Meaning of Fingers

What Your Fingers Say about You

Anneli Rufus

Individuals with longer ring fingers - that is, low 2D:4D - prefer action
films, hip-hop, erotic footage, and video games involving killing over
other types of entertainment.
A new study by Korean researchers found that the length of men's fingers indicates
the length of their penises. The study found that the longer a man's right-hand ring
finger is than his right-hand index finger, the longer his penis. To test their hypothesis,
the researchers stretched men's flaccid penises as much as possible before measuring
them because "stretched [flaccid] penile length provides a reliable estimate of the
potential maximal elongation during erection," the researchers wrote. "Therefore, the
technique applied here for stretched penile length measurement is highly recommended
for accurate prediction of erect penile length. Penile length was measured under
anaesthesia, avoiding pain or discomfort when the penis was fully stretched."
The difference in length between the right-hand ring finger and the index finger a
comparison scientists call the "digit ratio" or "2D:4D," for "second digit" (index finger)
and "fourth digit" (ring finger) is studied avidly because it correlates directly with
many physical, behavioral, psychological, and sexual aspects of human life.
Males typically have longer right-hand ring fingers than right-hand index fingers.
(Paradoxically, this larger difference in length is called a "low digit ratio.") Females' righthand ring and index fingers are typically the same length. (This is called a "high digit
ratio.") The farther apart the fingers are in length, the lower the ratio; the closer in

length, the higher the ratio. Digit ratios are largely determined by male and female
hormones, to which fetuses are exposed in utero.

Meaning Of Fingers
Entertainment Preferences
Individuals with longer ring fingers that is, low 2D:4D prefer action films, hip-hop,
erotic footage, and video games involving killing over other types of entertainment. This
recent study, also out of Korea, also found that low 2D:4D folks that is, mainly men
really dislike romance films. (High 2D:4D folks like them.) "In addition, we found that
low 2D:4D was associated with a preference for sports instead of other genres of
entertainment products," the researchers wrote. "Therefore, 2D:4D helps us to better
understand the rationale of individuals preferences for media violence."

Depression
Males with high-digit ratios that is, typically "feminized" ratios with index and ring
fingers of the same length are more likely to be depressed than men with low-digit
ratios. The University of Alberta studyfound high rates of clinical depression in men
with those digit ratios. "The risk and prevalence of major depression is about twice as
high for females compared to males," the researchers wrote. "Not only do women report
depression more often, but they also report more symptoms per depressive episode,
and are more susceptible to stressors than men. If this is the case, higher, more
feminine digit ratios should correlate with higher scores for depression within each
sex." And they do.
More meaning of fingers next...

Sports Skills

People with low-digit ratios that is, longer ring fingers are good at sports. A subsequent
University of Liverpool study found lower-than-average digit ratios among professional football
players and concluded that low-digit-ratio guys are athletic, aggressive and especially skilled at
navigating space, which is a key skill in sports. A study that focused on the finger lengths of
skiers found that the lower the digit ratio, the faster the skier.

Math Skills
People with low-digit ratios are better at math than people with high-digit ratios. According to a
study published in the British Journal of Psychology, people with high-digit ratios tested
better in literacy while low 2D:4D folks tested better at math.

Personality
People with low-digit ratios that is, longer ring fingers are more likely to be cooperative
than egoistic or altruistic. This finding surprised the University of Leuven researchers who
conducted the study that yielded it. Because low 2D:4D is associated with aggression,
competitiveness, status-seeking, and dominance-seeking, the researchers expected to find that in
situations involving finance low 2D:4D folks would grab status and dominance by acting either
egoistically (that is, selfishly, by refusing to pay their fair share) or altruistically (that is, paying
more than their fair share as a demonstration of power), rather than playing fair. "We found the
exact opposite," the researchers wrote.

Digit ratio
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Not to be confused with Benford's law about the frequencies of leading digits of numbers.

Hand with index finger being shorter than the ring finger, resulting in a small
2D:4D ratio, pointing to a high exposure to testosterone in the uterus.
The digit ratio is the ratio of the lengths of different digits or fingers typically measured from
the midpoint of bottom crease where the finger joins the hand to the tip of the finger.[1] It has
been suggested by some scientists that the ratio of two digits in particular, the 2nd (index finger)
and 4th (ring finger), is affected by exposure to androgens e.g. testosterone while in
the uterus and that this 2D:4D ratio can be considered a crude measure for prenatal androgen
exposure, with lower 2D:4D ratios pointing to higher androgen exposure. Writing in
the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, developmental biologists Martin Cohn,
Ph.D., and Zhengui Zheng, Ph.D., of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute and the department
of molecular genetics and microbiology at the UF College of Medicine, show that male and
female digit proportions are determined by the balance of sex hormones during early embryonic
development. The 2D:4D ratio is calculated by dividing the length of the index finger of the
right hand by the length of the ring finger. A longer index finger will result in a ratio higher than
1, while a longer ring finger will result in a ratio of less than 1.
The 2D:4D digit ratio is sexually dimorphic: while the second digit is typically shorter in both
females and males, the difference between the lengths of the two digits is greater in males than in
females.[citation needed]
A number of studies have shown a correlation between the 2D:4D digit ratio and various
physical and behavioral traits.
Contents
[hide]

