Academic & Skills Development

Critical Analytical Writing / Essay Writing

A lack of critical analytical writing is the most common reason for losing marks in university work.
Often students are told that their work lacks criticality or is too descriptive and students may be
left wondering how to get the balance right.
Descriptive writing does have its place but it should only be used to set the scene, to provide
background information or to contextualise information.
For every essay you write you will have been allocated a number of words, that is, the word count.
The more words you squander on descriptive writing the less you will have to spend on analytical
writing and it is the analytical writing that will get you those top marks.
When we write academically it is essential that we do not simply reiterate what we have read on a
given topic. You should always remember that you are not being asked to re-write books or journals.
You are being asked to demonstrate what you understand from those books or journals. It is
important when you read therefore, to spend some time thinking about the main arguments and
coming up with your own conclusions and opinions based on the evidence available. Academic
writing involves synthesising those ideas and theories and demonstrating that you understand and
have your own opinions.

Critical Analytical Writing

Descriptive Writing

Cottrell (The Study Skills Handbook, page 286) makes the following distinctions:
DESCRIPTIVE WRITING

CRITICAL ANALYTICAL WRITING

States what happened

Identifies the significance

States what something is like

Evaluates the strengths and weaknesses

Gives the story so far

Weighs one piece of information against the

other

States the order in which things happened

Makes reasoned judgements

Says how to do something

Argues a case according to the evidence

Explains what a theory says

Shows why something is relevant or suitable

Explains how something works

Indicates why something will work

Notes the method used

Identifies whether something is appropriate or

suitable

Says when something occurred

Identifies why the timing is of importance

States the different components

Weighs up the importance of component parts

States opinions

Gives reasons for selecting each option

Lists details

Evaluates the relative significance of details

Lists in any order

Structures information in order of importance

States links between items

Shows the relevance of links between pieces of

information

Gives information

Draws conclusions

ESSAYS MADE EASY

THE ESSAY TITLE

Essay title underline key words or phrases. Do you understand what is being asked from you? Can
you re-write the question in your words without losing sense of it or explain it verbally? Discuss
possible interpretations of the essay with friends or class-mates.
Remember, no matter how much work you put into the essay it will not gain a good grade if it
doesnt actually answer the question being asked.
Also make sure you know the assessment criteria (check the module handbook on Learning Central),
what is expected of you in terms of presentation, word length, use of sources, format and weighting
of different sections of the essay?

QUESTION YOUR-SELF
Question ask your-self; What do I already know about this topic? Jot down all your ideas, even
the partially formed ideas you probably know more than you realise. Now ask yourself, What do I
need to know? This should clarify what you need to find out. It is not about What would I like to
know? Make sure you are sticking to the essay title and keeping your reading and research relevant
to what is being asked.

BEING SELECTIVE
Selecting your Reading Be selective, look at the readings your lecturer may have supplied you with.
Look at your reading lists. When selecting material employ the 3 Rs Test Relevant / Recent /
Reliable (Respected). Dont get side-tracked on reading everything available or the things that most
interest you. Make sure your reading is relevant. If your reading is irrelevant then your answer is
likely to also be irrelevant.

READING CRITICALLY
Reading Critically When reading make sure you do so with a critical analytical mind. Firstly you
need to identify the main argument or line of reasoning. Secondly, you need to look at the evidence
which supports that argument and thirdly you need to evaluate that evidence. Whilst reading ask
your-self; What are the main issues? What conclusions may be reached? What conflicting ideas are
available to me? Do I agree with this? Is there a counter-argument out there? Is this the most
recent evidence or research on this topic? Why does the writer make this claim? What else do I
know about this? What do I now need to find out?

You need to give your-self time to THINK, REFLECT and PROCESS what you are reading in order to
engage in analytical thought. You also need to keep a record of all sources you have read and
referred to.

NOTE MAKING
Notes make notes as you go along in a style which suits you. This may be writing bullet points,
using colour, mind maps, diagrams or arrows. Notes should always be in your own words. If you
cannot put something into your own words you probably dont completely understand it.
Read a paragraph. Close the book. Summarise the paragraph into one or two sentences in your own
words the book must remain closed. Only move onto the next paragraph when you can honestly
do this.
The reason why this is important is that your notes will form the basis of your essay. If you honestly
understand what you have read you should be able to explain it in your own words and more
importantly you should be able to justify why something is relevant. At this stage you should be
looking for connections between themes or theories, you should be seeing patterns begin to form.
You should be moving from description to critical analysis by questioning what you are reading,
looking for the line of argument and the evidence for it. You should be thinking of the counterargument too.

