Alexandra Burke-Smith
1. Introduction to Immunology
Professor Charles Bangham (c.bangham@imperial.ac.uk)
2. Outline the basic principles of immune responses and the timescales in which they occur.
IFN: Interferon (innate immunity)
NK: Natural Killer cells (innate immunity)
CTL: Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (acquired immunity)
MCD Immunology
Innate Immunity
Depends of pre-formed cells and molecules
Alexandra Burke-Smith
Acquired immunity
Depends on clonal selection, i.e. growth of T/B
cells, release of antibodies selected for antigen
specifity
Slow (starts in days)
Highly specific to foreign proteins, i.e. antigens
Cells involved :
- T lymphocytes
- B lymphocytes
- Dendritic cells
- Eosinophils
- Basophils/mast cells
Soluble factors involved
- Antibodies
Innate Immunity
Anatomical barriers
Skin as a mechanical barrier- keeps out 95% of household germs while IN TACT
Mucus membrane in respiratory and GI tract traps microbes
Cilial propulsion on epithelia cleans lungs of invading microorganisms
Physiological barriers
Low PH
Secretion of lysozyme, e.g. in tears
Interferons
Antimicrobial peptides
Complement; responsible for lysing microorganisms
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Eosinophils
Bi-lobed nucleus
Basophils
3. Define the terms antigen, antibody, B lymphocyte, T lymphocyte, primary and secondary immune
responses, and innate and acquired immunity.
Acquired/Adaptive Immunity
Characteristics
Antigen specific
Can form memory
Requires priming- specific cells help to start the acquired immune response
Cellular Immunity: T and B cells
Humoral immunity: antibodies
Antigens are glycoprotein molecules which react with antibodies or T cells. However not all antigens can induce an
immune response in the host: those that can are termed immunogens
Antibody molecules can be found in the blood stream and the body fluids and bind specifically to particular
molecules termed antigens. They are the acquired component of the humoral immune response.The most basic
antibody molecule is bivalent- with two antigen binding sites.
Immunoglobulins
IgG
- 75% of our serum
- Crosses placenta, therefore important in protecting newborns
- Long serum hal-life
- Part of secondary immune respons
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IgA
2 basic monomers; dimer with secretory piece
Found in body secretions, e.g. mucus membranes in GI tract
Contains a secretory component which protects it from digestive enzymes
IgE
Involved in allergic response and the response to helminths
Binds to basophils and mast cells
Triggers release of histamines
IgD
- Complete function not known
A particularly antibody recognizes an antigen because that antibodys binding site it complementary to the
EPIPTOPE (region approx 6 amino acids long) on the antigen. This forms the basis of the specificity of antigen
recognition.
How does an antibody kill a virus?
Four important mechanisms:
1. Binds to the virus and prevents attachment to the cell
2. Opsonisation: virus-antibody complex is recognised and phagocytosed by macrophage
3. Complement- mediated lysis of enveloped viruses: cascade of enzymes in the blood which leads to the
destruction of cell membranes, and the destruction of the viral envelope
4. Antibody-dependant cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) mediated by NK-like cells (see earlier for explanation)
Cells of the acquired immune system
Lymphocytes
Agranular leukocytes
20-40% of the circulating WBC
99% of the cells in lymphatic circulation
T (thymus-derived) cells
- Helper T cells: recognize antigen, help B cells to make antibodies and T cells to kill
- Cytotoxic T cells: poisonous to cells,kill cells infected by viruses and intracellular bacteria
B (bone marrow-derived) cells
- Make antibodies
- Have insoluble antigen-binding receptor on its surface. In fact have multiple clones of this receptor;
monoclonal antibodies
NK (natural killer) cells
- See earlier in notes
Each subset has distinct cell-surface molecules, e.g. CD4 on helper T-cell which is the receptor for HIV
molecules
Lymphocyte precursors are produced in the haematopoietic tissue in the bone marrow
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T cells are then transported to the thymus, where they undergo THYMAL EDUCATION. Here 95-99% get
destroyed as they have the potential to recognise host cells
B cell antigen receptor is a membrane-bound antibody, i.e. surface immunoglobulin which binds intact
antigens; recognises surface of protein, therefore antigen must be in native conformation
Expressed on the T cell surface are 2 protein chains (alpha and beta) which together make the t cell antigen
receptor (TCR). This binds to digested antigen fragments.
Each antigen receptor binds to an epitope on a different antigen, and is unique to a cell. There are many
copies of the receptor on the cell surface
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Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) kill cells infected by viruses or intracellular bacteria. It recognizes antigen
peptide and HLA complex, releases granules of enzymes including proteases which digest DNA. The cell is
therefore destroyed- APOPTOSIS
Antibodies bind to pathogens: the complex is destroyed or ingested by cells.
5. Understand the role of the physical organization of the immune system in its function.
How does a T cell meet its antigen?
Antigens are taken up by specialized ANTIGEN-PRESENTING CELLS (class of cells which are capable of taking
up particles, ingesting them and presenting proteins on their surface)
transported from the tissues into secondary lymphoid organs, where they meet T cells
initiate the acquired immune response
Antigen-presenting cells include B lymphocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells (which are most efficient)
Lymphoid Organs
Organized tissue in which lymphocytes interact with non lymphoid cells
Sites of initiation and maturation of adaptive immune responses.