1 History of digit ratio research

2 Digit ratio distribution

3 Evidence of androgen effect on digit ratio

4 Explanation of the digit ratio effect

5 Geographic and ethnic variation in 2D:4D

6 Correlation between digit ratio and traits

o

6.1 Male-to-Female Transsexualism

6.2 Digit ratio and development

7 Digit ratio and palaeolithic hand stencils

8 Digit ratio research in animals

9 See also

10 References

11 External links
History of digit ratio research[edit]
That a greater proportion of men have shorter index fingers than ring fingers than do women was
noted in the scientific literature several times through the late 1800s,[2][3] with the statistically
significant sex difference in a sample of 201 men and 109 women established by 1930,[4] after
which time the sex difference appears to have been largely forgotten or ignored. In 1983
Dr Glenn Wilson of King's College, London published a study examining the correlation
between assertiveness in women and their digit ratio.[5] This was the first study to examine the
correlation between digit ratio and a psychological trait within members of the same sex.
[6]
Wilson proposed that skeletal structure and personality were simultaneously affected by sex
hormone levels in utero.[5] In 1998, John T. Manning and colleagues reported the sex difference
in digit ratios was present in two-year-old children[7]and further developed the idea that the index

was a marker of prenatal sex hormones. Since then research on the topic has burgeoned around
the world.
A 2009 study in Biology Letters argues: "Sexual differences in 2D:4D are mainly caused by the
shift along the common allometric line with non-zero intercept, which means 2D:4D necessarily
decreases with increasing finger length, and the fact that men have longer fingers than
women,"[8] which may be the basis for the sex difference in digit ratios and/or any putative
hormonal influence on the ratios.
A 2011 paper by Zhengui Zheng and Martin J. Cohn reports "the 2D:4D ratio in mice is
controlled by the balance of androgen to estrogen signaling during a narrow window of digit
development."[9] The formation of the digits in humans, in utero, is thought to occur by 13 weeks,
and the bone-to-bone ratio is consistent from this point into an individuals adulthood.[10] During
this period if the fetus is exposed to androgens, the exact level of which is thought to be sexually
dimorphic, the growth rate of the 4th digit is increased, as can be seen by analyzing the 2D:4D
ratio of opposite sex dizygotic twins, where the female twin is exposed to excess androgens from
her brother in utero, and thus has a significantly lower 2D:4D ratio.[11]
Importantly, there has been no correlation between the sex hormone levels of an adult and the
individuals 2D:4D,[12] which implies that it is strictly the exposure in utero that causes this
phenomenon.
A major problem with the research on this topic comes from the contradiction in the literature as
to whether the testosterone level in adults can be predicted by the 2D:4D ratio,[12]but male sexual
traits that are stereotypically attributed to testosterone levels have been found in correlation with
the 2D:4D. So there should either be a correlation with one or the other but not both.
Digit ratio distribution[edit]

A visualization of the distributions: Men (blue), women (green), and the

whole population (red).

From a study of 136 males and 137 females:[13]

Males: mean 0.947, standard deviation 0.029.

Females: mean 0.965, standard deviation 0.026.

Assuming a normal distribution, the 95% confidence interval for average length is 0.889-1.005
for males and 0.931-1.017 for females.
Evidence of androgen effect on digit ratio[edit]

Women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), which results in

elevated androgen levels before birth, have lower, more masculinized
2D:4D on average.[14][15][16] Other possible physiological effects include an
enlarged clitoris and shallow vagina.[17]

Males with CAH have more masculine (smaller) digit ratios than control
males,[14][15] which also suggests that prenatal androgens affect digit
ratios, since amniocentesis samples show that prenatal levels of
testosterone are in the high normal range in males with CAH, while levels
of the weaker androgenandrostenedione are several fold higher than in
control males.[18][19][20] These measures indicate that males with CAH are
exposed to greater prenatal concentrations of total androgens than are
control males.