IDEAS
The Ideas - Start by jotting down those ideas you may consider including in your essay - you can do
this on a mind map or on post-its. Return to the essay question and ask questions about what you
have read and what you will include in your essay. It is important to get your ideas down first even if
they are totally unstructured and seem random or half formed. You need to keep asking yourself
what your objective is in producing this piece of work. Keep referring back to the essay question or
title. Prioritise your ideas; only include those sub-topics which are really relevant. Use coloured
paper or pens, arrows, charts, or flash-cards to organise your thoughts. If something isnt relevant
then this is the time to cut it out. (It is much harder to ruthlessly edit a finished piece of work.)

THE PLAN
Planning - Spend time thinking, planning and structuring before you start to write. It is always
tempting to just want to get on with the writing but your essay will be much better if you dedicate
some time to the planning stage and give yourself time to think and to ask questions. You need to
know at this point what YOUR line of argument is and what your conclusions will be. Stick to your
line of argument and select the research that best demonstrates this. Illustrate the counter
argument if required. Your essay should feel balanced and discursive.

Plan out your essay paragraph by paragraph (remember we take a new paragraph when we start a
new topic or raise a new point). Look at your plan. Does it make sense? Does it flow logically and
naturally? Below is an example of how you might create a flow chart for your essay from your mindmap or list. It is a guide only. When you come to producing your own flow chart decide on how many
sub-topics you will have and create your flow chart accordingly.
Remember that an essay must have an introduction (10%), the main body or discussion (80%) and a
conclusion (10%). The introduction is the what and the how behind your essay; it should include
some background, reason for writing and an explanation of how it will be done. The main body
should be relevant to the essay question or title; it is the argument and information of the essay. The
conclusion draws everything together; it never introduces any new material but rather refers back to
the introduction, demonstrating that the objective in the introduction has been fulfilled. You should
think of your essay as circular in shape.

WRITING THE ESSAY

Writing your essay In academic writing there are lots of conventions. You will need to use the third
person and adopt a formal writing style. You should not use contractions, abbreviations, slang or
colloquialisms. Avoid making general statements and back up your arguments by quoting published
research from a respected academic source.
Make sure your essay is well-balanced and flows in a logical manner. If you struggle with this or find
yourself going off on a tangent then stick to short well-constructed sentences to keep you on the
right track.
You should have referenced correctly using the style requested and you should have included a
reference list at the end. Also bear in mind that all references contribute to the word count so be
decisive about which direct quotes, if any, you use. Some students struggles with quotes and either
do not use them for fear of using them inappropriately or use too many. A quote should be used as
evidence for an argument that you have made in your essay. A quote needs to earn its place in the
essay so never plop a quote in for padding. It must have meaning and add something to your work.

PROOF READING
Once you have written your essay you will need to proof-read it. Take a break from it as you are
more likely to see errors if you come to it fresh. Proof-reading is also best done on a hard copy of
your work.
Proof-reading 1: Read the essay question again. Does your essay answer the question? If not, why
not? What have you included which isnt completely relevant? What can you take out? What should
you add? If you are satisfied that you have answered the question then check that you have engaged
in critical analysis of the topic and are not merely describing the available research. What is your line
of argument? What is your evidence? Is your argument adequately phrased? Is the balance of the
argument correct?

Know the difference between editing (removing), changing (altering something) and developing
(expanding on a sub-topic) and know which you have to do to make your essay better.
Proof-reading 2: Check for structure. Do the paragraphs have a clear logical structure? Does one flow
naturally on from the next? Do you take a new paragraph with the introduction of a new idea?
Likewise with sentences, do they make sense? Are they clearly written? Are your ideas clearly
expressed? Have you used academic writing? Have you been concise in your writing?
Tips for structuring:
Economy of words.
Short sentences that make sense.
Read your work aloud.
Record yourself so that you may hear grammatical errors when you have been unable to see
them.
Type your work out in double spaced lines and cut up each sentence. Re-arrange them like a police
photo-fit. Is the flow natural or is it a little awkward or clunky when you read it aloud? Try to get the
structure right by moving things around.
Be ruthless if it is not working then edit or change it.
Proof-reading 3: Check for grammar, punctuation, spelling, presentation, references and typos. Spell
checks do not detect all errors and basic errors may lose you precious marks. Make sure the
referencing is correct and the Reference List is complete and up to date.
NB: In order to proof-read sufficiently you need to allow your-self plenty of time. This means using
your time management skills at the beginning of your work and scheduling time to do a thorough
proof-reading job with time to make any necessary amendments.

THE FEEDBACK
Always listen to feedback given by lecturers in lectures or seminars which may be relevant to the
whole group, read the feedback given to you individually, not just the grade and really take on board
what has been said about your work. Have a clear idea of your own strengths and weaknesses. What
will you do differently next time? How could you have improved your grade? If you are able to have
an individual meeting with your lecturer then take up this opportunity and learn from it.