Primary lymphoid organs produce the lymphocytes, e.g. bone marrow and thymus
Secondary lymphoid organs include lymph nodes, spleen, and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue
(MALT)
Lymphocytes and antigen-presenting cells circulate continuously blood and lymphatic vessels from
tissues via lymph nodes/spleen into the blood
T cells spend around 1-2 hours in the blood, but the rest of the day in the lymph
The tissues are patrolled by lymphocytes, antibodies and antigen-presenting cells.
For example, the skin contains lymphatic vessels that drain into local lymph nodes.
Gut lymphoid tissue controls responses in the intestinal tract.
Antigens present in the blood are taken to the spleen.
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Definitions
Lymphocytes are mononuclear cells which are part of the leukocyte (white blood) cell lineage. They are subdivided
into B (Bone marrow-derived) and T (Thymus-derived) lymphocytes. Lymphocytes express antigen receptors on their
surface to enable recognition of a specific antigen
Nave lymphocytes have never encountered the antigen to which their cell surface receptor is specific and thus have
never responded to it.
Memory lymphocytes are the products of an immune response, enabling the specificity of their specific receptor to
remain in the pool of lymphocytes in the body.
Innate immunity An early phase of the response of the body to possible pathogens, characterized by a variety of nonspecific mechanisms (e.g. barriers, acids or enzymes in secretions) and also molecules and receptors on cells which
are Pattern Recognition Molecules which recognize repeating patterns of molecular structure found on the surface
of microorganisms. The innate immune response does not generate memory.
Adaptive immunity is the response of antigen-specific lymphocytes to antigen, and includes the development of
immunological memory. Adaptive responses can increase in magnitude on repeated exposure to the potential
pathogen and the products of these responses are specific for the potential pathogen. Also known as Specific
Immunity or Acquired Immunity.
Active Immunity is the induction of an immune response by the introduction of antigen.
Passive Immunity is immunity gained without antigen induction i.e. by transfer of antibody or immune serum into a
nave recipient.
Primary Response is the response made by nave lymphocytes when they first encounter their specific antigen.
Secondary Response is the response made by memory lymphocytes when they re-encounter the specific antigen.
T cells originate in the thymus. They recognize antigen presented at the cell surface by MHC/HLA molecules. Surface
markers on T cells are CD3, CD4 & CD8
B cells originate in the bone marrow. They recognize free antigen in the body fluids. Surface markers associated with
B cells are CD19, surface immunoglobulin class II MHC
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Primary lymphoid organs (thymus & bone marrow) for production of lymphocytes
Secondary lymphoid organs help antigen to come into contact with lymphocytes expressing appropriate specific
receptors
Lymphocyte numbers are carefully regulated, and they recirculate
T cells express CD3, and recognise processed antigen presented by MHC molecules
B cells express CD19 and CD20, and recognise intact, free antigen
Important APC are dendritic cells, B cells, and macrophages
1. Name the primary and secondary lymphoid organs and briefly differentiate between their functions.
Primary lymphoid organs: organs where lymphopoeisis occurs, i.e. where lymphocytes are produced, including the
bone morrow and thymus to produce T and B lymphocytes.
Secondary lymphoid organs: where lymphocytes can interact with antigen and with other lymphocytes, including
spleen, lymph nodes, mucosal associated lymphoid tissues (MALT)
2. Draw simple diagrams to illustrate the structure of the thymus, lymph node, spleen, Peyers patch and
indicate the changes that occur after stimulation by antigen.
Primary lymphoid Organs:
Bone Marrow
- Site of haematopoesis, i.e.
generation of blood cells
- In an embryo, this happens in
amniotic sac
- In foetus, occurs in all bones, liver
and spleen. Marrow is also very
cellular
- In adults, this occurs mostly in flat
bones, vertebrae, Iliac bones, Ribs
and the ends of long limbs
Thymus
- Where maturity of T-cells occurs
- Bi- lobed
- Medulla and cortex regions
- No change during immune response to antigens, continuous development of T cells
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Lymphatic System
Fluid drained from between tissue cells absorbed into lymph
2 to 3 litres of lymph are returned to the blood each day (via superior vena cava)
In the process of draining, lymph can capture pathogens
Fluid passes through lymph nodes which survey for pathogens
LYMPH NODES
Kidney shaped organs > 1cm
During immune response, swell in size
Fluid enters through AFFERENT vessel
Fluid leaves via EFFERENT vessel
Lymph perculates through all lymphocytes before
leaving the node
Usually a SUMMATIVE junction, i.e. there are many
afferent vessels but one efferent vessel
Rich blood supply lets lymphocytes into the lymph
nodes via the HIGH ENDOLTHELIAL VENUES
T-cell zone: parafollicular cortex
B-cell zone: lymphoid follicle- mostly on the
periphery of the lymph node
During immune response, there is a massive proliferation of B cells, which leads to the formation of a
GERMINAL CENTRE
Specific chemokines target their respective lymphocytes to their specific areas, e.g. T-cells to the
parafollicular cortex
The lymph entering lymph nodes may also contain cells such as dendritic cells and macrophages
Spleen
Filter for antigens in the blood
Large organ in the abdomen
Separated into
white pulp: lymphoid cells around blood vessels, full
of lymphocytes
red pulp: contains old damaged RBC
Any diseases involving RBC, i.e. sickle-cell, often
results in an enlargement of the spleen
T cell area: peri-arteriolar lymphatic sheath (PALS)
B cell area is located further away from blood vessels
Not a vital organ: Individuals who do not have a spleen are highly susceptible to infections with encapsulated
bacteria
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3.
