ATOMS, ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS

Some atoms are very reluctant to combine with other atoms and exist in the air around us as
single atoms. These are the Noble Gases and have very stable electron arrangements e.g. 2,
2,8 and 2,8,8 because their outer shells are full. The first three are shown in the diagrams below
and explains why Noble Gases are so reluctant to form compounds with other elements.

(atomic number) electron arrangement

All other atoms therefore, bond together to become electronically more stable, that is to
become like Noble Gases in electron arrangement. Bonding produces new substances and usually
involves only the 'outer shell' or 'valency' electrons and atoms can bond in two ways.
The phrase CHEMICAL BOND refers to the strong electrical force of attraction between the
atoms or ions in the structure. The combining power of an atom is sometimes referred to as its
valency and its value is linked to the number of outer electrons of the original uncombined
atom (see examples later).
Each type of chemical bonding is VERY briefly described below, with links to more detailed
notes.

IONIC BONDING
Ionic bonds are formed by one atom transferring electrons to another atom to form ions.
Elements consist of neutral atoms or molecules, the electrical neutrality is because the number
of positive protons equals the number of surrounding negative electrons in their respective
energy levels.
Charged particles called IONS are atoms, or groups of atoms, which have lost or gained one or
more electrons to have a overall net electrical positive charge or negative charge.
In losing or gaining electrons, the atoms try to attain a stable electron arrangement of a noble gas e.g.
a full outer shell of electrons.
For a given atom, a nearly full shell will try to gain electrons and a nearly empty shell will tend to lose
electrons
The atom losing electrons forms a positive ion (a cation) and is usually a metal.
The overall charge on the ion is positive due to excess positive nuclear charge (protons do NOT
change in chemical reactions) e.g.
Group 1 alkali metals lose their single outer electron to form single positive ions e.g. Na ==> Na+ + 2e
Group 2 metals lose their two outer electrons to form doubly charged positive ions e.g. Mg ==> Mg2+ +
2e

The atom gaining electrons forms a negative ion (an anion) and is usually a nonmetallic
element.
The overall charge on the ion is negative because of the gain, and therefore excess, of negative
electrons e.g.
Group 7 halogen atoms gain one electron to form a singly charged negative ion e.g. Cl + e ==> Cl
Group 6 nonmetals gain two electrons to form a doubly charged negative ion e.g. O + 2e ==> O2
Therefore an IONIC BOND IS THE FORCE OF ATTRACTION BETWEEN ADJACENT IONS OF
OPPOSITE CHARGE.
Which electronic structures are the most stable? because this what atoms will try to get to
electronically!

symbol (atomic number) electron arrangement

When atoms LOSE OR GAIN ELECTRONS, they try to attain the electron structure (electron
configuration) of the electronically very stable atoms of the Group 0 Noble Gases eg helium (2),
neon (2.8) or argon (2.8.8) etc. quite simply because these are the most stable electron arrangements
with a full outer shell of electrons (full highest energy level).
In advanced level chemistry you will encounter examples of electronic structures of ions that are NOT
those of a Noble Gas.
Its a good idea to have some idea of where the elements are in the periodic table, and their
electronic structure, before looking at the theoretical electronic model for ionic bonding in
ionic compounds

The black zigzag

line 'roughly'
divides the
metals on the left
from the non
metals on the
right of the
elements of the
Periodic Table.

The electronic
structures of the
first 20 elements
of the Periodic
Table
You need to know
about these to
understand the
details of ionic
chemical bonding
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All the atoms of the metallic elements on the lefthand side of the Periodic Table eg (Groups 1/2)
have 1/2 electrons in their outer shell (highest energy level) which are readily lost to form a positive
ion of charge +1/+2 (cations) eg sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium etc. The electronic
structure of these stable positive ions are those of a Noble Gas with a full outer shell.
eg Na [2.8.1] ==> Na+ [2.8] like neon + e, or Ca [2.8.8.2] ==> Ca2+ [2.8.8] like argon + 2e
The atoms of the nonmetallic elements on the righthand side of the Periodic Table eg (Groups 6/7)
have 6/7 electrons in their outer shell and try to gain 2/1 electrons to become electronically stable like
a Noble Gas with a full outer shell of electrons eg oxygen and sulfur in Group 6 and the Group 7
Halogens fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine. The electronic structure of these stable negative
ions are those of a Noble Gas with a full outer shell.
eg O [2.6] + 2e ==> O2 [2.8] like neon, or Cl [2.8.7] + e ==> Cl [2.8.8] like argon

