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MICHAELWERNERAND BENEDICTEZIMMERMANN
ABSTRACT
This article presents, in a programmaticway, the histoire croisee approach,its methodological implications and its empirical developments. Histoire croisde draws on the
debates about comparativehistory, transferstudies, and connected or shared history that
have been carriedout in the social sciences in recent years. It invites us to reconsiderthe
interactionsbetween differentsocieties or cultures,eruditedisciplines or traditions(more
generally,between social and culturalproductions).Histoire croisee focuses on empirical
intercrossingsconsubstantialwith the object of study, as well as on the operations by
which researchersthemselves cross scales, categories, and viewpoints. The article first
shows how this approachdiffers from purely comparative or transfer studies. It then
develops the principles of pragmaticand reflexive induction as a major methodological
principleof histoire croisee. While underliningthe need and the methods of a historicization of both the objects and categories of analysis, it calls for a reconsiderationof the way
history can combine empirical and reflexive concerns into a dynamic and flexible
approach.
I. INTRODUCTION
Over the past twenty years, ideas about the conditions and ways in which sociohistorical knowledge is produced have undergone significant changes. Two sets
of factors, stemming both from internal developments in the social sciences as
well as from the more general political context, have jointly produced their
effects. On the political side, the changes that have taken place since 1989, coupled with the expansion and proliferation of spaces of reference and actionglobalization, to use the now standard term-have left their mark on research
paradigms, bringing new importance to the question of reflexivity. On the intelthe
lectual side, the "culturalist turn," by emphasizing the specificity-indeed,
irreducible nature-of the local has contributed to refining our understanding of
the differentiated functioning of societies and cultures, while at the same time
bringing about a fragmentation of knowledge, thereby showing it in a relativist
1. This article draws upon argumentsfirst developed in Annales HSS 58:1 (January-February
2003), 7-36 and in De la comparaison a l'histoire croisde, ed. Michael Werner and B6nedicte
Zimmermann(Le Genrehumain42) (Paris:Seuil, 2004), 15-49. We extend our warmthanksfor their
suggestions and comments to Sebastian Conrad,Yves Cohen, AlexandreEscudier, HeidrunFriese,
Jean-YvesGrenier,RainerMariaKiesow, Andr6Orlean,JacquesPoloni, Jay Rowell, LucetteValensi,
and PeterWagner,with whom we have discussed various aspects of our histoire croisde proposal.
31
32
MICHAELWERNERAND BENEDICTEZIMMERMANN
But, while these approaches mainly take the perspective of "reof buriedreality,the stresslaid by histoirecroisee on
establishment/rehabilitation"
a multiplicity of possible viewpoints and the divergences resulting from languages, terminologies,categorizationsand conceptualizations,traditions,and disciplinary usages, adds anotherdimension to the inquiry.In contrastto the mere
restitutionof an "alreadythere,"histoire croisde places emphasis on what, in a
self-reflexive process, can be generativeof meaning.
Second, histoire croisee takes up anew the discussions carriedout over recent
years regardingcomparativeapproaches,transfers,and, more generally, sociocultural interactions. In particular,it offers new leads for getting beyond the
stalematein the debate between comparativistsand transferspecialists,6without
diminishing the contributionsmade by these two approacheson which it draws
heavily. It therebymakes it possible to apprehendentirely new phenomenausing
renewed frameworksof analysis, and insofar as it does so, it presentsopportunities for exploring, from a particularangle, more general questions such as those
concerningscales, categories of analysis, the relationshipbetween diachronyand
synchrony,and regimes of historicityand reflexivity.Third,histoire croisle raises the question of its own historicity througha threefold process of historicization: throughthe object, the categories of analysis, and the relationshipsbetween
if each of them has particularities.On Connected History, see The Making of the Modern World:
ConnectedHistories, Divergent Paths (1500 to the Present), ed. Robert W. Strayer(New York:St.
MartinsPress, 1989); SanjaySubrahmanyam,"ConnectedHistories:Notes towarda Reconfiguration
of Early ModernEurasia," ModernAsian Studies 31:3 (1997), 735-762; Serge Gruzinski,"Les mondes mel6s de la Monarchiecatholiqueet autres 'connectedhistories',"Annales HSS 56:1 (2001), 85117. The expression "sharedhistory"was originally used to designate the sharedhistory of different
ethnic groups and was then extended to the history of gender,before being used in the discussion of
"post-colonialstudies."See Ann LauraStoler and FredericCooper,"BetweenMetropoleand Colony.
