Contents

I.
Introduction
II.
History of Cadmium Toxicity
III. Recent work on Cadmium Toxicity
IV. Sources of Cadmium Toxicity
V.
Production of Cadmium Toxicity
VI. Characteristics of Cadmium Toxicity
a. Physical Properties
b. Chemical Properties
c. Isotopes
VII. Biological Role of Cadmium Toxicity
VIII. Safety
a. Regulations
b. Product Recalls
IX. Applications
a. Batteries
b. Electroplating
c. Nuclear fission
d. Compounds
e. Laboratory uses
X.

Conclusion
References

Cadmium

silver cadmium indium

Zn

Cd

Hg

48Cd
Periodic table
Appearance
silvery bluish-gray metallic

General properties
Name, symbol,number cadmium, Cd, 48
Pronunciation
Element category

/kdmim/ KAD-mee-m
transition metal

Category notes

Alternatively considered apost-transition metal

Group, period,block

12, 5, d

Standard atomic weight 112.411

Electron configuration [Kr] 5s2 4d10
Electrons pershell

2, 8, 18, 18, 2 (Image)

Physical properties

Phase

solid

Density (nearr.t.)

8.65 gcm3

Liquid density atm.p.

7.996 gcm3

Melting point

594.22 K609.93 F321.07 C,,

Boiling point

1413 F767 C,1040 K,

Heat of fusion

6.21 kJmol1

Heat of vaporization

99.87 kJmol1

Molar heat capacity

26.020 Jmol1K1
Vapor pressure

P
(Pa

10 10 1 k 10 100
0

)
at T 53 58 65 74 86 104

(K) 0

0
Atomic properties

Oxidation states

2, 1 (mildly basic oxide)

Electronegativity

1.69 (Pauling scale)

Ionization energies

1st: 867.8 kJmol1

2nd: 1631.4 kJmol1
3rd: 3616 kJmol1

Atomic radius
Covalent radius
Van der Waals radius

151 pm
1449 pm
158 pm
Miscellanea

Crystal structure

hexagonal

Magnetic ordering

diamagnetic[1]

Electrical resistivity

(22 C) 72.7 nm

Thermal conductivity

96.6 Wm1K1

Thermal expansion

(25 C) 30.8 mm1K1

Speed of sound(thin

(20 C) 2310 ms1

rod)
Young's modulus

50 GPa

Shear modulus

19 GPa

Bulk modulus

42 GPa

Poisson ratio

0.30

Mohs hardness

2.0

Brinell hardness

203 MPa

CAS registry number

7440-43-9
Most stable isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of cadmium

iso NA half- D DE(
life
106

107

M MeV) P

C 1.25 >9.5

1017y 2

C syn 6.5 h

1.417

107

Ag

C 0.89 >6.7

106

Pd

d
108

1017y 2

108

Pd

109

C syn 462.6 0.214

110

110

C 12.4

C 12.8

d
112

d
113

62 neutrons
111

Cd is stable with

C 24.1

Ag

Cd is stable with

9%

111

63 neutrons
112

Cd is stable with

3%

64 neutrons

C 12.2 7.71 0.316

d
113m

2%

109

015 y

113

syn 14.1 y 0.580

Cd

113

n
IT 0.264

113

Cd
114

C 28.7 >9.3

d
115

3% 1017y 2

C syn 53.46 1.446

114

Sn
115

116

C 7.49 2.91

019 y 2

116

Sn

Cadmium is a chemical element with the symbol Cd and atomic number 48. This
soft, bluish-white metal is chemically similar to the two other stable metals ingroup
12, zinc and mercury. Like zinc, it prefers oxidation state +2 in most of its
compounds and like mercury it shows a low melting point compared to transition
metals. Cadmium and itscongeners are not always considered transition metals, in
that they do not have partly filled d or f electron shells in the elemental or common
oxidation states. The average concentration of cadmium in the Earth's crust is
between 0.1 and 0.5 parts per million (ppm). It was discovered in 1817
simultaneously by Stromeyer and Hermann, both in Germany, as an impurity
in zinc carbonate.

Cadmium occurs as a minor component in most zinc ores and therefore is a

byproduct of zinc production. It was used for a long time as a pigment and for
corrosion resistant plating on steelwhile cadmium compounds were used to
stabilize plastic. With the exception of its use innickelcadmium
batteries and cadmium telluride solar panels, the use of cadmium is generally
decreasing. These declines have been due to competing technologies,
cadmiums toxicity in certain forms and concentration and resulting regulations.
Although cadmium has no known biological function in higher organisms, a
cadmium-dependent carbonic anhydrase has been found in marine diatoms.
Characteristics
Physical properties
Cadmium is a soft, malleable, ductile, bluish-white divalent metal. It is similar in
many respects to zinc but forms complex compounds. Unlike other metals,
cadmium is resistant tocorrosion and as a result it is used as a protective layer
when deposited on other metals. As a bulk metal, cadmium is insoluble in water
and is not flammable; however, in its powdered form it may burn and release toxic
fumes.