Example 1: A Group 1 Alkali Metal + a Group 7 Halogen nonmetal

e.g. sodium + chlorine ==> sodium chloride NaCl or ionic formula Na+Cl
In terms of electron arrangement in the formation of the ionic compound sodium chloride, the
sodium donates its outer electron to a chlorine atom forming a single positive sodium ion and a single
negative chloride ion.
The atoms have become stable ions, because electronically via electron transfer ...

... sodium becomes like neon (sodium ion, Na+) and chlorine like argon (chloride ion, Cl).
Na (2.8.1) + Cl (2.8.7) ==> Na+ (2.8) Cl (2.8.8)
can be summarised electronically to give the stable 'noble gas' structures as [2,8,1] + [2,8,7] ==>
[2,8]+ [2,8,8]
so both the sodium and chloride ions have a full outer shell like a noble gas

ONE

atom combines with

ONE

atom to form

Note in this electron diagram, only the original outer electrons are shown above.
The outer electron of the sodium atom (2.8.1) is transferred to the outer shell of the chlorine atom
(2.8.7) giving it a complete octet shell of outer electrons, just like a noble gas (2.8.8). At the same
time, the sodium ion also attains a stable noble gas electron structure (2.8).
The valencies of Na and Cl are both 1, that is, the numerical charge on the ions. sodium fluoride NaF,
potassium bromide KBr and lithium iodide LiI etc. will all be electronically similar.
Only the outer valency electrons of the chloride ion are shown, the 'blob' electron represents the
electron from the sodium atom which is accepted by the chlorine atom to form the chloride ion.
The charge on the sodium ion Na+ is +1 units (by convention shown as just +) because there is one
more positive proton than there are negative electrons in the sodium ion (11p, 10e).
The charge on the chloride ion Cl is 1 units (by convention shown as just ) because there is one
more negative electron than there are positive protons in the chloride ion (17p, 18e).
Note:

would represent the full electronic

structure diagram of the sodium ion [2.8] and the chloride ion [2.8.8], hence the full electronic
structure of sodium chloride. Note that the 'blob' and 'x' electrons are identical, but their use is just a
useful visual device to show how the ions are formed. The blue circle represents the nucleus.
The electronic dot & cross Lewis diagram for the ionic bonding in sodium chloride

Li is 2.1, K is 2.8.8.1, F is 2.7, rest of dot and cross diagram is up to you.

Gp1\
7

Cl

Br

Li

LiF LiCl LiBr LiI

Na

Na
F

KF KCl KBr

KI

Rb

Rb

Rb
Cl

Rb
I

Cs

Cs
F

Cs
Cl

Na
Cl

NaB Na
r
I

Rb
Br

CsB Cs
r
I

All the formula highlighted in yellow can be described in the same way as sodium chloride
The Group 1 Alkali Metal atom loses one electron to form a singly charged positive ion
The Group 7 Halogen atom gains one electron to form a singly charged negative ion

Example 2: A Group 2 Alkaline Earth Metal + a Group 7 Halogen nonmetal

e.g. magnesium + chlorine ==> magnesium chloride MgCl2 or ionic formula Mg2+(Cl)2
In terms of electron arrangement in the formation of the ionic compound magnesium chloride, the
magnesium donates its two outer electrons to two chlorine atoms forming a double positive
magnesium ion and two single negative chloride ions via electron transfer.
The atoms have become stable ions, because electronically, magnesium becomes like neon and
chlorine like argon.
Mg (2.8.2) + 2Cl (2.8.7) ==> Mg2+ (2.8) 2Cl (2.8.8)
can be summarised electronically as [2,8,2] + 2[2,8,7] ==> [2,8] 2+ [2,8,8]2 via electron transfer
so both the magnesium and chloride ions have a full outer shell of electrons like a noble gas

ONE

atom combines with

TWO

atoms to

form
Note in this electron diagram, only the original outer electrons are shown above.