Rethinkinga ResearchAgenda,"in Tensionsof Empire: Colonial Culturesin a Bourgeois World,ed.
Ann LauraStoler and FredericCooper (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), as well as
StewartHall, "Whenwas the Post-Colonial?Thinkingat the Limit,"in The Post-Colonial Question:
CommonSkies, Divided Horizons, ed. lain Chambersand Lidia Curti(London:Routledge, 1996). For
the concept of Entangled History, see Jenseits des Eurozentrismus:Postkoloniale Perspektivenin
den Geschichts- und Kulturwissenschaften,ed. Sebastian Conrad and Shalini Randeria(Frankfurt:
Campus Verlag, 2002), as well as Shalini Randeria, "EntangledHistories of Uneven Modernities:
Civil Society, Caste Solidarities and Legal Pluralism in Post-Colonial India," in Unraveling Ties:
From Social Cohesion to New Practices of Connectedness,ed. Yehuda Elkana et al. (Frankfurt:
CampusVerlag,2002), 284-311.
6. See, in particular,Michel Espagne, "Sur les limites du comparatismeen histoire culturelle,"
Geneses 17 (1994), 112-121; Heinz-GerhardHaupt and JtirgenKocka, Geschichte und Vergleich:
Ansditzeund Ergebnisse international vergleichender Geschichtsschreibung(Frankfurt:Campus
Verlag, 1996); ChristopheCharle, "L'histoirecompar6edes intellectuels en Europe:Quelques points
de m6thodeet propositionsde recherche,"in Pour une histoirecompardedes intellectuels,ed. Michel
Trebitsch and Marie-Christine Granjon (Paris: Editions Complexe, 1998), 39-59; Johannes
Paulmann, "InternationalerVergleich und interkulturellerTransfer:Zwei Forschungsansitze zur
europdiischenGeschichte des 18. bis 20. Jahrhunderts,"Historische Zeitschrift 3 (1998), 649-685;
Hartmut Kaelble, Der historische Vergleich: Eine Einfiihrung zum 19. und 20. Jahrhundert
und historischeKomparatistik,
(Frankfurt:CampusVerlag, 1999); MatthiasMiddell, "Kulturtransfer
Thesen zu ihrem Verhiltnis," Comparativ 10 (2000), 7-41; Michael Werner,"Comparaisonet raison," Cahiers d'dtudes germaniques 41 (2001), 9-18; Gabriele Lingelbach, "Ertriigeund Grenzen
zweier Ansditze:Kulturtransferund Vergleich am Beispiel der franz6sischen und amerikanischen
Geschichtswissenschaftwiihrenddes 19. Jahrhunderts,"in Die Nation schreiben: Geschichtswissenschaft im internationalen Vergleich, ed. Christoph Conrad and Sebastian Conrad (Gtittingen:
Vandenhoeck& Ruprecht,2002), 333-359.
33
researcherand object. It thus provides a toolbox that, over and beyond the historical sciences, can be appliedacross a numberof otherdisciplines thatcombine
past and presentperspectives.7
II. COMPARISONAND THE HISTORICITYOF ITS OBJECTS
Those who engage in the comparativemethod and attemptto control the effects
thereof--whether they work on past or contemporarymaterials-are aware of a
numberof difficultiesthat, while presentin diverse situations,all involve the tension between the method andthe object. To simplify, these difficulties arise from
the fact that, on the one hand, comparison is a cognitive operationthat, by its
nature,functionsin accordancewith a principleof binaryoppositionbetween differences and similarities and, on the other hand, is applied in the social sciences
to empirical subjects that are historically situated and consist of multiple interpenetratingdimensions. The problems of self-monitoring and the continuous
readjustmentof the process resulting therefrom are not in themselves insurmountable;they are partof the work of comparativists,all of whom deal with this
in their own manner.8The basic questions neverthelessremain;five of them that
underliethe problematicof histoire croiselewill be addressedmore precisely.