Lymphocyte recirculation
Pathogen on mucosal surface
Naive lymphocytes leave BM and Thymus and enter the bloodstream
Recirculate through peripheral lymphoid tissue
Recognition of antigen- massive B cell proliferation in secondary lymphoid tissue (lymphocyte activation)
Otherwise the lympcytes die
Extravasion of naive T cells into the lymph nodes (occurs during immune response)
The naive T cell rolls along the
epithelium
These are then stopped and
activated by specific chemokines at
a particular place on the
epithelium. This right place is
determined by SELECTINS
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INTEGRINS then increase adhesion of the T cell to the epithelium, leading to arrest of the cell
Transendothelial migration of the T cell from the bloodstream into the lymph node then occurs
Antigens also enter the lymph nodes via the draining lymphatics
Naive lymphocytes recirculate approx once per day -- enter lymph nodehigh endothelial venue
lymphocyte is activated by antigen stops recirculatng massive proliferation of B lymphocytes reenter
the blood via the superior vena cava (via the efferent vessel) target invading microbes/pathogens
4. Explain the use of CD (cluster of differentiation) markers for discrimination between lymphocytes.
Lymphocytes
Small cells with agranular cytoplasm and a large nucleus
Can be subdivided into 2 groups depending on where they were produced
- B lymphocytes (Bone Marrow)
- T lymphocytes (Thymus)
These express different CD molecules, which are recognised by different antibodies
CD Markers
an internationally recognised systematic nomenclature for cell surface molecules
used to discriminate between cells of the haematopoietic system
more than 300 CD markers
clinical importance e.g. CD4 in HIV
B cells
T Lymphocytes
B lymphocytes
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3. Innate Immunity
Dr Keith Gould (k.gould@imperial.ac.uk)
1. Briefly describe the functions of the important phagocytic cells: neutrophils, monocytes/macrophages.
2. Define cytokines and describe their general properties.
3. Define complement, list its major functions, and draw a simple diagram of the complement pathways.
4. Describe a typical inflammatory response to a localised infection involving recruitment of neutrophils, and
phagocytosis and killing of bacteria.
5. Briefly outline the events involved in a systemic acute phase response.
6. Outline the phenotype and functions of natural killer (NK) cells.
Innate Immunity
Phagocytosis
Phagocytic cells can ingest whole microorganisms, insoluble particles, dead host cells, cell debris and
activated clotting factors.
In the first step, there has to be adherence of the material to the cell membrane.
Finger-like projections called pseudopodia engulf the material, and a membrane-bound structure called a
phagosome is formed.
This then fuses with a lysosome to form a phagolysosome, mixing the contents of the lysosome with the
engulfed material.
Lysosomes contain hydrogen peroxide, oxygen free-radicals, and various hydrolytic enzymes which can
digest and break down the engulfed material.
Finally, any waste products are released from the cell.
Phagocytic Cells
Neutrophils
- (POLYMORPHONUCLEAR LEUKOCYTE)
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50-70% of leukocytes
short lived cells, circulate in blood then migrate into tissues; first cells to be recruited to a site of tissue
damage/infection
- ~1011 produced per day in a healthy adult, but this can increase approx ten-fold during infection
Macrophages
- less abundant
- dispersed throughout the tissues
- signal infection by release of soluble mediators
Neutrophils
To fight infection, neutrophils:
1. Migrate to site of infection (Diapedesis and Chemotaxis)
- Neutophil rolls along normal endothelium
- At site of damage/when antigen is presented by macrophage, a change in the nature of the endothelium
occurs
- Integrin activation by chemokines- This leads to a change in adhesion molecules into high affinity state- they
flatten out and undergo migration through endothelium
- Chemotaxis- directed migration along chemokine concentration gradient towards area of high concentration
2.