The outer electrons of the magnesium atoms (2.8.2) are transferred to the outer shell of the chlorine
atom (2.8.7) giving it a complete octet shell of outer electrons, just like a noble gas (2.8.8). At the
same time, the magnesium ion also attains a stable noble gas electron structure (2.8).
NOTE
You can draw two separate chloride ions, but in these examples square brackets and a number
subscript have been used, as in ordinary chemical formula.
The valency of Mg is 2 and chlorine 1, i.e. the numerical charges of the ions.
Beryllium fluoride BeF2, magnesium bromide MgBr2, calcium chloride CaCl2 or barium iodide BaI2 etc.
will all be electronically similar.

represents the full

electronic structure diagram of the magnesium ion [2.8] and the chloride ion [2.8.8], hence the full
electronic structure of magnesium chloride.
Note that the 'blob' and 'x' electrons are identical, but their use is just a useful visual device to show
how the ion is formed. The blue circle represents the nucleus.
The electronic dot & cross Lewis diagram for the ionic bonding in magnesium chloride

Ca is 2.8.8.2, Cl is 2.8.7, F is 2.7 rest of dot and cross diagrams are up to you, but calcium
chloride is shown below.
The calcium atoms transfer their two outer electrons to the outer shell of two chlorine atoms

calcium
chloride
The electronic dot & cross Lewis diagram for the ionic bonding in calcium chloride
The two outer electrons of the calcium atoms (2.8.8.2) are transferred to the outer shell of two chlorine
atoms (2.8.7) until it has a complete octet shell of outer electrons, just like a noble gas (2.8.8). At the

same time, the calcium ion also attains a stable noble gas electron structure (2.8.8). The blue circle
represents the nucleus.
G
p2 F
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M
g

Cl Br

M M
M
M
g g
g
g
Cl Br
F2
I2
2

C
a

C C
C
C
a a
a
a
Cl Br
F2
I2
2

Sr

S Sr Sr S
r Cl Br rI
F2 2
2
2

B
a

B B
B
B
a a
a
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Cl Br
F2
I2
2

All the formula highlighted in yellow can be described in the same way as magnesium chloride
or calcium chloride
The Group 2 Alkaline Earth Metal atom loses two electrons to form a doubly charged positive
ion
The Group 7 Halogen atom gains one electron to form a singly charged negative ion

Example 3: A Group 3 metal + a Group 7 nonmetal

e.g. aluminium + fluorine ==> aluminium fluoride AlF3 or ionic formula Al3+(F)3
In terms of electron arrangement in the formation of the ionic compound aluminium fluoride, the
aluminium donates its three outer electrons to three fluorine atoms forming a triple positive aluminium
ion and three single negative fluoride ions.
The atoms have become stable ions, because aluminium and fluorine becomes electronically like
neon via electron transfer.
Valency of Al is 3 and F is 1, i.e. equal to the charges on the ions.
Al (2.8.3) + 3F (2.7) ==> Al3+ (2.8) 3F (2.8)
can be summarised electronically as [2,8,3] + 3[2,7] ==> [2,8] 3+ [2,8]3
so both the aluminium and fluoride ions have a full outer shell like a noble gas

ONE

atom combines with

THREE

atoms to

form
Note in this electron diagram, only the original outer electrons are shown above.
The outer electrons of the aluminium atom (2.8.3) is transferred to the outer shell of the fluorine atoms
(2.7) giving them a complete octet shell of outer electrons, just like a noble gas (2.8). At the same
time, the aluminium ion also attains a stable noble gas electron structure (2.8).

full electronic structure diagram of aluminium fluoride, the blue circle represents the nucleus.
The electronic dot & cross Lewis diagram for the ionic bonding in aluminium fluoride
Solid aluminium chloride/bromide/iodide have similar formula but are covalent when vapourised into
Al2X6 dimer molecules, but AlCl3 has an ionic lattice in the solid, not sure on solid AlBr3 and AlI3,
but these points are best left for an advanced ASA2 chemistry discussion, not for GCSE students!