MOST COMMON ERRORS TO WATCH OUT FOR

Not demonstrating critical analytical thought.
Not showing any real understanding of the content.
The argument is poorly developed or lacks sufficient evidence.
Failure to answer the question.
Too descriptive.
Poor structure: paragraphing they may not flow logically from one to the next or feel clumsy.
Sentences they may be too long or do not make sense. They may sound as if they
are awkwardly formed so that they do not read fluidly.
Poor referencing.
Too many quotes or inappropriate use of quotes.
Poor use of language use of dialect or colloquialisms, inability to communicate ideas, too verbose,
language too basic, misuse of phrases or words, informal or non-academic language, poor grammar.
Too many basic errors, such as there and their, to and too.
Essay fails on word length, that is, it may be too long or too short.
Essay does not adhere to the assessment criteria outlined in the module handbook.

HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY THE FLOWCHART

Do you understand the

question?

Plan the essay out

paragraph by
paragraph

Write the essay

Jot down immediate

ideas - what do you
already know?

Decide on your line of

argument, conclusion,
ideas and what
research to include

Proof read x 3 times

Read critically & note

make in your own
words with the book
closed

Go through the essay

checklist to make sure
you haven't forgotten
anything

What do you need to

find out?
Select your reading 3R's

The Structure of an Essay - Flow Chart (sample guide only)

Introduction

Sub-topic 1
(400 words)

sub-topic 2

About 10% of the word count (200 words)

Set out what you going to write about making it relevant
to the question set.
paragraph point 1 (200 words)
paragraph point 2 (200 words)

paragraph point 3 (200 words)

paragraph point 4 (200 words)

(400 words)

sub-topic 3
(400 words)

Sub-topic 4
(400 words)

Conclusion

paragraph point 5 (200 words)

paragraph point 6 (200 words)

paragraph point 7 (200 words)

paragraph point 8 (200 words)
About 10% of the essay (200 words)
Remember to link your conclusion to your introduction think of your essay as being circular in shape

Academic & Skills Development Centre

Cardiff University 50 Park Place

Direction Words In Essay Titles A Guide

Very often an essay title is presented as a statement rather than a question. Knowing what is
being asked of you is critical so you need to seek out the direction word within the title. This
is a word which instructs you on what you need to do. Below are some common direction
words.
Account for Explain why X is as it is
Analyse - tells you to break something down into its parts and show how the parts relate to
each other to make the whole. Give points for or against.
Argue / Debate Present the case for and against.
Assess Weigh up to what extent something is true, using relevant research but highlight
flaws and counter-arguments. Come to a conclusion.
Clarify Make something clearer by simplifying it and breaking it down.
Comment upon Pick out the main points of a subject using evidence to reinforce the
argument.
Compare Compare tells you to show how two or more things are BOTH similar and
different.
Consider Using evidence illustrate your theories or understanding of an issue as well as
any counter-views.
Contrast Contrast tells you to show how two or more things are different.
Critically evaluate Using evidence and research illustrate the case for and against a
statement. Conclusion must be based on evidence in a reasoned fashion.
Define Define tells you to explain the meaning of something in a brief, specific manner.
Demonstrate Illustrate, using examples and / or evidence.
Describe Describe tells you to present a full and detailed picture of something in words to
include important characteristics and qualities.
Diagram Diagram tells you to illustrate something by drawing a picture of it and labelling
its parts.
Discuss Consider all sides of an issue and draw a conclusion from the points presented.
Elaborate To give in more detail, provide more information on.

Evaluate Evaluate tells you to present both the positive and negative characteristics of
something with evidence.
Examine Look at carefully or describe critically.
Explain Explain tells you to provide facts and reasons to make something clear and
understandable, you must consider reasons, causes and detail.
Explore Look at how and why something may occur, writing should be clear and concise
and evidence provided.
Give an account of Give a statement of facts in sequence, or in report form
Identify Determine what are the key points to be addressed and the implications of these.
Illustrate Use a diagram or specific examples to make the meaning clear.
Interpret Demonstrate your understanding of an issue or topic including causal
relationships and linkages.
Justify Justify tells you to provide reasons and facts in support of something.
List List tells you to present information about something as a series of brief numbered
points.
Outline Outline tells you to present the most important information or features about
something in a carefully organized manner.
Review Look in detail at a subject in a critical rather than a descriptive manner.
Show Give reasons and causes.
State Present clearly and concisely.
Suggest Propose a theory and defend it by showing how it could work.
Summarise tells you to present the main points about something in a brief form.
To what extent give a thorough assessment of the evidence in an argument with
reference to contrary explanations where they may exist.
Trace Trace tells you to present the order in which something occurred.

