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Avian Pathology
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To cite this article: A. Baghbanzadeh & E. Decuypere (2008) Ascites syndrome in broilers: physiological and nutritional
perspectives, Avian Pathology, 37:2, 117-126, DOI: 10.1080/03079450801902062
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03079450801902062
REVIEW ARTICLE
Section of Physiology, Department of Basic Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tehran, PO Box
14155-6453, Tehran, Iran, and 2Laboratory for Physiology and Immunology of Domestic Animals, Department of Animal
Production, Faculty of Agricultural and Applied Biological Sciences, K.U. Leuven, Kardinaal Mercierlaan 92, B-3001
Leuven, Belgium
Broiler chickens are intensively selected for productive traits. The management of these highly productive
animals must be optimal to allow their full genetic potential to be expressed. If this is not done, inefficient
production and several metabolic diseases such as ascites become apparent. The causes of the ascites are
multifactorial but diet and, particularly, interactions between diet, other environmental and genetic factors
play an important role. The relatively high heritability estimates for ascites-related traits and the significance
of maternal genetic effects for most of the traits indicate that direct and maternal genetic effects play an
important role in development of the ascites syndrome. An imbalance between oxygen supply and the
oxygen required to sustain rapid growth rates and high food efficiencies causes ascites in broiler chickens.
Because of the relationship to oxygen demand, ascites is affected and/or precipitated by factors such as
growth rate, altitude (hypoxia) and environmental temperature. As the high metabolic rate (fast growth) is a
major factor contributing to the susceptibility of broilers to ascites, early-age feed or nutrient restriction
(qualitative or quantitative) or light restriction in order to slow down the growth rate seem practically viable
methods, since final body weight is not compromised. Manipulation of the diet composition and/or feed
allocation system can have a major effect on the incidence of ascites. Optimization of the house temperature
and ventilation in cold weather seem helpful practices to decrease ascites incidence.
Introduction
The modern chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) has been
intensely selected for higher growth rates and so
indirectly for a high rate of protein synthesis, which
requires more oxygen (Decuypere et al., 2005), increased
feed conversion (Decuypere et al., 2000; Pakdel et al.,
2002), egg production (Decuypere et al., 2000) or meat
yield and breast percentage (Hoving-Bolink et al., 2000).
Modern strains of broilers are able to achieve market
weight in 60% less time than broilers of 40 years ago.
Nevertheless, the pulmonary and cardiac capacity of
modern broilers is very similar to the old broiler strains,
which forces their cardiopulmonary system to work very
close to its physiological limit (Lorenzoni et al., 2006).
The lung capacity does not always meet the oxygen
demands necessary for rapid growth. This results in
impaired ability to regulate the energy balance under
extreme conditions, such as low ambient temperature or
high altitude (Luger et al., 2003). If the lung of the
chicken grows less rapidly than the rest of the body,
hypoxia and ascites could result (Julian, 2000). Recent
data suggest that ascites is not caused by an increased
oxygen requirement of fast growth rate per se at low
altitude, but by an impaired oxygen supply to sustain fast
growth rate (Decuypere et al., 2005). Ascites (pulmonary
*To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel: 98 21 61117081. Fax: 98 21 66422045. E-mail: abaghban@ut.ac.ir
Received 4 October 2007
ISSN 0307-9457 (print)/ISSN 1465-3338 (online)/08/20117-10 # 2008 Houghton Trust Ltd
DOI: 10.1080/03079450801902062
Q (P1 P2 )
pr4
8mL
(p is blood viscosity)
R
P1 P2
Q
Pulmonary Hypertension
Pulmonary hypertension is the result of processes taking
place in both respiratory and cardiovascular systems.
The architecture of the modern broilers*small stature,
the large, heavy breast mass, the pressure from abdominal contents on air sacs, and the small lung volume*
may all be involved in the increased incidence of ascites
syndrome (Julian, 1998; Balog, 2003). Theoretically, the
unique anatomy of the avian respiratory system results
in a model of gas exchange that is more efficient than the
mammalian model (Piiper & Scheid, 1975), and for a
given level of ventilation to the gas-exchange surfaces,
cardiac output, and lung diffusing capacity, arterial O2
loading and CO2 elimination are predicted to be better in
a parabronchial lung, compared with an alveolar lung
with the same inspired gases and metabolic demands
(Powell, 2000). But the rigid (parabronchial) lungs of
birds conform closely to the contour of the body cavity
Ascites in broilers
Cold
Moderate heat
Activity
Hyperthyroidism
Elevated muscle mass
Over-eating
High altitude
(decreased pO2)
Physiological hypoxia
Increased haematocrit
Increased pressure
in
the pulmonary arteries, arterioles & capillaries
Ascites
119
Ascites Symptoms
Ascites symptoms in broiler chickens include generalized
oedema, fluid accumulation in the pericardium, hydropericardium (pericardial effusion) (Olkowski et al.,
2003), in the abdominal cavity (Balog et al., 2003),
epicardial fibrosis, lung oedema, enlarged, flaccid heart
(Balog et al., 2003), hypertrophy and dilation of the
heart, especially the right ventricle (Decuypere et al.,
2000), variable liver changes, hypoxaemia, pale comb
and higher blood haematocrit (Luger et al., 2003). These
symptoms indicate that a large number of organs
(including the heart, lung, liver, etc.) are involved in
the disease.