Example 4: A Group 1 Alkali Metal + a Group 6 nonmetallic element

e.g. sodium/potassium + oxygen ==> sodium/potassium oxide Na2O/K2O or ionic formula (Na+)2O2/
(K+)2O2
In terms of electron arrangement in the formation of the ionic compound sodium oxide, the two
sodium/potassium atoms donate their outer electron to one oxygen atom.
This results in two single positive potassium ions to one double negative oxide ion via electron
transfer.
All the ions have the stable electronic structures 2.8.8 (argon like) or 2.8 (neon like).
Valencies, sodium/potassium 1, oxygen/sulfur 2. giving the following formulae:
Lithium oxide, Li2O, sodium oxide Na2O, sodium sulphide Na2S and potassium K2S etc.

sodium oxide
2Na (2.8.1) + O (2.6) ==> 2Na+ (2.8.8) O2 (2.8)
can be summarised electronically as 2[2,8,1] + [2,6] ==> [2,8] +2 [2,8]2
so both the sodium and oxide ions have a full outer shell like a noble gas

TWO

atoms combine with

ONE

atom to form

or

==>

Note in this electron diagram, only the original outer electrons are shown above.
The outer electrons of the sodium atoms (2.8.1) are transferred to the outer shell of the oxygen atom
(2.6) until it has a complete octet shell of outer electrons, just like a noble gas (2.8). At the same time,
the sodium ion also attains a stable noble gas electron structure (2.8).

full electronic structure diagram of sodium oxide, the blue circle represents the nucleus.
The electronic dot & cross Lewis diagram for the ionic bonding in sodium oxide

potassium oxide
2K (2.8.8.1) + O (2.6) ==> 2K+ (2.8.8) O2 (2.8)
can be summarised electronically as 2[2,8,8,1] + [2,6] ==> [2,8,8] +2 [2,8]2

so both the potassium and oxide ions have a full outer shell like a noble gas

TWO

atoms combine with

ONE

atom to form

Note in this electron diagram, only the original outer electrons are shown above.
The outer electrons of the potassium atoms (2.8.8.1) are transferred to the outer shell of the oxygen
atom (2.6) until it has a complete octet shell of outer electrons, just like a noble gas (2.8). At the same
time, the potassium ion also attains a stable noble gas electron structure (2.8.8).

full electronic structure diagram of potassium oxide, the blue circle represents the nucleus.
The electronic dot & cross Lewis diagram for the ionic bonding in potassium oxide

The electronic similarities between the two examples are very obvious.
Li is 2.1, Na is 2.8.1, S is 2.8.6 (for group 1 sulphide compound), rest of dot and cross diagrams are
up to you.
e.g. electronic structure diagrams for sodium sulfide Na2S and potassium sulfide K2S

sodium sulfide
The electronic dot & cross Lewis diagram for the ionic bonding in sodium sulphide

The outer electrons of the sodium atoms (2.8.1) are transferred to the outer shell of the sulfur atom
(2.8.6) until it has a complete octet shell of outer electrons, just like a noble gas (2.8.8). At the same
time, the sodium ion also attains a stable noble gas electron structure (2.8).

potassium
sulfide
The outer electrons of the potassium atoms (2.8.8.1) are transferred to the outer shell of the sulfur
atom (2.8.6) until it has a complete octet shell of outer electrons, just like a noble gas (2.8.8). At the
same time, the potassium ion also attains a stable noble gas electron structure (2.8.8).
The electronic dot & cross Lewis diagram for the ionic bonding in potassium sulphide
Gp1\
6