(1) The first difficulty concernsthe position of the observer. From the standpoint of the basic scheme of the cognitive process, the comparative approach
assumes a point of view externalto the objects that are compared.In addition,to
limit optical illusions, the vantage point should ideally be situated at equal distance from the objects so as to producea symmetricalview. Finally,logical consistency in the comparisonimplies that the point of observationbe stabilized in
space and in time. In the areaof observationof social and culturalfacts, however, such a vantage point, even if it is theoretically imaginable, is impossible to
attainin the practiceof research.Scholars are always, in one manneror another,
7. Histoire croisde is partof a long-standingdebate on the relationshipbetween history and social
sciences. The debate was initiated at the startof the last centuryin France by Simiandin "M6thode
historiqueet science sociale," Revue de synthese historique (1903), 1-22 and 129-157. In Germany,
it was led by Simmel and Weber,in particularin the latter'swork on economic history,which, while
relying on case studies, reasons on the basis of epistemological considerations.For more recent steps
in the debate, see the dossier "Histoireet sciences sociales," Annales ESC 38:6 (1983), and the special edition devoted to the "critical turn" (Annales ESC 44:6 [1989]); Jean-ClaudePasseron, Le
raisonnementsociologique: L'espace non-poppdriendu raisonnementnaturel (Paris:Nathan, 1991);
and L'historicit, de l'action publique, ed. Pascale Laborierand Danny Trom (Paris,PUF [Collection
Curapp],2003).
8. On recent French discussions concerning comparison, see in particularStrategies de la comparaison internationale,ed. Michel Lallementand Jan Spurk(Paris:CNRS-Editions,2003); Marcel
Detienne, Comparerl'incomparable (Paris: Seuil, 2000); Qui veut prendre la parole, ed. Marcel
Detienne (Le genre humain) (Paris: Seuil, 2003); the dossier in Annales introduced by Lucette
Valensi, "L'exercicede la comparaisonau plus proche, a distance: le cas des societes plurielles,"
Annales HSS 57:1 (2002), 27-30; the collective Franco-Americanwork on repertoiresof evaluation
coordinatedby Michele Lamontand LaurentTh6venot,RethinkingComparativeCulturalSociology:
Repertoires of Evaluation in France and the United States, ed. Michble Lamont and Laurent
Thevenot (Cambridge,Eng.: CambridgeUniversity Press, 2000); as well as PatrickHassenteufel,
'
"Deux ou trois choses que je sais d'elle: Remarques propos d'experiences de comparaisons
in
au
concret:
Les
Dimarches, formes de l'experience et terrains
ne'thodes
europeennes," Curapp,
d'investigation en science politique (Paris,PUF [Collection Curapp],2000), 105-124.
34
MICHAELWERNERAND BENEDICTEZIMMERMANN
35
(4) This historicizationof the objects and problematicsmay give rise to conflicts between synchronic and diachronic logics. The comparative approach
assumes a synchronic cross-section or, at the very least, a pause in the flow of
time, even where comparativistsare also dealing with processes of transformation or comparisons over time. Even in these cases, they must fix the object,
freeze it in time, and thus in a sense suspendit. If the scholardelves too deeply
into the description of a chronological sequence of events leading to specific
changes, it will be difficult to justify why, in the comparative grid-whether
explicit or implicit-one element of the process is emphasized and anotherneglected. The result is a search for balance that in practiceturnsout to be tenuous
and unstable.
(5) An additionaldifficulty stems from the interactionamong the objects of
the comparison.When societies in contactwith one anotherare studied,it is often
noted that the objects and practicesare not only in a state of interrelationshipbut
also modify one anotherreciprocallyas a resultof theirrelationship.This is often
the case, for instance, in the human and social sciences where disciplines and
schools evolve throughmutualexchanges;in culturalactivities such as literature,
music, and the fine arts; and in practicalareas, such as advertising, marketing,
organizationalcultures, or even social policies. Comparativestudy of areas of
contactthatare transformedthroughtheirmutualinteractionsrequiresscholarsto
reorganizetheir conceptualframeworkand rethinktheir analyticaltools.'2
These five difficulties all relate to the problem of articulationbetween an
essentially synchronicanalyticallogic and historicallyconstitutedobjects.'3The
challenges they raise for the scholar requiregreaterconsiderationof the historical dimension of both the tools and objects of study.Transferstudies, specifically groundedin historicalprocesses, meet this requirement,but they nevertheless
pose additionalproblems.