Academic & Skills Development Centre

Cardiff University 50 Park Place

Linking Words
Below are some words and phrases to help with the flow of your essay, linking ideas,
presenting information and illustrating the research on the topic.

To Give an Example or Explain Ideas

For example

As a consequence

In other words

For instance

As a result

In particular

Thus

As an illustration

Such as

Namely

Therefore

To Compare or Contrast
In contrast

Conversely

However

Despite this

Nonetheless

Nevertheless

Similarly

Equally

Also

Likewise

Even so

Yet

But

Otherwise

Although

However

To Emphasise / Expand Ideas

Above all

After all

Also

Certainly

Indeed

In essence

In fact

In other words

Of course

To repeat

Furthermore

Likewise

Additionally

Moreover

Similarly

Surely

Truly

To Show Relationships / Cause and Effect

Although

As a result

At the same time

Because

But

Consequently

Either / Or

Even so

However

Thus

In order that

For instance

To Show Time / Put ideas in Order

Afterwards

At last

Before

During

Earlier

Eventually

Finally

Firstly

Immediately

Initially

Lastly

Later

Meanwhile

Most importantly

Next

Then

Previously

To Conclude
Therefore

Thus

Hence

This indicates

So

Finally

In conclusion

As a result

Consequently

To summarise

Accordingly

Reporting verbs used to present the ideas of others

e.g. Smith (2007) describes / states / defines / argues / disputed / conceded / investigated /
evaluated / estimated / believes / recognised / predicted
Analysed

Compared

Commented

Concluded

Criticised

Demonstrated

Discussed

Illustrated

Indicated

Noted

Observed

Pointed out

Highlighted

Reported

Showed

Demonstrated

Suggested

Claimed

Validated

Verified

ESSAY WRITING CHECKLIST

(Adapted from Cottrell)
TASKS
Do I understand the question?
Have I noted down everything I already know
about this topic?
Have I asked myself what exactly I need to find
out?
Has my reading and research been selective
and focused?
Have I made notes in my own words?
In order to answer this question have I decided
what my line of argument will be?
Have I selected credible evidence to support
my argument?
Have I given due consideration to alternative
arguments or explanations?
Do I know what my conclusion is before I start?
Have I planned out my essay, paragraph by
paragraph?
Does my introduction draw the reader in and
briefly explain the purpose of the essay? Is it
the correct length?
Does my main argument flow logically?
Are sentences well-structured and read
smoothly?
Does one sentence follow on from the next in a
logical manner?
Are paragraphs well structured? Do I take a
new paragraph at the correct moment? Does
each paragraph make sense? Do paragraphs
flow well from one to the next?
What is my main line of argument?
What evidence have I used? Is that evidence
the very best available to me? Is it recent,

TICK

NOTES

relevant and reliable?

Have I just re-presented the research or have I
interpreted it and used it to demonstrate my
understanding and to give my argument force?
Is the evidence presented in a clear and logical
manner for each point I make?
At any point is my reasoning or argument
flawed or weak?
Is my argument clear and obvious to the
reader? Is it well-evidenced? Are all facts
correct and accurate? Is my argument
consistent throughout the entire essay?
Do I use appropriate formal academic
language? At any point do I use emotive
language? Is my choice of language objective
and appropriate?
Do I give consideration and evidence to
alternative perspectives?
Does my conclusion pull the essay together
and make final conclusion and / or
recommendations? Do I refrain from
introducing anything new in the conclusion?
Is the essay completely relevant to the
question?
Is the writing predominantly critical analytical
in tone and only uses descriptive writing
sparingly?
Is the writing free from personal bias and /or
opinion?
Do I need to edit my essay? Do I phrase ideas
as succinctly as possible?
Is my essay repetitive?
Have I proof-read for the balance of critical
analytical and descriptive writing?
Have I proof read for the structure, language
and writing style?
Have I checked for basic errors such as spelling
mistakes?

SOURCES

Cottrell, Stella

The Study Skills Handbook 3rd Edition

Palgrave Macmillan, Hampshire UK

Cottrell, Stella

Critical Thinking Skills 2nd Edition

Palgrave Macmillan, Hampshire UK

Greetham, Bryan

2013

Academic Writing and Grammar for Students

SAGE Study Skills London UK

Race, Phil

2011

How to Write Better Essays 3rd Editiion

Palgrave Macillan Hampshire UK

Osmond, Alex

2008

2013

How to Get a Good Degree 2nd Edition

Open University Press Berkshire UK

2007