Li

Li2O Li2S

Na

Na2
O

Na2
S

K2O

K2S

Rb

Rb2
O

Rb2
S

Cs

Cs2
O

Cs2
S

All the formula highlighted in yellow can be described in the same way as sodium oxide,
potassium oxide, sodium sulfide or calcium sulphide
The Group 1 Alkali Metal atom loses one electron to form a singly charged positive ion
The Group 6 nonmetal atom gains two electrons to form a doubly charged negative ion

Example 5: A Group 2 Alkaline Earth Metal + a Group 6 nonmetallic element

e.g. magnesium/calcium + oxygen ==> magnesium/calcium oxide MgO/CaO or ionic
formula Mg2+O2/Ca2+O2
In terms of electron arrangement in the formation of the ionic compound magnesium oxide, one
magnesium/calcium atom donates its two outer electrons to one oxygen atom.

This results in a double positive calcium ion to one double negative oxide ion via electron transfer.
All the ions have the stable electronic structures 2.8.8 (argon like) or 2.8 (neon like). the valency of
both calcium and oxygen is 2.
magnesium oxide

ONE

atom combines with

ONE

atom to

form
Note in this electron diagram, only the original outer electrons are shown above.
The two outer electrons of the magnesium atoms (2.8.2) are transferred to the outer shell of the
oxygen atom (2.6) until it has a complete octet shell of outer electrons, just like a noble gas (2.8). At
the same time, the magnesium ion also attains a stable noble gas electron structure (2.8).

full electronic structure of magnesium oxide

For magnesium oxide: Mg (2.8.2) + O (2.6) ==> Mg2+ (2.8) O2 (2.8)
the stable 'noble gas' structures can be summarised electronically as [2,8] + [2,6] ==> [2,8] 2+ [2,8]2
so both the magnesium and oxide ions have a full outer shell like a noble gas
The electronic dot & cross Lewis diagram for the ionic bonding in magnesium oxide

calcium oxide
Ca (2.8.8.2) + O (2.6) ==> Ca2+ (2.8.8) O2 (2.8)
can be summarised electronically as [2,8,8,2] + [2,6] ==> [2,8,8] 2+ [2,8]2

ONE

atom combines with

ONE

atom to

form
Note in this electron diagram, only the original outer electrons are shown above.
The two outer electrons of the calcium atoms (2.8.8.2) are transferred to the outer shell of the oxygen
atom (2.6) until it has a complete octet shell of outer electrons, just like a noble gas (2.8). At the same
time, the calcium ion also attains a stable noble gas electron structure (2.8.8).

full electronic structure of calcium oxide

The electronic dot & cross Lewis diagram for the ionic bonding in calcium oxide

Magnesium oxide MgO, magnesium sulphide MgS and calcium sulphide CaS will be similar
electronically and give identical giant ionic lattice structures.
Group 2 metals lose the two outer electrons to give the stable 2+ positive ion (cation) and S and O,
both nonmetals in Group 6, have 6 outer electrons and gain 2 electrons to form 2 negative ion
(anion).
For magnesium sulphide: Mg (2.8.2) + S (2.8.6) ==> Mg2+ (2.8) S2 (2.8.8)
For calcium sulphide: Ca (2.8.8.2) + S (2.8.6) ==> Ca2+ (2.8.8) S2 (2.8.8)
so both the magnesium/calcium and sulfide ions have a full outer shell like a noble gas
The dot and cross (ox) diagrams will be identical to that for calcium oxide above, except Mg instead of
Ca (same group) and S instead of O (same group of Periodic Table). eg

electronic structure of magnesium sulfide

MgS

electronic structure of calcium sulfide

CaS
The electronic dot & cross Lewis diagrams for the ionic bonding in magnesium sulphide and calcium
sulphide
Gp2\
6