Digit ratio in men with Klinefelter's syndrome, who have reduced

testosterone secretion throughout life compared to control males, are
greater (i.e., more feminine) than in their fathers or control males. [21]

Digit ratio in men correlates with genetic variation in the androgen

receptor gene.[22] Men with genes that produce androgen receptors that
are less sensitive to testosterone (because they have more CAG repeats)
have greater, more feminine, digit ratios. There are reports of a failure to
replicate this finding.[23] However, men carrying an androgen receptor
with more CAG repeats compensate for the less sensitive receptor by
secreting more testosterone,[24] probably as a result of reduced negative
feedback on gonadotropins. Thus, it is not clear that 2D:4D would be

expected to correlate with CAG repeats, even if it accurately reflects

prenatal androgen.

XY individuals with androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) due to a

dysfunctional gene for the androgen receptor present as women and have
feminine digit ratios on average, as would be predicted if androgenic
hormones affect digit ratios. This finding also demonstrates that the sex
difference in digit ratios is unrelated to the Y chromosome per se.[25]

The sex difference in 2D:4D is present before birth in humans,[26]

[27]

which rules out any social influences that might affect digit growth
differentially in the two sexes. Because all somatic sex differences in
mammals to date have been found to be due to either androgenic
masculinization or effects of the sex chromosomes, and as the AIS finding
rules out a role for sex chromosomes in the sex difference in digit ratios,
the prenatal sexual dimorphism also indicates that androgens act before
birth to affect digit ratios.

The ratio of testosterone to estradiol measured in

33 amniocentesis samples correlates with the child's subsequent 2D:4D
ratio.[28]

In pheasants, the ratio of the 2nd to 4th digit of the foot has been
shown to be influenced by manipulations of testosterone in the egg.[29]

Studies in mice indicate that prenatal androgen acts primarily by

promoting growth of the fourth digit.[30]

There is evidence that this reflects fetal exposure to the hormones testosterone[31] and estrogen.
[citation needed]

Several studies present evidence that digit ratios are heritable.[32][33]

The level of estrogen in the amniotic fluid is not correlated with higher 2D:4D, and when
examined researchers found no difference in estrogen levels between males and females.[34]
Explanation of the digit ratio effect[edit]

It is not clear why digit ratio ought to be influenced by prenatal hormones. There is evidence of
other similar traits, e.g. otoacoustic emissions and arm-to-trunk length ratio, which show similar
effects. Hox genes responsible for both digit and penis development[35] have been implicated in
affecting these multiple traits (pleiotropy). Direct effects of sex hormones on bone growth might
be responsible, either by regulation of Hox genes in digit development or independently of such
genes. Likewise, it is unclear why digit ratio on the right hand should be more responsive than
that on the left hand, as is indicated by the greater sex difference on the right than the left.[36]
Geographic and ethnic variation in 2D:4D[edit]
Manning and colleagues have shown that 2D:4D ratios vary greatly between different ethnic
groups.[37][38] This variation is far larger than the differences between sexes; in Manning's words,
"Theres more difference between a Pole and a Finn than a man and a woman."[39]
Correlation between digit ratio and traits[edit]
Some authors suggest that digit ratio correlates with health, behavior, and even sexuality in later
life. Below is a non-exhaustive list of some traits that have been either demonstrated or
suggested to correlate with either high or low digit ratio.

Low digit ratio

Physiolog
y and
disease

High digit ratio

Lowered sperm counts

Increased risk for heart

[40]

disease in males[41]

Increased risk
of obesity and metabolic
syndrome in males[42]

Reduced risk for prostate

cancer[43]

Reduced birth size in

males[44]

Reduced rate
of autism and Asperger
syndrome[51]

Increased risk
for depression in males[52]

Psycholo
gical
disorders

Increased rate
of ADHD in males

[45][46][47][48]

Increased rate
of schizophrenia[53]

Reduced risk in females

for anorexia nervosa[49] and
in males for eating

disorders[50]

Increased rate
of psychopathy in females

[54]

Reduced risk of alcohol

dependency[55]

Reduced risk of video

game addiction[56]

Increased Anxiety in
males[57]

Physical
and
competiti
ve
behavior

Reduced performance in
sports[58]

Reduced financial trading

ability[59]

Cognition
and

personali
ty

Assertiveness in
females[5]
Aggression in males[13]

Right handedness Skills

Personality traits correlated

[60]

with digit ratio, higher being

more feminized[66][67][68]

[61]

Masculinity of
Handwriting[62]

Paranormal and superstitio

us beliefs among men with a
higher digit ratio[69]

Perceived 'dominance'
and masculinity of man's
face[63][64]

Higher exam scores among

male students[29][70]

In an orchestral context,
rank and musical ability in
males[65]

Managem
ent

Leadership[71]

Innovation[72]

Sensory
Perceptio
n

Sexual
orientati
on

Lesbians have a lower

Smell perception[73]

Color perception[74]

Tactile perception[75]

Sexual preference for more

digit ratio, on average,

than heterosexual women;

masculine men among

women[76] and gay
men[87] with high digit ratio; a
preference for a masculine
facial type means a more
"feminized" mindset.