III. TRANSFERSAND FRAMES OF REFERENCE
While the comparativemethod tends to focus on synchrony,inquiry into transfers is clearly situatedin a diachronicperspective.'4Whatevertemporalscale is
12. In his introductionto Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Culture
Difference (Bergen and Oslo: Universitetsforlaget,1969), 9-38, FredrikBarth had already underscored the necessity of taking into account the interactionat the bordersfrom which spreadthe distinctive traitsof the entities understudy-here "ethnicgroups."But while assigning to them a determinative role, Barth limits the transformationaleffects of interactionsto the processes of definition
and the characteristicsof the groups, without calling into question the cohesion of the group or the
dichotomizingfunction of the borders.Although Barthdefines ethnicity at the borders,he still conceives of it as structuredby the principles of sameness and difference.
13. Jean-Claude Passeron has addressed them as difficulties of the "sociological reasoning"
caught between the two extremes of experimentationand historicization.See Passeron, Le raisonnementsociologique, esp. 57-88.
14. For a presentationof the transferapproach,see Michel Espagneand Michael Wemer,"Laconstruction d'une r6f6rence culturelle allemande en France, genese et histoire," Annales ESC 42:4
(1987), 969-992. For additionalwork contributedthroughthe study of Germano-Britishtransfers,see
im 19.
AneignungundAbwehr. InterkulturellerTransferzwischen Deutschland und GrofJbritannien
Jahrhundert,ed. Rudolf Muhs, Johannes Paulmann,and Willibald Steinmetz (Bodenheim: Philo,
1998); for the relationshipsbetween America and Europe, see Transfertsculturels et metissages:
36
MICHAELWERNERAND BENEDICTEZIMMERMANN
37
In the literal sense, to cross means "to place or fold crosswise one over the
other."'8This creates a point of intersection where events may occur that are
capable of affecting to various degrees the elements present dependingon their
resistance,permeabilityor malleability,and on their environment.The notion of
intersectionis basic to the very principle of histoire croisee that we intend to
elaboratehere. This centralityof intersectionsimplies four consequencesthat we
wish to highlight.
16. See Philologiques IV Transfertsculturels triangulaires France - Allemagne - Russie, ed.
KatiaDimitrievaand Michel Espagne (Paris:Editions de la Maison des sciences de l'homme, 1996).
17. Cases of this type form partof the original researchagenda on transfers,but they have rarely
been followed up by empirical studies.
18. It is only by extension that the termtakes on the meaning"to meet in passing, esp. from opposite directions." Webster'sNinth New Collegiate Dictionary (Springfield MA: Merriam-Webster,
1983), p. 309.
38
MICHAELWERNERAND BENEDICTEZIMMERMANN
39
40
MICHAELWERNERAND BENEDICTEZIMMERMANN
itself.22The inquirythus focuses on momentsand phenomenaprecedingthe intercrossing as well as on its modalities.But it is also possible to concentrateon what
happens afterwards,on the results and processes more or less directly brought
about by the intercrossing.23Regardlessof the point of departurechosen, intercrossing functionsas the basic matrixfor constructionof the object that, depending on the circumstances,will be more or less closely connectedto analysesof the
momentsprecedingor subsequentto the points of intersectionproperlyspeaking.
In this respect,we are dealing with novel objects of researchthat the methodologies of comparativeand transferstudiesgenerallyhave difficultygrasping.
(2) The intercrossingofpoints of view. Here we are dealing in the areaof intersecting fields, objects, and scales, that is, the area of things that the researcher
crosses, whereas the previous intersectionsoccur without his or her direct intervention (even if the mere fact of identifyingan object as coming within the scope
of histoire croisee is itself a significant act of interventionon the part of the
researcher).In contrastto the precedingtype of intersectionthat the scholarmay
try to describe or to understand,while not necessarily being familiar with all of
the details, some of which will always remainbeyond his or her control, this second type of intercrossing implies a structuring,voluntary intellectual action,
throughwhich are defined the contoursnot only of the object of study but of the
line of inquiryas well. This raises the question of the constructionof the object
both from an empiricalas well as from an epistemological standpoint.Thus, for
example, a study of the reception of Tacitus's Germaniain Europebetween the
fifteenth and the twentiethcenturies can reveal instances of historical intersections-the circulationof argumentsand theirreinterpretation
accordingto national contexts-but it may also place emphasison the necessity of crossing different
nationalreceptionsto create a researchtopic of a Europe-widedimension.
