
Flowmeter Turndown: T

Flo wmax
urndown=
Flo wmin

Ex: Flow meter with full span of 0 to

100

gal
min

with a 10:1 turndown

could measure flow as small as 10-

gal
min

Thermocouple/Thermowell Model

d Tm
mC p
=UA (T T m)
dt

m=Thermowell Mass
Cp= Thermowell Heat Capcity

U=overall heat transfer coeff

A=Thermowell area

dV ( t )
=F 0 ( t )F 1 ( t )
dt

mC p d T m
+ T m =T (t )
UA dt

( )
p=

Ac d h (t )
=F 0 ( t )F 1 (t )
dt

m Cp
UA

Energy:

d [ C p T ( t ) V ( t ) ]
= C p F 0 ( t ) T 0 ( t ) C
dt

Standard Form for 1st Order ODE

p Y ' ( t ) +Y ( t )=K p MV ( t ) + K D D ( t )
-

All Y(t) terms LHS, other

time-dependent fxns are on
RHS.
All fxns of time are linear
Coefficients of all timedependent fxns are constant.
There can be multiple

A c d [ h ( t ) T ( t ) ] A c h ( t ) dT ( t )
=
+ AcT (t)
dt
dt

Component Balance: (Tank w/

reaction)

Flow rate through a valve:

[ ]
p (t)
Gf

d [T (t )V (t )]
Q
=F 0 ( t ) T 0 ( t )F 1 ( t ) T 1 ( t ) +
dt
d [T (t )V (t )]
dt

(disturbances)
Assume no dead time
Common Non-Linearities
Higher order Reactions:

Q (t )=C v

Q (t )=U A T [T 1 ( t ) T ambient ( t ) ]

**Result from Product Rule of

K D D ( t ) terms

r A ( t )=k [ C A ( t ) ]

1
2

Ac d [h (t )C A (t)]
dt

=C A ( t ) F 0 ( t )C A F 1 ( t
0

Flow from a tank with fluid level h(t):

Q (t )= [ h ( t ) ]

1
2

C A ( t ) F 0 ( t ) C A ( t ) F 1 ( t ) A c h ( t ) C A ( t
0

Vapor pressure:

pv ( T ( t ) )=exp A

B
[T ( t ) +C ]

Vapor-Liquid Equilibria

x ( t )
y [ x ( t ) ]=
[ 1+ ( 1 ) x ( t ) ]

Common Assumptions
Perfect Mixing
Isothermal
No

Constant

Perfectly Insulated tank

No Reaction, No

Radiation Heat Transfer

q [ T ( t ) ] =A [ T ( t ) ]

V ( t )=

V T [ h ( t ) [ 3 Rh ] ]
4 R3

Equations of State (ex: Ideal Gas Law)

Functions of two or more variables
General Balances

Accum=Out +GenConsumption

Mass:

d ( t ) V ( t )
=0 ( t ) F0 ( t )1 (t ) F 1 ( t )
dt

, F ,V

W shaft ,mixing

V ( t )= A c h ( t )

(Constant

Area)

Tank Volume (Spherical Tank)

2

H Reaction

Valves

K is fxnof T by

Arrheni

us Eqn.

dQ
d C V
d CV
dVp
dQ
dVp
Gain=K V =
=
du
du
SG
P

( )

CV =F
Coefficient]

1
2

[Valve

Inherent Rangeability=
**A valve with a

C v ,max

C V ,max
C v ,min

of 100

and rangeability of 50 will perform

within a CV of 2 to a CV of 100
Linear:
Equal %:
-

C v =C v ,maxvp
C v =C v ,max

vp1

Alpha is typically 50. (25, 50,

or 100)
Failure Mode
FC: vp = u(t)/100
FO: vp = [100 u(t)]/100
U(t)= controller output