[76][77][78][79][80][81][82][83][84][85][86]

Lesbians are more likely to

be femme and less likely to
be butch with a high digit
ratio.[78][88] Identical female

twins discordant for sexual

orientation still show the
difference (lesbian less than
straight, on average) in digit
ratio.[80][89]

Homosexuality for men,[79]

[90]

but this is disputed.[86][91]

See also: Biology and sexual orientation and Neuroscience and sexual
orientation#2D:4D digit ratio
Male-to-Female Transsexualism[edit]
A study in Germany has found a correlation between digit ratio and male-tofemale transsexualism. Trans women were found to have a higher digit ratio
than cisgendered males, but one that was comparable to control females.[92]
Digit ratio and development[edit]
There is some evidence that 2D:4D ratio may also be indicative for human development and
growth. Ronalds et al. (2002) showed that men who had an above average placental weight and a
shorter neonatal crown-heel length had higher 2D:4D ratios in adult life.[93] Moreover, studies
about 2D:4D correlations with face shape suggest that testosterone exposure early in life may set
some constraints for subsequent development. Prenatal sex steroid ratios (in terms of 2D:4D) and
actual chromosomal sex dimorphism were found to operate differently on human faces, but
affect male and female face shape by similar patterns.[94] Fink et al. (2004) found that men with
low (indicating high testosterone) and women with high (indicating high estrogen) 2D:4D ratios
express greater levels of facial symmetry.[95] However, exposure to very high levels of
testosterone and/or estrogen in the womb may have negative effects as well.
Digit ratio and palaeolithic hand stencils[edit]
2D:4D is being used alongside other methods to help sex Palaeolithic hand stencils found in
European and Indonesian caves.[96][97][98]
Digit ratio research in animals[edit]

Dennis McFadden and collaborators have demonstrated sexual

dimorphism in hind limb digit ratio in a number of great apes, including
gorillas and chimpanzees.[79]

Emma Nelson and Susanne Shultz are currently investigating how

2D:4D relates to primate mating strategies and the evolution of human
sociality.[99]

Sexual dimorphism in hind limb 2D:4D has been demonstrated in mice

by two studies by both John Manning and Marc Breedlove's research
groups. There is some evidence to suggest that this effect is not seen in
all mouse strains.[citation needed]

Nancy Burley's research group has demonstrated sexual dimorphism in

zebra finches, and found a correlation between digit ratio in females and
the strength of their preference for sexually selected traits in males.[citation
needed]

Front limb D2:D3 has shown to be influenced by prenatal alcohol

exposure in female rats.[citation needed]

Albeta Talaroviov and collaborators found in rats that elevated

testosterone during the prenatal period can influence 4D length, the
2D:4D ratio, and open field motor activity.[100]

Peter L. Hurd, Theodore Garland, Jr., and their students have examined
hindlimb 2D:4D in lines of mice selectively bred for high voluntary wheelrunning behavior (seeexperimental evolution). These high-runner mice
exhibit increased 2D:4D. This apparent "feminization" is opposite to the
relation seen between 2D:4D and physical fitness in human beings, and is
difficult to reconcile with the idea that 2D:4D is a clear proxy for prenatal
androgen exposure in mice. The authors suggest that 2D:4D may more
accurately reflect effect of glucocorticoids or other factors that regulate
any of various genes.[101]

See also[edit]

Anogenital distance

Waisthip ratio

Dermatoglyphics

Body mass index

Handedness and sexual orientation

Chiromancy hand analysis

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environmental influences on 2d:4d finger length ratios: a study of monozygotic and dizygotic
male and female twins". Archives Sexual Behavior 37 (1): 112118. doi:10.1007/s10508-0079272-2. PMID 18074216.

34.

Jump up^ Lutchmaya S., Baron-Cohen S., Raggatt P., Knickmeyer R., Manning J. T.
(2004). "2nd To 4th Digit Ratios, Fetal Testosterone and Estradiol". Early human
development 77(12): 238. doi:10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2003.12.002. PMID 15113628.

35.

Jump up^ Dickman S. (Mar 1997). "HOX gene links limb, genital
defects". Science 275 (5306): 15689. doi:10.1126/science.275.5306.1568. PMID 9072822.