Basically, the construction of the object, which may be envisaged in a
Weberianperspectiveas the adoptionof one or more particularpoints of view on
the object,24is alreadythe result of various acts of crossing. To the extent that it
may evolve in the course of the inquiry,the chosen vantage point implies new
intersections.Scholars are in fact led to account for the way in which their own
choices do or do not integrate other perspectives, to cross different potential
points of view, and if necessary to engage in a process of translationor balanc22. See, for instance,the researchby SebastianConradon the makingof Japanesehistorythrough
the confluence between local tradition and importation of European national historiography.
SebastianConrad,"Laconstitutionde l'histoirejaponaise:Histoire comparee,transferts,interactions
transnationales,"in Wernerand Zimmermann,ed., De la comparaison a l'histoire crois6e, 53-72.
"National"historiographiesgeneratedduringthe period of colonialism may likewise be analyzed in
terms of intercrossing.See, for example, Romila Thapar,"La quete d'une traditionhistorique:l'Inde
ancienne,"Annales HSS 53:2 (1998), 347-359.
23. This is true of the study carriedout by Kapil Raj on the effects of the intercrossingbetween
Indianand English methodsin the birthof Britishcartographyat the beginningof the nineteenthcentury,which thus no longer appearsas an authentically"English"creation,but as the result of an interaction between two distinct traditionsthat mutuallynourishedone another.Kapil Raj, "Connexions,
croisements, circulations:Le detour de la cartographiebritanniquepar l'Inde, xvIIIe-xlxe siecles,"
in Wernerand Zimmermann,ed., De la comparaisona l'histoire croisde, 73-98.
24. The expression "pointof view" is used here not in a subjective sense, but in the literal meaning of point of observationthat determinesan angle of view. Max Weber,On the Methodologyof the
Social Sciences, (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1949), 81ff.
41
ing of the approachesresulting from the specific vantage points. These various
points of view are also socially structured,reflectingparticularpositions in competition or power struggles.25Consequently,variationamong them also means,
in empiricalterms, the scholar's taking into accountdiffering social viewpoints:
of the governorsand the governed,workersand employers,and so on. Whatmatters here is less the reflexive element inherentin any work involving intellectual positioningthanthe technical processes of intercrossingas a whole thatinform
it. By this is meant,for example, the ways of managingthe articulationbetween
several possible vantage points as well as the numerous links between these
viewpoints to the extent that they are acknowledgedto be historically constituted. In this respect,the framingof the object and the positioning of the researcher
in which objects and points of view are creatinvolve a "doublehermeneutic,"26
ed throughintercrossinginteractions.
(3) The relations between observer and object. Once one begins to reason in
terms of a cognitive approach, the question of the relationship between the
researcherand the object necessarily arises and in a sense becomes inherentto
the two precedingtypes of intercrossing.The question concerns, first and foremost, the way in which the preliminarystages of the inquiryshape the object and
conversely the way in which the characteristicsof the object influence the parameters of the inquiry. The question of the intercrossing relations between the
observerand the object is especially pertinentwhere the researcheris requiredto
work with a language, concepts, and categories that are not part of his or her
sphere of socialization.27In the case of comparisons and transferstudies, this
gives rise to an asymmetryin the relationshipsbetween researchersand theirvarious field areas or sources. It would seem evident that a researchertrained in
France28involved in a Franco-Germanicresearch project could not deal with
both sides in a symmetricalmanner,if only by reason of the impact of the mastery of the subtleties of language and of categories entailed, and more broadly
because of his or her own placement within French society. It would be both
futile and naive to try to free oneself once and for all from this problemarising
in any scientific inquiry.29One may nevertheless attemptto limit its effects by
25. PierreBourdieuplaced great emphasis on this point in his work as a whole. See in particular
Choses dites (Paris:Editions de Minuit, 1987), 155ff.
26. In the sense used by Anthony Giddens, in New Rules of Sociological Method (London:
Hutchinson, 1974).