-
Phagocytose
Key component of host defence
May result in pus-filled abscess
Much more effective after OPSONISATION
4. Kill pathogen
- Neutrophil Killing Mechanisms
OXYGEN-INDEPENDENT
Uses enzymes:
- Lysozyme
- Hydrolytic enzymes
OXYGEN-DEPENDENT
Uses Respiratory burst: Toxic Metabolites
- Superoxide anion
- Hydrogen perozide
- Signlet oxygen
- Hydroxyl radical
Reactive Nitrogen Intermediates:
- Nitric oxide
Phagocyte Deficiency
Associated with infections due to extracellular bacteria and fungi
Bacteria
- Staphylococcus aureas
- Pseudomonas aeruginosa
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- Escherichia coli
Fungi
- Candida albicans
- Aspergillus flavus
Deep skin infections, impaired would healing
Poor response to antibiotics
E.g. chronic granulomas disease
Phagocytes
Monocytes
Circulate in blood
Smaller than tissue macrophages
Precursor to tissue macrophages
Macrophages
Express pathogen recognition receptors (e.g. toll-like receptors TLR, NOD-like receptors NLR, RIG-I: viral
genomes) for many bacterial constituents
Bacteria bind to macrophage receptors- initiate a response release of cytokine (soluble mediators SIGNAL
INFECTION)
Phagocytosis then occurs: Engulf and digest bacteria
Cytokines
INTERLEUKINS (IL-x)
Between leukocytes
approx 35 different types
INTERFERONS (IFN)
Anti-viral effects
approx 20-25 different types
CHEMOKINES
Chemotaxis, movement
approx 50 different types
GROWTH FACTORS
development of immune system
CYTOTOXIC
Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)
Mechanism
Inducing stimulus transcription of gene for soluble protein in cytokine-producing cell cytokine binds to
receptor on target cell -- Binding generates signal changes in gene transcription and gene activation
biological effect
Cytokines are usually released in a mixture, therefore have a wide range of effects on a range of different
target cells
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Autocrine Action
same cell
e.g. Interleukin 2
Paracrine Action
nearby cell
e.g. interferon
Endocrine action
circulate in bloodstream distant cell
e.g. interleukin 6
Important Cytokines
IL-1
alarm cytokine
fever
TNF-
alarm cytokine
IL-6
acute phase proteins
liver
IL-8
chemotactic for neutrophils
IL-12
directs adaptive immunity
activates NK cells
Bacterial Septic Shock
Systemic infection
Bacterial endotoxins cause massive release of the TNF- and IL-1 by activated macrophages
Increased vascular permeability
Sever drop in blood pressure
10% mortality
Dendritic Cells
Network of cells located at likely sites of infection, in the skin and near mucosal epithelia
Recognise microbial patterns, secrete cytokines
engulf pathogens, and migrate to local lymph node to present antigens to adaptive immune system
Complement
describe the activity in serum which could complement the ability of specific antibody to cause lysis of bacteria
Ehrlich (1854-1915)
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Activation
The Classical Pathway
initiated by antigen-antibody complexes
The Alternative Pathway
direct activation by pathogen surfaces
The Lectin Pathway
antibody-independent activation of Classical Pathway by lectins which bind to carbohydrates only found on
pathogens, e.g. MBL and CRP
Control Mechanisms
Acheieved by:
Lability of components, i.e. their short half-life
Dilution of components in biological fluids
Specific regulatory proteins:
- Circulating/soluble, eg C1-inhibitor, Factor I, Factor H, C4-binding protein
- membrane bound, eg CD59 (interferes with MAC insertion) and DAF (competes for C4b)
Function
1. Lysis
2. Opsonisation
3. Inflammation/chemotaxis
Mast Cells
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4. Antibodies
Dr Keith Gould (k.gould@imperial.ac.uk)
1. Describe with the aid of a simple diagram the immunoglobulin molecule, identifying the antigen-binding site (Fab)
and Fc portions of the molecule.
2. Briefly describe the properties of the antigen-binding site.
3. Distinguish between antibody affinity and avidity.
4. List the immunoglobulin classes and sub-classes in man. Describe their functions and relate these to their
individual structure.
Overview
What is an antibody?
A protein that is produced in response to an antigen
Binds specifically to the antigen
Form the class known as IMMUNOGLOBULINS
Large family of soluble GLYCOPROTEINS
Produced by B lymphocytes
Found in serum
>107 different types
Deficiency is life threatening
After binding antigen, initiate secondary effector functions
- Complement activation
- Opsonisation
- Cell activation via specific antibody-binding receptors (Fc receptors)
Structure
symmetrical
Two light (25kDa) chains, two heavy (50kDa) chains
Each chain has amino and carboxyl terminal
Chains heald together by disulphide bridges
Electrophoresis of globulins found in serum:
- Relative amounts (decreasing): A, , ,
- Electrophoretic mobility- towards +ve electrode: A, ,
,
Different antibodies therefore have different charges
The discovery of antibody structure
Rodney Porter
Limited the digestion of gamma-globulin with purified
papain, which produced 3 fragments in equal amounts
2 fragments had antigen binding activity (Fab)
The third did not, but formed protein crystals (Fc)
Flexibility
There is a hinge in the antibody which allows flexibility
between the two Fab
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This allows the angle between the two antigen binding sites to change
angle depending on the proximity of cell surface determinants, i.e.
how close together antigens are
Both light and heavy chains can be divided into variable (where the
sequences are different) and constant (same sequence) regions
Each IG (immunoglobulin/antibody) domain, e.g. variable light, has
INTRAMOLECULAR DISULPHIDE BONDS to maintain their specific 3D
structure required for antigen binding
Many cell surface proteins also have IG-like domains, and are said to belong to the IG super family
The constant region binds to Fc receptors, which can lead to cell activation, e.g. NK cells (secondary effector
functions in immune response)
Antigen-binding site
Forces involved
Hydrogen bonds
Ionic bonds
Hydrophobic interactions
Van der Waals interactions
Are non-covalent, therefore are relatively weak. This means that in order to have a HIGH AFFINITY, there can only be
a short distance between the antigen and antibody, highly complementary nature, and a significant number of
interactions.
Antibody Affinity
The strength of the total non-covalent interactions between a single antigen binding site and a single epitope on the
antigen.
