Maslows Theory of Needs

Abraham Maslows theory of human needs is an important foundation in the history of

management thought. The lower-order needs in his hierarchy include physiological,
safety and social concerns, while higher-order needs include esteem and self-actualization
concerns. Within his theory, he proposed that an individual could not pursue the next
need until the currently recognized need was substantially or completely satisfied (the
progression principle) (Gawel, 1997). Maslow also postulates the deficit principle, which
states that a fulfilled need is not a motivator of behavior, therefore humans are
expected to act in ways that overcome their deficits. (Schermerhorn, 2013)
ERG Theory
This theory, proposed by Clayton Alderfer as an alternative to Maslows theory, is based
on a three-fold conceptualization of human needs (Alderfer, 1969) and it talks about
existence needs, which are desires for physiological and material well-being,
relatedness needs represented by desires for satisfying relationships, and growth needs,
aimed at psychological growth and development.(Schermerhorn, 2013)
Two-Factor Theory
Frederick Herzberg developed a motivation construct represented by a two-dimensional
paradigm (Gawel, 1997) of hygiene (dissatisfiers) factors that do fail to motivate or to
create satisfaction and motivators (satisfiers).
Hygiene factors are found in the job context the environment in which the work takes
place and includes such things as working conditions, interpersonal relations,
organizational policies and administration, and compensation.
Satisfier factors are linked with job satisfaction. They are found in the job content
nature of the work itself and include things like job challenge, recognition for work
well done, a sense of responsibility, the opportunity for advancement, and feelings of
personal growth. (Schermerhorn, 2013)
Acquired needs theory
McClelland developed the acquired needs theory in the late 1940s with his research
showing that motives are acquired by an association with an internal state of positive or
negative affect and that once an external or internal cue becomes associated with, it
results in a motive (Thrash & Elliott, 2001). McClellands research further shows people
are not born with particular characteristics or had acquired them in childhood
development, but learn them as adults (Wood et al, 2010) and that all motives are learned

(Thrash &Elliot, 2001). McClellands theory developed using various experiments

focused on three basic needs that can be used to profile people.
Need for achievement is the need of high-achievers who strive to perform as best and as
efficiently possible.
Need for power is the desire to exert influence over other people and their behavior.
Need for affiliation is the desire to build and maintain friendly relations with other people
and thriving on social approval.
Equity theory
Adams equity theory (Adams, 1963, 1965), a cognitive, social exchange theory of
distributive justice, assumes that individuals value and seek fairness in employeeemployer relationship. Adams proposes that fairness is maintained when an individual
perceives that his or her outcomes, such as pay, are allocated in proportion to his or her
perceived contributions in the form of, say, task behaviors. (Kanfer, 1990)
The issue appears that when treated unfairly, people are motivated to eliminate the
discomfort and restore a sense of perceived equity to the situation. (Schermerhorn, 2013)
Expectancy theory
Vrooms expectancy theory is a cognitive process theory of motivation that is based on
the idea that people believe there are relationships between the effort they put forth at
work, the performance they achieve from that effort, and the rewards they receive from
their effort and performance. In other words, people will be motivated if they believe that
strong effort will lead to good performance and good performance will lead to desired
rewards.
The theory does not provide specific suggestions on what motivates organization
members. Instead, it provides a series of factors upon which motivation may be
dependent: expectancy, instrumentality, valence.
Goal-setting theory
The basic premise of Edwin Locke's goal-setting theory is that much human action is
purposeful, in that it is directed by conscious goals (Locke & Latham, 1994). Human
beings have the power to choose their own goals and pursue long-range purposes
(Locke, 1969).
Goals give direction to people in their work. They clarify the performance expectations in
supervisory relationships, between coworkers, and across subunits in an organization.
They establish a frame of reference for task feedback and also set a foundation for
behavioral self-management. Plus, when they are set with the participation of other
colleagues and managers, they become a vital element of motivation. (Schermerhorn,
2013)