Mg

Mg
O

Mg
S

Ca

CaO CaS

Sr

SrO

Ba

BaO BaS

SrS

All the formula highlighted in yellow can be described in the same way as magnesium oxide,
magnesium sulphide, calcium oxide or calcium sulphide
The Group 2 Alkaline Earth Metal atom loses two electrons to form a doubly charged positive
ion
The Group 6 nonmetal atom gains two electrons to form a doubly charged negative ion

Example 6: A Group 3 metal + a Group 6 nonmetal

e.g. aluminium + oxygen ==> aluminium oxide Al 2O3 or ionic formula (Al3+)2(O2)3
In terms of electron arrangement in the formation of the ionic compound aluminium oxide, two
aluminium atoms donate their three outer electrons to three oxygen atoms.

This results in two triple positive aluminium ions to three double negative oxide ions via electron
transfer.
All the ions have the stable electronic structure of neon 2.8. Valencies, Al = 3 and O = 2
2Al (2.8.3) + 3O (2.6) ==> 2Al3+ (2.8) 3O2 (2.8)
can be summarised electronically as 2[2,8,3] + 3[2,6] ==> [2,8] 3+2 [2,8]23
so both the aluminium and oxide ions have a full outer shell like a noble gas

TWO

atoms combine with

THREE

atoms to

form
Note in this electron diagram, only the original outer electrons are shown above.
The three outer electrons of the aluminium atoms (2.8.3) are transferred to the outer shell of the
oxygen atom (2.6) until it has a complete octet shell of outer electrons, just like a noble gas 2.8). At
the same time, the aluminium ion also attains a stable noble gas electron structure (2.8).
Note:
The charge on the aluminium ion Al3+ is +3 units (shown as 3+) because there are three more positive
protons than there are negative electrons in the aluminium ion.
The charge on the oxide ion O2 is 2 units (shown as 2) because there are two more negative
electrons than there are positive protons in the oxide ion.

full electronic structure of aluminium oxide

A GIANT IONIC
LATTICE explaining its
properties

The diagram on the right

is typical of the giant
ionic crystal structure of
ionic compounds like
sodium chloride and
magnesium oxide.

Solid ionic compounds

consist of a giant lattice of
closely packed ions which
are all combine together
to form a crystal.

The alternate positive

and negative ions in
an ionic solid are
arranged in an
orderly/regular way in
a giant ionic lattice
structure shown on the right.

The ionic bond is the strong electrical attraction between the oppositely
charged positive and negative ions next to each other in the lattice.

The bonding extends throughout the crystal in all directions.

Salts and metal oxides are typical ionic compounds.

This strong bonding force makes the structure hard (if brittle) and have high melting
and very high boiling points, so they are not very volatile!

A relatively large amount of energy is needed to melt or boil ionic compounds to

reduce/overcome the strong bonding forces.
o

Energy changes for the physical changes of state of melting and boiling for a
range of differently bonded substances are compared in a section of
the Energetics Notes.

The bigger the charges on the ions the stronger the bonding attraction e.g.
magnesium oxideMg2+O2 has a much higher melting point than sodium
chloride Na+Cl.
o

The ions of magnesium oxide are both doubly charged so the electrostatic
attraction is much greater (its actually about 4x as strong attractive force).

As it happens in this case, the ions in magnesium oxide are smaller

than the ions in sodium chloride, so the ions in magnesium oxide can
pack closer together and this also increase the attractive bonding
force.

This double effect results in a much stronger ionic bond in magnesium oxide,
so a much greater thermal kinetic energy i.e. a much greater temperature, is
required to weaken the giant ionic lattice and melt the crystals of magnesium
oxide compared to sodium chloride.

Simple experimental evidence sodium chloride melts at 801 oC, whereas

magnesium oxide melts much higher at 2852oC.

Unlike covalent molecules, ALL ionic compounds are crystalline solids at room
temperature.

They are hard but brittle, when stressed the bonds are broken along planes of ions

The

crystal structure and properties of Ionic Compounds