The affinity association constant K can be calculated:
K varies from 104 to 1011 L/mol
Antibody Avidity
The overall strength of multiple interactions between an antibody with multiple binding sites and a complex antigen
with multiple epitopes
Cross-Reactivity
Antibodies elicited in response to one antigen can also recognise a different antigen, for example:
1. Vaccination with cowpox induces antibodies which are able to recognise smallpox
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2. ABO blood group antigens are glycoproteins on red blood cells. Antibodies made against microbial agents on
common intestinal bacteria may cross-react with the glycoproteins, which poses a problem for blood
transfusions.
Isotypes and Allotypes
Isotypes are antibodies who are present in everybody, with a constant region.
Allotypes are antibodies that contain single amino acid mutations, giving allelic polymorphisms which vary in
the population
Immunoglobulin Classes
Different classes of antibodies differ in the constant regions of their heavy chains
Class
IgG
IgA
IgM
IgD
Heavy chain
CH Domains
3
3
4
3
Light Chain
/
/
/
/
IgG and IgA have subclasses
Class
Subclass
H chain
IgG
IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, IgG4
1, 2, 3, 4
IgG
heavy chain
most abundant
monomer
4 subclasses- variability mainly
located in hinge region and
effector function domains
Actively transported across the
placenta- protection from
mother to newborn
Found in Blood and
extracellular fluids
Major activator of classical
complement pathway (mainly
IgG1 and IgG3)
Subclasses decrease in
proportion from 1-4
IgA
IgA1, IgA2
1, 2
IgA
heavy chain
Second most abundant
monomer (blood)
dimer (secretions)
Major secretory
immunoglobulin
Protects mucosal surfaces from
bacteria, viruses and protozoa
Secretory IgA: joined by J chain
and secretory component.
Plasma cell secretes dimeric
form without secretory. This
bonds to poly-Ig receptor and is
endocytosed and secreted into
lumen. The poly-Ig receptor is
cleaved and becomes the
secretory component
IgE
4
/
IgM
heavy chain
pentameric
5 monomers joined by J chain
(10 x Fab)
mainly confined to blood
(80%)
first Ig synthesised after
exposure to antigen (primary
antibody response)
multiple binding sites
compensate for low affinity
efficient at agglutination of
bacteria
activates complement
IgD
heavy chain
extremely low serum concentrations
least well characterised
surface IgD expressed early in B cell
development
involved in B cell development and activation
IgE
heavy chain
present at extremely low levels
produced in response to parasitic infections and
in allergic diseases
binds to high affinity Fc receptors of mast cells
and basophils
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Effector Function
Activity
Example
Neutralization of toxins
Neutralization of viruses
Neutralization at body
surfaces
Agglutination
Inhibits toxicity
Inhibits infectivity
Inhibits infectivity of
bacteria & viruses
Ag-Ab complexes/
Lattice formation
Promotes
phagocytosis
Classical Pathway
Tetanus toxin
Measles
Polio
Salmonella
Bacteria & RBC
Antibody
Class
Mainly IgG
Mainly IgG
Secretory
IgA
IgM, IgG
Bacteria, fungi
IgG
Ag-Ab complex
IgM, IgG
Parasites
Pollen
Virus infected
cells
IgE
Opsonization
Complement activation
Mainly IgG
Summary
Antibodies:
In defence
- targeting of infective organisms
- recruitment of effector mechanisms
- neutralisation of toxins
- removal of antigens
- passive immunity in the new born
In medicine
- levels used in diagnosis and monitoring
- pooled antibodies for passive therapy/protection
In laboratory science
- vast range of diagnostic and research applications
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5. B Lymphocytes
Dr Ingrid Muller (i.muller@imperial.ac.uk)
1. Describe the process of stimulation of individual B cells to divide and secrete antibody such as to generate
immunity to a particular antigen (clonal selection)
2. Briefly outline the principles of immunoglobulin (Ig) gene rearrangement in the generation of diversity
3. Outline the differences in antibody production during primary and secondary immune responses
4. Differentiate between monoclonal and polyclonal antibody
Adaptive Immune response
B Lymphocytes
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Clonal Selection
Basis of adaptive immunity
Non-self reactive mature lymphocytes then
migrate to the periphery
Our immune system is usually exposed to multiple antigens, therefore multiple cells will be activated
Each lymphocyte (T or B) expresses an antigen receptor with a unique specificity,
Binding of antigen to its specific receptor leads to activation of the cell, causing it to proliferate into a clone
of cells
All of these clonally expanded cells bear receptors of the same specificity to the parental cell
Lymphocytes expressing receptors that recognize self molecules are deleted early during lymphocyte
development and are phagocytosed/lysed
Result: Plasma Cells, Antibodies, Memory cells
Antibody production
Naive antigen-specific lymphocytes cannot be activated by antigen alone; they require accessory signals
either from:
- Microbial Constituents- Thymus Independent
- Helper T cells- Thymus Dependent
Thymus Independent
Microbial Consistuents
Only IgM is produced
No memory cells formed
Antigens directly activate B cells without the
help of T cells
This can induce antibodies in people with no
thymus and no T cells (Di-George syndrome)
The second signal required is either