Self-Efficacy Theory
Closely related to both the expectancy and goal-setting approaches to motivation is selfefficacy theory, also referred to as social learning theory. Based on the work of
psychologist Albert Bandura, the notion of self-efficacy refers to a persons belief that she
or he is capable of performing a specific task. (Schermerhorn, 2013)
Workers enter learning activities with goals and self-efficacy for goal attainment. As they
work on tasks, they observe their own performances and evaluate their own goal
progress. Self-efficacy and goal setting are affected by self-observation, self-judgment,
and self-reaction. When workers perceive satisfactory goal progress, they feel capable of
improving their skills; goal attainment, coupled with high self-efficacy, leads employees
to set new challenging goals. You can think of self-efficacy using such terms as
confidence, competence, and ability. From a manager's perspective, the major point is
that anything done to boost feelings of self-efficacy among people at work is likely to pay
off with increased levels of motivation. (Schunk, 1990)
Reinforcement Strategies
The concept of operant conditioning is defined as the process of applying the law of
effect to control behavior by manipulating its consequences. You may think of operant
conditioning as learning by reinforcement. In management, the goal is to use
reinforcement principles to systematically reinforce desirable work behavior and
discourage undesirable work behavior. The four strategies of reinforcement that can be
used in operant conditioning are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement,
punishment, and extinction.
Positive reinforcement strengthens or increases the frequency of desirable behavior. It
does so by making a pleasant consequence contingent on its occurrence.
Negative reinforcement also strengthens or increases the frequency of desirable behavior,
but it does so by making the avoidance of an unpleasant consequence contingent on its
occurrence.
Punishment decreases the frequency of or eliminates an undesirable behavior. It does so
by making an unpleasant consequence contingent on its occurrence.
Extinction also decreases the frequency of or eliminates an undesirable behavior, but does
so by making the removal of a pleasant consequence contingent on its occurrence.
Job simplification standardizes work procedures and employs people in well-defined
and highly specialized tasks. Simplified jobs, such as those in classic automobile
assembly lines, are narrow in job scope - the number and variety of different tasks a
person performs.
The logic of job simplification is straightforward. Because the jobs don't require complex
skills, workers should be easier and quicker to train, less difficult to supervise, and easy
to replace if they leave. And because tasks are well defined, workers should become more

efficient by performing them over and over again. But, things dont always work out as
planned. The routine, structured, and repetitive tasks can cause problems if workers
become bored and alienated. Productivity can go down when unhappy workers do poor
work. Costs can go up when lack of satisfaction causes higher level of absenteeism and
turnover.
Job Enrichment
Frederick Herzberg, whose two-factor theory of motivation was discussed earlier. not
only questions the motivational value of job simplification, he is also critical of job
enlargement and rotation. Why, he asks. "Should a worker become motivated when one
or more meaningless tasks are added to previously existing ones, or when work
assignments are rotated among equally meaningless tasks?" By contrast, he says: If you
want people to do a good job, give them a good job to do? Herzberg believes this is best
done through job enrichment that expands job content and increases job depth - the extent
to which planning and controlling duties are per- formed by the individual worker rather
than the supervisor. Job enrichment is a form of vertical loading, which means increasing
job depth and giving employees more responsibility for the way they carry out their tasks.
Alternative Work Schedules
Flexibility is the key word driving the emergence of alternative ways for people toschedule their work time. Employers are finding that alternative work schedules help
attract and retain motivated workers by offering them flexibility to deal with the many
complications of work-life balance.
Flexible Working Hours
The term flexible working hours, also called flextime, describes any work schedule that
gives employees some choice in how to allocate their daily work hours. Flexible
schedules of starting and ending times give employees greater autonomy while meeting
their work responsibilities.
Compressed Workweek
A Compressed workweek is any work schedule that allows a full-time job to be
completed in less than the standard five days of 8-hour shifts. The most common form is
the "4-40," that is, accomplishing 40 hours of work in four 10-hour days. A key feature of
the 4-40 schedule is that the employee receives three consecutive days off from work
each week.
Job Sharing
Job sharing splits one full-time job between two or more persons. This can be done in a
variety of ways, from half day to weekly or monthly sharing arrangements and is
especially advantageous for parents or individuals who cannot, for other reasons, commit
to a full time schedule.

Telecommuting
It is now a somewhat common practice for people to work by telecommuting, an
arrangement that allows at least a portion of scheduled work hours to be completed
outside the office, through computers and smart devices that allow easy communication
with customers and coworkers.
Contingency and Part-Time Work
If there is one trend that has been reinforced by our tight economy, its the use of
1 more contingency workers hired on a temporary and part-time basis to supplement the
regular workforce. You'll hear them called temps, freelancers, and contract hires. They
provide just-in-time and as-needed work for employers who want to avoid the cost and
responsibilities of hiring full-timers.
A major disadvantage is that contingency workers are generally paid less than their fulltime counterparts, can experience stress and anxiety from their part-time and non-secure
job status, and generally do not receive important benefits such as health care, life
insurance, pension plans, and paid vacations.

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