36.

Jump up^ Honekopp J, Watson S (2010). "Meta-analysis of digit ratio 2D:4D shows
greater sex difference in the right hand". American Journal of Human Biology. online (5): 619
30.doi:10.1002/ajhb.21054. PMID 20737609.

37.

Jump up^ Manning JT, Barley L, Walton J et al. (May 2000). "The 2nd:4th digit ratio,
sexual dimorphism, population differences, and reproductive success. evidence for sexually
antagonistic genes?". Evolution and Human Behavior 21 (3): 163183.doi:10.1016/S10905138(00)00029-5. PMID 10828555.

38.

Jump up^ Manning JT, Stewart A, Bundred PE, Trivers RL (November 2004). "Sex and
ethnic differences in 2nd to 4th digit ratio of children". Early Human Development 80 (2): 161
8. doi:10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2004.06.004. PMID 15500996.

39.

Jump up^ Terrance, J.; Williams, Michelle E. Pepitone, Scott E. Christensen, Bradley M.
Cooke, Andrew D. Huberman, Nicholas J. Breedlove, Tessa J. Breedlove, Cynthia L. Jordan and
S. Marc Breedlove (30 March 2000). "Finger-length ratios and sexual
orientation".Nature 404 (6777): 455456. doi:10.1038/35006555. PMID 10761903. , available
on-line at "Finger-length ratios and sexual orientation". University of Nebraska-Lincoln. (quoted
from New Scientist)

40.

Jump up^ Manning JT, Scutt D, Wilson J, Lewis-Jones DI (November 1998). "The ratio
of 2nd to 4th digit length: a predictor of sperm numbers and concentrations of testosterone,

luteinizing hormone and oestrogen". Human Reproduction 13 (11): 3000

4.doi:10.1093/humrep/13.11.3000. PMID 9853845.
41.

Jump up^ Manning JT, Bundred PE (2001). "The ratio of second to fourth digit length
and age at first myocardial infarction in men: a link with testosterone?". British Journal of
Cardiology 8 (12): 7203. ISSN 0969-6113.

42.

Jump up^ Fink B, Manning JT, Neave N (April 2006). "The 2nd-4th digit ratio (2D:4D)
and neck circumference: implications for risk factors in coronary heart disease". International
Journal of Obesity 30 (4): 7114. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803154. PMID 16261185.

43.

Jump up^ Walsh, Fergus (1 December 2010). "Index finger length prostate cancer
clue". BBC News. Retrieved 1 December 2010.

44.

Jump up^ Ronalds G, Phillips DIW, Godfrey KM, Manning JT. The ratio of second to
fourth digit lengths: a marker of impaired fetal growth? Early Hum. Dev. 2002;68:216.

45.

Jump up^ McFadden, D., Westhafer, J.G., Pasanen, E.G., Carlson, C.L., and Tucker, D.M.
(2005). "Physiological evidence of hypermasculinization in boys with the inattentive subtype of
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)". Clinical Neuroscience Research 5 (56): 233
245. doi:10.1016/j.cnr.2005.09.004.

46.

Jump up^ Stevenson JC, Everson PM, Williams DC, Hipskind G, Grimes M, Mahoney ER.
(2007). "Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms and digit ratios in a college
sample". Am J Hum Biol 19 (1): 4150. doi:10.1002/ajhb.20571.PMID 17160985.

47.

Jump up^ Martel, M.M, K.L.Gobrogge, S.M.Breedlove & J.T.Nigg (2008). "Masculinized
Finger-Length Ratios of Boys, but Not Girls, Are Associated With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity
Disorder". Behavioral Neuroscience 122 (2): 273281. doi:10.1037/07357044.122.2.273. PMC 2902868. PMID 18410167.

48.

Jump up^ Martel, M.M. (2009). "Conscientiousness as a mediator of the association

between masculinized finger-length ratios and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD)". J Child Psychol Psychiatry 50 (7): 790798. doi:10.1111/j.14697610.2009.02065.x.PMID 19298468.

49.

Jump up^ Klump, K. L., Gobrogge, K. L., Perkins, P. S., Thorne, D., Sisk, C. L.,
Breedlove, S.M. (2006). "Preliminary evidence that gonadal hormones organize and activate

disordered eating". Psychol Med 36 (4): 539

546. doi:10.1017/S0033291705006653.PMID 16336745.
50.

Jump up^ Smith, A. R., Hawkeswood, S. E., Joiner, T. E. (2009). "The measure of a
man: Associations between digit ratio and disordered eating in males". Int J Eat Disord 28(1):
1914. doi:10.1002/eat.20736. PMID 19718667.