provided by the microbial constituent or by
an accessory cell
Thymus Dependent
Helper T cells
All Ig-classes produced
Memory is formed
Membrane bound BCR binds with antigen
and is internalised and delivered to
intracellular sites
Antigen is degraded into peptides
Peptides associated with Self- MHC Class II,
forming a complex which is expressed at
the cell surface
T lymphocytes with a complementary T cell
receptor (TCR) recognises the complex
T helper cells then secrete LYMPHOKINES
B cell then enters the cell cycle, forming a
clone of cells with identical BCRsdifferentiating into plasma and memory
cells
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T cell recognises complex and co-stimulation by B7and CD28 interaction activation of T cells
B7(expressed by B cell)
CD28(expressed by TH cell)
Activated T cell expresses CD40L
The interaction between CD40L and CD40 (expressed by B cell) induces signal 2
Activated B cells (CENTROBLAST) express cytokine receptors
T cell derived cytokines bind to receptors on B cells
B cells proliferate and differentiate into antibody secreting plasma cells
Cytokines
Certain cytokines help to produce certain Ig classes during differentiation of CENTROCYTES into plasma cells
Class switching
During class switching, the variable region (and hence the specificity) remains constant
However the constant region changes from the original IgM
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Property
Responding B cell
Lag period
Time of peak response
Magnitude of peak antibody
response
Isotype produced
Antigens
Antibody affinity
Primary Response
Naive
4-7 days
7-10 days
Varies depending on antigen
Secondary Response
Memory
1-3 days
3-5 days
100-1000x greater
Predominantly IgM
Thymus independent and
thymus dependent
Lower
Predominantly IgG
Thymus dependent
higher
Polyclonal antiserum- all antigenic epitopes induce an immune response many different B cells activated
different antibodies produced
Invading microorganisms have multiple antigenic epitopes A mixture of antibodies directed to several
antigenic determinants will be produced which are derived from many different clones of B cells = polyclonal
response
Monoclonal antibodies are derived from a single B cell clone, which can be extracted after first combining
the plasma cells with myeloma cells to form hybridomas. Monoclonal antibodies are used to quantify CD4
count in HIV patients
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Myeloma = cancerous plasma cells that divides permanently without antigenic stimulation and secretes
antibodies which are indistinguishable from normal antibody = myeloma proteins. They confer immortality
when hybridised with another cell
Plasmacytoma - clone of malignant plasma cells
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The Thymus
Development
1. T cells are CD4- and CD8- (they express neither; double negative)
2. In the cortex, the T cells express a TCR precursor (pre TCR; + surrogate TCR)
3. In the medulla, ~1010 different TCRs created by gene rearrangements. The generated TCRs will only
express either CD4 or CD8
Due to these random gene rearrangements, many of the generated T cells will be SELF-REACTIVE,
therefore these must be destroyed
Selection
Occurs during interaction with macrophages and dendritic cells within the thymus. Only useful cells leave the
thymus.
Pre TCR checkpoint
- Is the new chain functional?
- No: Death by APOPTOSIS
- Yes: Survival and development to CD4+ CD8+ TCR+
Post TCR checkpoint
- Is the TCR functional?
- Is the TCR dangerous/autoreactive?
- Useless: cannot see MHC die by apoptosis
- Dangerous: see self, i.e. host molecules receive signal to die by apoptosis, i.e. NEGATIVE SELECTION
- Useful: binds weakly to MHC molecule receive signal to survive, i.e. POSITIVE SELECTION
- Note: only 5% of thymocytes survive selection
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MHC Class II
Consists of 2 transmembrane polypeptides of equal
length
Each polypeptide (alpha and beta) have two domains
CD4 interacts with the beta-2 domain
Cleft Geometry
MHC class I
- accommodate peptides of 8-10 amino acids
- Peptide buried within structure
- Peptides all same length
MHC class II
- accommodate peptides of >13 amino acids
- peptides stick out from MHC molecule
individuals have relatively few MHC, but need to present many peptides, so present SUBSETS of peptides
using BINDING MOTIFS
BINDING POCKET: certain residues (anchor residues) are directly associated with the peptide due to their
specific sequence
Binding pockets are useful in order to predict which peptides will be presented
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Gene expression
Polygenic: there are several gene loci
Co-dominant: both paternal and maternal MHC expressed
MHC Class I: present in nearly all nucleated cells, and levels may be altered during infection or by cytokines
MHC Class II: normally only on professional APC, and may be regulated by cytokines
Polymorphism
Large number of alternative different versions of the same gene within the population- termed an ALLELE
Each group of MHC alleles linked on one chromosome is termed MHC HAPLOTYPE
Different MHC Haplotypes lead to different immune responsiveness
>4200 HLA proteins in human population
Most polymorphic: Class I- HLA B, Class II- HLA DR
In reality MHC alleles are NOT randomly distributed in the population: some alleles are much rarer than
others, and alleles segregate with race.