27. This question has been treatedin particularby Jocelyne Dakhlia, "'La culture n6buleuse'ou
l'Islam 'al'6preuve de la comparaison,"Annales HSS 56 :6 (2001), 1177-1199, here 1186ff.
28. We know well the complexity of this type of designation,especially to the extent that courses
of studyare increasinglyinterconnectedandprovide forms of integrationthatblurthe variousassignments to categories of membership.
29. This problemis particularlyacute in the social sciences whereinquiriesare subjectto an ongoing tension between proceduresdesigned to be objective and descriptive,on the one hand,and a normative and prescriptivedimension, on the other,resulting from the fact that the researcheris also a
social being. However, many studies have shown that this problemalso exists in the hard sciences.
See, in particular,Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, LaboratoryLife: The Social Constructionof
Scientific Facts (London: Sage, 1979); Barry Barnes, David Bloor, and John Henry, Scientific
Knowledge: A Sociological Analysis (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1996); Dominique
Pestre, "Pourune histoire sociale et culturelledes sciences: Nouvelles d6finitions, nouveaux objets,
nouvelles pratiques,"Annales HSS 3 (1995), 487-522, with a descriptionof the state of researchand
numerousbibliographicalreferences.
42
MICHAELWERNERAND BENEDICTEZIMMERMANN
43
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MICHAELWERNERAND BENEDICTEZIMMERMANN
An approachbased on intercrossingsargues in favor of going beyond reasoning in termsof micro versus macro,emphasizinginstead their inextricableinterconnections. The notion of scale does not refer to the micro or the macro level,
but ratherto the various spaces within which are rooted the interactionsmaking
up the process analyzed. In other words, the relevant scales are those that are
constructedor broughtinto play in the very situationsunder study.They are spatial as well as temporal, and their variations are not solely dependent on the
researcher,but also result from the protagonistsin the situations under study.
Intercrossingis thus obviously an aspect of both the realm of the object of study
and the realm of the proceduresof researchrelatedto the researcher'schoices. In
its most demanding version, histoire croisle aims to establish connections
between both of these realms.
V. HISTORICIZINGCATEGORIES
Connectingthe empiricalobject to the researchprocedureopens the centralquestion of categories and categorization.Given the pitfalls of asymmetriccomparisons-postulating a similarity between categories on the basis of a simple
semantic equivalent, without questioning the often divergent practices encompassed by them--or negative comparisons-evaluating a society based on the
absence of a category chosen because of its relevance to the initial environment
of the researcher-great care is called for in assessing the analytical impact of
the categories used. Such care can be exercised throughsystematic attentionto
the categories in use, in the dual sense of categoriesof action and of analysis.38
While any form of reasoningproceeds by categorization,such categorization
often remains implicit, even if any comparativeresearch should theoretically
explicate the categories referredto. To know whereof and whence one is speaking: this twofold issue is centralto histoire croise'e.Since categories are both the
productof an intellectualconstructionand the basis for action, they unavoidably
pose the question of the relationshipbetween knowledge and action, both in the
situationsstudied and in terms of the protocols of inquiry.The focus upon them
clears a potentialpath to bring togetherthe empiricaland reflexivity.
This focus on categories is not so much aimed at categories in themselves as
at their various constitutive elements and how they fit together.These elements
are subjectto variationsand fluctuationsover time and space. To get beyond the
essentialismof categoriesimplies reasoningin termsof situatedprocesses of categorization-with the process referringback to the temporaland spatialinteractions that make up the category.Categories such as "landscape,"for examplethe same could be shown for "unemployment,""culture,""old age," "sickness,"
"workers,""white collar managers,"and so on-are historically dated and partially structuredby the hypotheses that helped to form them. With respect to
"landscape"and its equivalents-always rough approximationsin other languages and cultures-such formationhas been progressive and has broughtinto
38. For an example of such work on categories, see, in particular,L'enquete sur les categories:
De Durkheima' Sacks, ed. BernardFradin,Louis Qu6r6, and Jean Widmer (Raisons pratiques,5)
(Paris: Editions de I'EHESS, 1994); see also the special section "Hommage a Bernard Lepetit:
L'usage des cat6gories,"Annales 52:5 (1997), 963-1038.