51.

Jump up^ Manning JT, Baron-Cohen S, Wheelwright S, Sanders G (March 2001). "The
2nd to 4th digit ratio and autism". Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 43 (3): 160
4.doi:10.1017/S0012162201000317. PMID 11263685.

52.

Jump up^ Bailey, A. & Hurd, P., Allison A. (2005). "Depression in men is associated
with more feminine finger length ratios". Personality and Individual Differences 39 (4): 829
836.doi:10.1016/j.paid.2004.12.017.

53.

Jump up^ Arat M, Frecska E, Beck C, An M, Kiss H (January 2004). "Digit length
pattern in schizophrenia suggests disturbed prenatal hemispheric lateralization". Progress in
Neuro-psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry 28 (1): 191
4.doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2003.09.020. PMID 14687873.

54.

Jump up^ Blanchard, A.; Lyons, M. (May 2010). "An Investigation into the Relationship
between Digit Length Ratio and Psychopathy". British Journal of Forensic Practice 12 (2):
23.doi:10.5042/bjfp.2010.0183.

55.

Jump up^ Kornhuber J, Erhard G, Lenz B, Kraus T, Sperling W, Bayerlein K, Biermann

T, Stoessel C (April 2011). "Low Digit Ratio 2D4D in Alcohol Dependent Patients". In Zhang,
Xiang Yang. PLoS ONE 6 (4):
e19332. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0019332.PMC 3081847. PMID 21547078.

56.

Jump up^ J. Kornhuber, EM Zenses, B Lenz, C Stoessel, P Bouna-Pyrrou, F Rehbein, S

Kliem, T Mle (2013): Low digit ratio 2D:4D associated with video game addiction. PLoS ONE
2013; Vol. 8, Nr. 11: e79539

57.

Jump up^ Evardone & Alexander, Milagros (2009). "Anxiety, Sex-linked Behavior, and
Digit Ratios". Arch Sex Behav. 38 (3): 44255. doi:10.1007/s10508-007-92606.PMC 2768336. PMID 17943431.

58.

Jump up^ Manning JT, Taylor RP (January 2001). "Second to fourth digit ratio and male
ability in sport: implications for sexual selection in humans". Evolution and Human
Behavior 22(1): 6169. doi:10.1016/S1090-5138(00)00063-5. PMID 11182575.

59.

Jump up^ Coates JM, Gurnell M, Rustichini A (January 2009). "Second-to-fourth digit
ratio predicts success among high-frequency financial traders". Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 106 (2): 623
8.doi:10.1073/pnas.0810907106. PMC 2626753. PMID 19139402. Lay summary Time (12
January 2009).

60.

Jump up^ Fink B, Manning JT, Neave N, Tan U (November 2004). "Second to fourth
digit ratio and hand skill in Austrian children". Biological Psychology 67 (3): 375
84.doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2004.03.012. PMID 15294393.

61.

Jump up^ Benderlioglu Z, Nelson RJ (December 2004). "Digit length ratios predict
reactive aggression in women, but not in men". Hormones and Behavior 46 (5): 558
64.doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2004.06.004. PMID 15555497.

62.

Jump up^ Beech, John R.; MacKintosh, Isla C. (July 2005). "Do differences in sex
hormones affect handwriting style? Evidence from digit ratio and sex role identity as
determinants of the sex of handwriting". Personality and Individual Differences 39 (2): 459
68.doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.01.024.

63.

Jump up^ Neave N, Laing S, Fink B, Manning JT (October 2003). "Second to fourth
digit ratio, testosterone and perceived male dominance". Proceedings of the Royal Society
B270 (1529): 216772. doi:10.1098/rspb.2003.2502. PMC 1691489.PMID 14561281.

64.

Jump up^ Burriss RP, Little AC, Nelson EC (June 2007). "2D:4D and sexually dimorphic
facial characteristics". Archives of Sexual Behavior 36 (3): 37784. doi:10.1007/s10508-0069136-1. PMID 17203400.

65.

Jump up^ Sluming, Vanessa A.; Manning, John T. (January 2000). "Second to fourth
digit ratio in elite musicians Evidence for musical ability as an honest signal of male
fitness".Evolution and Human Behavior 21 (1): 19. doi:10.1016/S1090-5138(99)00026-4.

66.

Jump up^ Austin, Elizabeth J.; Manning, John T.; McInroy, Katherine; Mathews,
Elizabeth (November 2002). "A preliminary investigation of the associations between

personality, cognitive ability and digit ratio". Personality and Individual Differences 33 (7):
111524.doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00002-8.
67.