This poses a problem for tissue transplants tissue typing
Antigen Processing and Presentation
T lymphocytes recognize only processed antigens presented on cell surfaces by MHC molecules
ENDOGENOUS antigen: synthesised within cell (taken to CD8)
EXOGENOUS antigen: synthesised outside the cell, and can be taken up by macrophage etc (taken to CD4)
Antigens in different locations require different responses
Different pathways present antigens from
different locations to different T cell
CLASS II
CLASS I
subsets
Class 1:
- Antigen cleaved by proteasome, taken
TAP
into RER by TAP (transporter associated
TRANSPORTER
with antigen presenting)
ASSOCIATED
WITH ANTIGEN
- Bind with MHC class I
PROCESSING
- Shaperones, e.g. calnexin, help protein
folding
- Then trafficked by golgi to surface
Class 2:
- Antigen endocytosed
- Cleaved by proteases
- MHC II migrates into RER- associates with INVARIANT chain
- The MHC II invariant complex is migrated into the golgi in ENDOSOME
- Invariant chain is digested by CLIP (Class II associated invariant chain peptide)
- CLIP is then exchanged for the antigenic peptide, which is then presented at the surface
CLIP
CLASS II
ASSOCIATED
INVARIANT
CHAIN PEPTIDE
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7. Effector T-lymphocytes
Dr Ingrid Muller (i.muller@imperial.ac.uk)
1. Outline the importance of antigen presenting cells in the induction of T lymphocyte responses
2. Describe effector functions of T lymphocytes including cell-mediated cytotoxicity, macrophage activation, delayed
type hypersensitivity and T/B lymphocyte cooperation
3. Briefly outline the function of T helper cells in relation to the cytokines they produce
4. Explain the different requirements for activation of naive and memory T lymphocytes
Different pathogens require different immune defence strategies (intra/extracellular bacteria, virus,
parasites, worms and fungi)
Detects and eliminates intracellular pathogens
Eliminates altered cells, i.e. tumour cells
Location of antigen determines immune response:
o Phagocytes with ingested microbes microbial antigens in vesicles CD4+ effector T cells (TH 1)
o Infected cell with microbes in cytoplasm CD8+ T cells (CTLs)
CD4+ cytokine secretion macrophage activation killing of ingested microbes (also leads to
inflammation)
CD8+ killing of infected cell
CD4+ produce IFN-, IL-2, TNF-
CD8+ secrete granules
Naive T-lymphocytes
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Recognition proliferation/differentiation
effector function
T-cells secrete IL-2 and IL-2 receptor (required for
proliferation); DIRECT RESPONSE = AUTOCRINE
ACTION
This leads to the cell activation and multiplication
Effector function: APOPTOSIS- destroy infected target cell
Effector T cells are less dependent on costimulation
IL-2
DEFINITIONS
Nave T cells: mature recirculating T cells that have not yet encountered antigen
Effector T cells: encountered antigen, proliferated and differentiated into cells that participate in the host defense
Target cells: Cells on which effector T cells act
T-effector cells
CD8: peptide + MHC class I- cytotoxic cells
CD4: Th1 cells- interact with macrophages- phagocytosis intracellular bacteria
Th2 cells interact with antigen-specific cell antibody production
CTLs
MCD Immunology
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When binding to their specific antigenic peptide:self-MHC complexes, TCRs and their associated coreceptors
cluster to the site of cell-cell contact.
Clustering of TCRs then signals a reorientation of the cytoskeleton that POLARIZES the effector cell to focus
the release of effector molecules at the site of contact with the target cell.
CTLs contain lytic granules which contain cytotoxic molecules. In the polarized T cells the secretory
apparatus becomes aligned toward the target cell and the content of the lytic granules is secreted.
The lytic granules induces APOPTOSIS
CTLs can kill multiple targets
Early apoptosis: chromatin becomes condensed
Late apoptosis: nucleus very condensed, mitochondria visible, cell loses much of cytoplasm and membrane
Granules
PERFORIN: polymerises to form pore of Target cell
GRANZYMES: serine proteases, activate apoptosis in cytoplasm
GRANULYSIS: induce apoptosis
Cell Death
Apoptosis characterised by
fragmentation of nuclear DNA
CTL store PERFORIN, GRANZYMES, GRANULYSIN
Granules released after target recognition
Also release of soluble mediators that contribute to host defence:
- IFN- ; inhibits viral replication and activates macrophages
- TFN and TNF synergise with IFN-
TH cells
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T cell Functions
Cytokines involved
IFN-, TNF-
IL-2, IFN-, TNF-, IL-3, GM-CSF
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MCD Immunology
Help for CD8 cells
Down-regulation of Th2 responses
Th2 associated functions in humoral immunity
B cell proliferation
B cell differentiation and Ig class switching
Down-regulation of Th1 responses
Alexandra Burke-Smith
IL-2
IFN-
Cytokines involved
IL-2, IL-4, IL-5
IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IFN-, TGF-
IL-4, TGF-, IL-10
Regulator T Cells
Some T cells differentiate into regulatory cells in the thymus or in peripheral tissue
Regulatory T cells inhibit the activation of naive and effector T cells by CONTACT-DEPENDENT INHIBITION or
by CYTOKINE-MEDIATED INHIBITION
Regulate activation and effector functions of other T cells
Natural; 5-10% in body; from thymus and important in autoimmunity
Down-regulate immune response; both cell-to-cell and cytokine mediated
Antigen specific induced
Immunological Memory
Adaptive immune response in which the immune system remembers subsequent encounters with the same
pathogen
Memory responses are characterised by a faster and stronger immune response that serves to eliminate
pathogens and prevent diseases
Can confer life-long immunity to many infections, and is the basis for successful vaccination
Memory cells show qualitatively different and quantitatively enhances responses upon re-exposure
T cell memory
MCD Immunology
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Immunity
Respiratory
GI tract
Venereal
Zoonoses (vectors)
Defences
Coughing
Sneezing
Mucus
Cilia
Rapid cell turnover
Antimicrobial peptides produced by phagocytes and epithelial cells
Mechanical
Epithelial tight junctions
Skin- waterproofed by fatty secretions
Social conditioning, e.g. wahsing
Chemical
Fatty acids- skin
Enzymes: lysozyme (saliva, sweat and tears), pepsin (gut)
Low pH (stomach, sweat)
Antibacterial peptides (Paneth cells in intestine)
Microbiological:
Normal flora compete for nutrients/attachment sites
Production of antibacterial substances
Pre-infectionfirst line
Avoidance
Small
Taste
Mucus
Physical barriers
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Surface environment
Early infectionsecond line
Phagocytes
Opsonins
Some lymphocytes
Interferons
Acute phase proteins
Toll-like receptors
Late infectionspecific
- T cells
- Antibody responses
General Trend: Increase in learning and specificity, decrease in breadth of response
Danger Model
Necrotic cell death
DAMPS (damage associated molecule patterns) released, which bind to receptor on DC
DC maturation and migration to lymph node
Phagocytes
MCD Immunology
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Chemical Signals
Interferons
- TYPE I/III: a/b/l
o activates NK cells
o upregulates MHC, Mx
proteins
o activates RNase L, PKR
o induces anti-viral state
- TYPE II: IFNg
o proinflammatory
o Th1 cytokine
o immune interferon
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Chemokines
Cytokines
Innate Cellular Defences
Natural Killer Cells
- kill host cells that are:
o Infected
o Transformed
o Stressed
- Important in viral
infections.