45
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MICHAELWERNERAND BENEDICTEZIMMERMANN
social science. Such narrationcan be carriedout in the present,to describe a situation, or be appliedto the past, to make intelligiblecertainessential aspects of the
object of study.42
Being process-oriented,histoire croisee is an open approachthat takes into
account,from an internalpoint of view, variationsin its componentsand, froman
externalpoint of view, its specificity with respect to other possible forms of history. It can be likened to a history of problems and queries (histoireprobleme)
that attemptsto avoid the dual essentialism of an objectivationthrough factsregardedas directly accessible to the observer-and a reificationof structuresthatby tautologicalreasoningpredeterminesthe results of the inquiry.In opposition to an essentialistperspective,the idea of intercrossingidentifiesfirst an interaction that-and this is one of its decisive characteristics-modifies the elements
that are interacting.In this sense, it points towardsa "second-degree"history.
VI. PRAGMATICINDUCTION
47
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MICHAELWERNERAND BENEDICTEZIMMERMANN
times contradictory,of actorsto which they respondwhile at the same time structuringthem.48
Similarly, pragmatic induction does not imply restricting oneself to shortaction time-frames without regardfor the long term. On the contrary,the long
term of the structuresis combined with the shortjuncturesof action, in an analysis of social activity based on the study of the dynamic relationshipsbetween
action and structure.From this perspective,the activity of individualsappearsas
in a relationshipof reciprocalrelationsbetween
both structuredand structuring,49
structuresand action. However, such structuringis not so much determinedby
the necessity of an irreversibleprocess as by the intercrossingin the course of
action of constraintsand resourcesthat are in part structurallygiven and in part
tied to the contingency of the situations.50Thus, for example, most of our institutions stem from a dual grounding,both within a structurallylong history that
affects their logic and functioning, and in singularcontexts of action that played
a decisive role in bringingthem aboutand transformingthem.51The perspective
of a social pragmaticsmakes it possible to think in termsof the interdependence
of these two dimensions throughthe identificationof the slides and lags occurring in the course of the action that enable moments of institutionalinnovation.
Mindful of both short-termcontexts of action and the long-term structuralconditions that make it possible, such an approachopens up new perspectives for
analyzingchange and stability at the same time.
VII. REFLEXIVITY
As illustratedby the example of scales, such pragmaticinduction is also reflexive. This is one of the points that distinguishes histoire croisde from both comparativism-which, ideally, postulatesthe existence of an externalpoint of view
making it possible both to constructcomparableobjects and to apply to them
common analyticalquestionnaires-and transferstudies-which, in most cases,
do not questiontheirimplicit framesof reference.Nevertheless we will not delve
into the reflexivity issue debated for more than a centurynow in the social sciences.52By way of example, we shall limit ourselves to pointing out a few
instancesin which histoire croisedecan contributeto meeting the challenge posed
by reflexivity. Both pragmaticinduction and the proceduresfor historicization
48. See Concerts et publics: Mutations de la vie musicale 1789-1914: France, Allemagne,
Grande-Bretagne,ed. Hans-ErichBideker, PatriceVeit, and Michael Werner(Paris:Editions de la
Maison des sciences de l'homme, 2002).
49. See, in particular,on this point, AnthonyGiddens, The Constitutionof Society: Outlineof the
Theoryof Structuration(Cambridge,Eng: Polity Press, 1984).
50. For a reinterpretationof the notion of structurein terms of schemas and resources, and
thoughtson its integrationinto a theoryof actionand a problematicof change, see WilliamH. Sewell,
"A Theory of Structure:Duality,Agency and Transformation,"
AmericanJournal of Sociology 98:1
(1992), 1-29.
51. For an illustration of this dual grounding, see Paul-Andre Rosental, L'intelligence dimographique:Sciences et politiques des populationsen France (1930-1960) (Paris,Odile Jacob,2003).
52. For the nineteenthcentury,the main referenceremainsDroysen's Historik,as well as Dilthey's
projectfor a critiqueof historicalreason. For morerecentdebates on reflexivity in the social sciences
and its relationshipto theories of modernity,see, in particular,Anthony Giddens, Consequencesof
Modernity(Oxford: Polity Press, 1990); Ulrich Beck, Anthony Giddens, and Scott Lash, Reflexive
Modernization(Oxford, Polity Press, 1994).
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