Ascites in broilers
121
L-carnitine-supplemented
Ascites in broilers
determine gaseous exchange) to affect the total incubation time and, thereby, influence the susceptibility to
ascites and related physiological responses in later
postnatal life (Chineme et al., 1995).
pH and Ascites
Ascites is ultimately caused by an imbalance between the
oxygen supply to the body tissues and the oxygen
requirement of the tissues (Julian, 1993). Poor tissue
oxygenation can be caused by an increased oxygen
requirement of the tissues due to increased metabolism
from rapid growth (Peacock et al., 1989) or in response
to cold temperature; by a decreased availability of
oxygen in the environment due to high altitude (hypobaric conditions) or poor ventilation; or by low oxygen
content of the blood because of low haemoglobin
oxygen affinity or decreased blood oxygen capacity of
haemoglobins or low oxygen exchange in the lung
(Julian, 1993). Ascites can be reduced by decreasing
the oxygen requirements of the bird (such as by reducing
growth rate and avoiding cold) or increasing oxygen
delivery to the tissues.
In mammals, acidosis causes vasoconstriction, while
alkalosis causes vasodilation, which affects pulmonary
arterial pressure and pulmonary hypertension. The
blood pH also affects the affinity of haemoglobin for
oxygen in the lung and release of oxygen to the tissues
(the Bohr effect). A decrease in blood pH lowers the
oxygen affinity of haemoglobin, which encourages
release in the tissues, while increased blood pH increases
oxygen affinity to increase haemoglobin saturation in the
lung (Issacks et al., 1986). The feeding of excess chloride
or sulphate has been shown to depress blood pH and
bicarbonate levels in chickens (Ruiz-Lopez & Austic,
1993), while feeding bicarbonate would be expected to
increase blood pH. It has been suggested that broiler
chickens that have a high metabolic rate may be in a state
of metabolic acidosis when they are on full feed (Julian,
1993). Several workers have shown that fast-growing
birds have lower blood oxygen concentration than slowgrowing birds; likewise, birds on full feed have lower
blood oxygen than food-deprived birds (Fedde et al.,
1998; Julian & Mirsalimi, 1992; Reeves et al., 1991).
Feeding low chloride/high bicarbonate diets results in a
decrease in pulmonary hypertension. Conversely, feeding
diets with high chloride content tends to increase the
incidence of ascites. Increased blood pH would increase
oxygen haemoglobin affinity, which is low in fully fed
broilers, probably because of metabolic acidosis. It has
been demonstrated that decreased blood pH results in
increased pulmonary arterial pressure in mammals and
this may also be true in birds. Increased blood pH can
improve the loading of oxygen by haemoglobin in the
lung due to the Bohr effect. It therefore appears that
supplementing broilers with bicarbonate may be beneficial in fast-growing birds with very high oxygen
requirements and high production of carbon dioxide,
as long as the decreased pH normally present in the
muscles that facilitates oxygen unloading is not affected.
Further work is needed to establish the mode of action
of bicarbonate and increasing the cation/anion ratio in
the diet on arterial blood oxygen saturation (Squires &
Julian, 2001).
123
Conclusions
Ascites, like several other metabolic disorders, is a
multifactorial syndrome, caused by interactions among
environmental, physiological and genetic factors. Forced
selection to achieve faster growing chickens has made the
farmers enjoy the better phenotypical traits resulting
from improved genetic potential; but, due to some
anatomical and physiological limitations, the same
improved potential could have adverse effects on bird
health. Impaired oxygen supply to sustain a continuous
fast growth rate causes may increase the risk for a higher
incidence of ascites syndrome. Selection for breast meat
yield, due to market demand, may impose more threat to
the bird since chickens with a higher percentage of breast
muscle have a lower capillary density (Hoving-Bolink
et al., 2000). The impaired oxygen supply will stimulate
the development of many compensatory mechanisms in
cardiopulmonary systems which, in turn, brings about
ascites syndrome such as hypertension, ventricular
hypertrophy, erythropoietic responses, and so on.
Management practices to limit growth rate, such as
feed restriction, nutrient density and diet form have been
applied. These practices indirectly reduce the need for
oxygen to partly compensate the physiological limitations; on the other hand, efforts have been made to
normalize red blood cell structure and function, and free
radicals scavenged.
In recent years special attention has also been paid to
the factors inside the incubator that may influence
normal epigenesis, predisposing the chicks hatched to
ascites syndrome.
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