o Viruses evade NK
cell killing
o NK deficiency
leads to increased
infections
- Important early source of
cytokines
- Shape adaptive immune responses
T cells
Surface defences
(mechanical and chemical)
Antibody opsonisation
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Mucosal defences
Mannan binding proteins
Antimicrobial peptides
Enzymes e.g. lysozyme
Mucosal lymphocytes
Secretory IgA
Special antigen sampling
o Waldeyers ring
o Peyers patches
o Dendritic cell networks
Defences against viruses
Surface defences
Interferons
Inflammatory mediators and acute phase proteins/opsonins etc.
NK cells
Antibody, complement, ADCC
T cells
Flu Pathogenesis
Factors that affect severity of infection
RNA sequence
Viral load
Environment
DNA of host
Viral Strategies
Normal response
Good immune response
Appropriate regulation
Pathogen defeated
Immune defect
Poor immune response
Poor control of infection
High pathogen load
Poor T regulatory cells
Defective regulation
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LECTURERS NOTES
Why do we have an immune system?
It can be argued that the immune system has developed to provide us with a survival advantage against infection,
and that all other functions are a by-product. Our internal and external surfaces are bathed in microbes. We inhale
potentially lethal microbes with every breath that we take, and our cells are outnumbered by our bacteria by 10:1,
which form about 3% of our body mass. The essential challenge of the immune system is to remain indifferent to
non-pathogenic microbes, while responding rapidly and appropriately to the constant microbial onslaught.
MCD Immunology
Alexandra Burke-Smith
on the cell surface. The importance of the interferon system to viruses is shown by the very large number of viruses
that have evolved mechanisms to block the synthesis and actions of interferons.
Low molecular weight mediators are also very important in recruiting other cells to the site of information. Cells that
circulate in the blood and lymph migrate out into the tissues in response to infection, particular combinations of
mediators attracting particular cells (by secretion of chemoattractants called chemokines). Neutrophils, for
example, are attracted by a chemokine called interleukin 8 (IL-8). The eosinophils, on the other hand respond to
eotaxin or RANTES.
Cytokines are chemical signals used for communication by the immune system. They may have local and systemic
effects and direct the extent and the nature of the immune response. For example, Interferon-gamma can be
produced by T cells to enhance activation of macrophages. The cytokine TNF-alpha has many systemic effects
associated with infection, including fever and weight loss.
MCD Immunology
Alexandra Burke-Smith
T-cells are quite different. They do not recognise the molecular surface, shape and charge of antigen, but instead
recognise sequences of peptide from digested antigens presented by antigen presenting cells. The T-cell receptor
locks on to MHC surface proteins which are of two types. MHC I is present on all nucleated cells, under normal
circumstances. There is a cleft on the external tip of this protein that holds a short peptide signature, representing a
digest fragment of internally synthesised proteins. If this is a normal host protein, T-cells detect the presence but are
selected not to respond strongly. If it is a novel sequence, the T-cells recognise it as foreign and respond strongly. On
the other hand, the MHC II has an external cleft that bears a digestion fragment of protein that has been picked up
from outside a professional antigen presenting cell. These professionals include dendritic cells, macrophages and
some B-cells. MHC II is not present on ordinary cells.
T-cells with a helper function (those recognising peptide presented by MHC II) are often subdivided according to the
soluble mediators that they produce. Th1 cells classically make interferon gamma and tumour necrosis factor (TNF).
On the other hand Th2 cells make IL-5, IL-4, IL-9 and IL-13. These are mostly involved in allergic responses and lead
to eosinophil recruitment. However, the situation is getting ever more complex; it has recently been shown that
there are cells specialised to produce IL-17 (Th17) and various types of regulatory T-cell that make combinations of
inhibitory cytokines.
Regulatory T cells can also dampen immune responses by depriving other cells of the immune system of vital factors
(like IL-2) or by acting on dendritic cells to inhibit activation.
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