Jump up^ Fink et al. 2004[verification needed]

68.

Jump up^ Luxen, Marc F.; Buunk, Bram P. (October 2005). "Second-to-fourth digit ratio
related to Verbal and Numerical Intelligence and the Big Five". Personality and Individual
Differences 39 (5): 95966. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.03.016.

69.

Jump up^ Voracek, M. (July 2009). "Who wants to believe? Associations between digit
ratio (2D:4D) and paranormal and superstitious beliefs". Personality and Individual
Differences 47 (2): 105109. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.01.051.

70.

Jump up^ Brosnan MJ (February 2008). "Digit ratio as an indicator of numeracy

relative to literacy in 7-year-old British schoolchildren". British Journal of Psychology 99 (Pt 1):
7585. doi:10.1348/000712607X197406. PMID 17535470. Lay summary LiveScience (22 May
2007).

71.

Jump up^ Derval, Diana. The Right Sensory Mix: Targeting Consumer Product
Development Scientifically. Springer, 2010, p. 129-130.

72.

Jump up^ Derval, Diana. The Right Sensory Mix: Targeting Consumer Product
Development Scientifically. Springer, 2010, p. 129-135.

73.

Jump up^ Derval, Diana. The Right Sensory Mix: Targeting Consumer Product
Development Scientifically. Springer, 2010, p. 62-67.

74.

Jump up^ Derval, Diana. The Right Sensory Mix: Targeting Consumer Product
Development Scientifically. Springer, 2010, p. 112-122.

75.

Jump up^ Derval, Diana (2011). "Hormonal Quotient and tactile sensitivity: a
segmentation model to understand and predict individuals' texture preferences based on
prenatal exposure to hormones". Proceedings of Society for Behavioral Neuroendocrinology
15th Annual Meeting, Queretaro, Mexico, p.125.

76.

^ Jump up to:a

Csath A, Osvth A, Bicsk E, Kardi K, Manning J, Kllai J (February

2003). "Sex role identity related to the ratio of second to fourth digit length in

women". Biological Psychology 62 (2): 14756. doi:10.1016/S0301-0511(02)001278.PMID 12581689.

77.

Jump up^ Williams TJ, Pepitone ME, Christensen SE et al. (March 2000). "Finger-length
ratios and sexual orientation". Nature 404 (6777): 455
6. doi:10.1038/35006555.PMID 10761903.

78.

^ Jump up to:a

Tortorice JL (2002). Written on the body: butch vs. femme lesbian

gender identity and biological correlates of low digit ratio. Rutgers University. OCLC 80234273.
79.

^ Jump up to:a

b c

McFadden D, Shubel E (December 2002). "Relative lengths of fingers

and toes in human males and females". Hormones and Behavior 42 (4): 492
500.doi:10.1006/hbeh.2002.1833. PMID 12488115.
80.

^ Jump up to:a

Hall LS, Love CT (February 2003). "Finger-length ratios in female

monozygotic twins discordant for sexual orientation". Archives of Sexual Behavior 32 (1): 23
8.doi:10.1023/A:1021837211630. PMID 12597269.
81.

Jump up^ Rahman Q, Wilson GD (April 2003). "Sexual orientation and the 2nd to 4th
finger length ratio: evidence for organising effects of sex hormones or developmental
instability?". Psychoneuroendocrinology 28 (3): 288303. doi:10.1016/S0306-4530(02)000227. PMID 12573297.

82.

Jump up^ Putz, David A.; Gaulin, Steven J. C.; Sporter, Robert J.; McBurney, Donald H.
(May 2004). "Sex hormones and finger length: What does 2D:4D indicate?". Evolution and
Human Behavior 25 (3): 18299. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2004.03.005.

83.

Jump up^ Rahman Q (May 2005). "Fluctuating asymmetry, second to fourth finger
length ratios and human sexual orientation". Psychoneuroendocrinology 30 (4): 382
91.doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2004.10.006. PMID 15694118.

84.

Jump up^ Kraemer B, Noll T, Delsignore A, Milos G, Schnyder U, Hepp U (2006).

"Finger length ratio (2D:4D) and dimensions of sexual
orientation". Neuropsychobiology 53 (4): 2104. doi:10.1159/000094730. PMID 16874008.

85.

Jump up^ Wallien MS, Zucker KJ, Steensma TD, Cohen-Kettenis PT (August 2008).
"2D:4D finger-length ratios in children and adults with gender identity disorder". Hormones
and Behavior 54 (3): 4504. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2008.05.002. PMID 18585715.

86.

^ Jump up to:a

Grimbos T, Dawood K, Burriss RP, Zucker KJ, Puts DA (2010). "Sexual

orientation and the second to fourth finger length ratio: a meta-analysis in men and
women".Behav Neurosci 124 (2): 278287. doi:10.1037/a0018764. PMID 20364887.
87.

Jump up^ McIntyre MH (December 2003). "Digit ratios, childhood gender role
behavior, and erotic role preferences of gay men". Archives of Sexual Behavior 32 (6): 495
6.doi:10.1023/A:1026054625638. PMID 14627046.

88.

Jump up^ Brown WM, Finn CJ, Cooke BM, Breedlove SM (February 2002). "Differences
in finger length ratios between self-identified 'butch' and 'femme' lesbians". Archives of Sexual
Behavior 31 (1): 1237. doi:10.1023/A:1014091420590. PMID 11910785.

89.

Jump up^ Hiraishi K, Sasaki S, Shikishima C, Ando J. (2012). "The second to fourth
digit ratio (2D:4D) in a Japanese twin sample: heritability, prenatal hormone transfer, and
association with sexual orientation". Archives of Sexual Behavior 41 (3): 711
24.doi:10.1007/s10508-011-9889-z. PMID 22270254.

90.

Jump up^ Churchchill AJG, Manning JT, Peters M (2007). "The effects of sex, ethnicity,
and sexual orientation on self-measured digit ratio (2D:4D)". Archives of Sexual
Behavior36 (2): 251260. doi:10.1007/s10508-006-9166-8. PMID 17394056.

91.

Jump up^ S.J. Robinson, J.T. Manning (2000). "The ratio of 2nd to 4th digit length and
male homosexuality". Evolution and Human Behavior 21 (5): 333345. doi:10.1016/S10905138(00)00052-0. PMID 11053694.

92.

Jump up^ Schneider HJ, Pickel J, Stalla GK (February 2006). "Typical female 2nd-4th
finger length (2D:4D) ratios in male-to-female transsexuals-possible implications for prenatal
androgen exposure". Psychoneuroendocrinology 31 (2): 265
9.doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2005.07.005. PMID 16140461.

93.

Jump up^ Ronalds, G; Phillips, DI; Godfrey, KM; Manning, JT (2002). "The ratio of
second to fourth digit lengths: A marker of impaired fetal growth?". Early human
development 68(1): 216. PMID 12191526.

94.

Jump up^ Fink B, Grammer K, Mitteroecker P et al. (October 2005). "Second to fourth
digit ratio and face shape". Proceedings of the Royal Society B 272 (1576): 1995
2001.doi:10.1098/rspb.2005.3179. PMC 1559906. PMID 16191608.

95.

Jump up^ Fink, Bernhard; Manning, John T.; Neave, Nick; Grammer, Karl (March 2004).
"Second to fourth digit ratio and facial asymmetry". Evolution and Human Behavior 25 (2):
12532. doi:10.1016/S1090-5138(03)00084-9.

96.

Jump up^ Snow, Dean R. (2006). "Sexual dimorphism in Upper Palaeolithic hand
stencils".Antiquity 80 (308): 390404.

97.

Jump up^ Chazine, Jean-Michel; Noury, Arnaud (2006). "Sexual Determination of Hand
Stencils at the Masri II Cave". Inora Newsletter 44: 216.

98.

Jump up^ Nelson, Emma C.; Manning, John T.; Sinclair, Anthony G. M. (2006). "Using
the length of the 2nd to 4th digit ratio (2D:4D) to sex cave art hand stencils: factors to
consider".Before Farming 1 (6): 17.

99.

Jump up^ Nelson, Emma. "Investigating relationships between the second-to-fourth

digit ratio (2D:4D), social and bonding behaviours in non-human anthropoids". Retrieved 29
October 2009.[dead link][self-published source?]

100.

Jump up^ Talaroviov A, Krkov L, Blaekov J (January 2009). "Testosterone

enhancement during pregnancy influences the 2D:4D ratio and open field motor activity of rat
siblings in adulthood". Hormones and Behavior 55 (1): 235
9.doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2008.10.010. PMID 19022257.
101.

Jump up^ Yan RH, Malisch JL, Hannon RM, Hurd PL, Garland T (2008). "Selective

Breeding for a Behavioral Trait Changes Digit Ratio". In Svensson, Erik I. PLoS ONE 3 (9):
e3216.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0003216. PMC 2528935. PMID 18797502.

External links[edit]

PubMed listing of papers on digit ratios

Mills, Michael E. (October 2002). "Review of Digit Ratio: A Pointer to Fertility, Behavior and
Health by John T. Manning". Human Nature Review 2: 41823.