Chemical properties
Although cadmium usually has an oxidation state of +2, it also exists in the +1
state. Cadmium and its congeners are not always considered transition metals, in
that they do not have partly filled d or f electron shells in the elemental or common
oxidation states.[5]Cadmium burns in air to form brown amorphous cadmium
oxide (CdO); the crystalline form of this compound is a dark red which changes
color when heated, similar to zinc oxide.Hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid and nitric

acid dissolve cadmium by forming cadmium chloride(CdCl2), cadmium

sulfate (CdSO4), or cadmium nitrate (Cd(NO3)2). The oxidation state +1 can be
reached by dissolving cadmium in a mixture of cadmium chloride and aluminium
chloride, forming the Cd22+ cation, which is similar to the Hg22+ cation
in mercury(I) chloride.[3]
Cd + CdCl2 + 2 AlCl3 Cd2(AlCl4)2
Isotopes

The cadmium-113 total cross section clearly showing the cadmium cut-off
Naturally occurring cadmium is composed of 8isotopes. Two of them
are naturally radioactive, and three are expected to decay but have not been
experimentally confirmed to do so. The two natural radioactive isotopes
are 113Cd (beta decay, half-life is 7.7 1015 years) and 116Cd (twoneutrino double beta decay, half-life is 2.9 1019 years). The other three
are 106Cd, 108Cd (both double electron capture), and 114Cd (double beta decay);
only lower limits on their half-life times have been set. At least three isotopes
110Cd, 111Cd, and 112Cd are stable. Among the isotopes that do not occur
naturally, the most long-lived are 109Cd with a half-life of 462.6 days, and 115Cd
with a half-life of 53.46 hours. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have
half-lives that are less than 2.5 hours, and the majority of these have half-lives

that are less than 5 minutes. Cadmium has 8 known meta states, with the most
stable being113mCd (t = 14.1 years), 115mCd (t = 44.6 days), and 117mCd (t =
3.36 hours).
The known isotopes of cadmium range in atomic mass from 94.950 u (95Cd) to
131.946 u (132Cd). For isotopes lighter than 112 u, the primary decay
mode is electron capture and the dominant decay product is element 47 (silver).
Heavier isotopes decay mostly through beta emission producing element 49
(indium).
One isotope of cadmium, 113Cd, absorbs neutrons with very high probability if
they have an energy below the cadmium cut-off and transmits them otherwise.
The cadmium cut-off is about 0.5 eV. Neutrons with energy below the cutoff
are deemed slow neutrons, distinguishing them from intermediate and fast
neutrons.
Cadmium is created via the long s-process in low-medium mass stars with
masses of 0.6 to 10solar masses, which lasts thousands of years. It requires
a silver atom to capture a neutronand then undergo beta decay.

History

Friedrich Stromeyer
Cadmium (Latin cadmia, Greek meaning "calamine", a cadmiumbearing mixture of minerals, which was named after the Greek mythological
character, Cadmus, the founder of Thebes)
was discovered simultaneously in 1817 by Friedrich Stromeyer and Karl
Samuel Leberecht Hermann, both in Germany, as an impurity in zinc
carbonate. Stromeyer found the new element as an impurity in zinc
carbonate (calamine), and, for 100 years, Germany remained the only important
producer of the metal. The metal was named after the Latin word for calamine,
since the metal was found in this zinc compound. Stromeyer noted that some
impure samples of calamine changed color when heated but pure calamine did
not. He was persistent in studying these results and eventually isolated
cadmium metal by roasting and reduction of the sulfide. The possibility to use
cadmium yellow as pigment was recognized in the 1840s but the lack of
cadmium limited this application.

Even though cadmium and its compounds may be toxic in certain forms and
concentrations, the British Pharmaceutical Codex from 1907 states
that cadmium iodide was used as a medication to treat "enlarged joints,
scrofulous glands, and chilblains".

In 1927, the International Conference on Weights and Measures redefined the

meter in terms of a red cadmium spectral line (1 m = 1,553,164.13
wavelengths).[14] This definition has since been changed (see krypton).
After the industrial scale production of cadmium started in the 1930s and
1940s, the major application of cadmium was the coating of iron and steel to
prevent corrosion; in 1944, 62% and in 1956, 59% of the cadmium in the
United States was for coating.[2][15] In 1956, 24% of the cadmium used within
the United States was used for the second application, which was for red,
orange and yellow pigments based on sulfides and selenides of cadmium. The
stabilizing effect of cadmium-containing chemicals like the carboxylates
cadmium laureate and cadmium stearate on PVC led to an increased use of
those compounds in the 1970s and 1980s. The use of cadmium in applications
such as pigments, coatings, stabilizers and alloys declined due to environmental
and health regulations in the 1980s and 1990s; in 2006, only 7% of total
cadmium consumption was used for plating and coating and only 10% was used
for pigments.[2] The decrease in consumption in other applications was made up
by a growing demand of cadmium in nickel-cadmium batteries, which
accounted for 81% of the cadmium consumption in the United States in 2006.

Occurrence

Cadmium metal
Cadmium makes up about 0.1 ppm of the Earth's crust. Compared with the
more abundant 65 ppm zinc, cadmium is rare. No significant deposits of
cadmium-containing ores are known.Greenockite (CdS), the only
cadmium mineral of importance, is nearly always associated
withsphalerite (ZnS). This association is caused by the geochemical similarity
between zinc and cadmium which makes geological separation unlikely. As a
consequence, cadmium is produced mainly as a byproduct from mining,
smelting, and refining sulfidic ores of zinc, and, to a lesser
degree, lead and copper. Small amounts of cadmium, about 10% of
consumption, are produced from secondary sources, mainly from dust
generated by recycling iron and steel scrap. Production in the United States
began in 1907, but it was not until after World War I that cadmium came into
wide use.[18][19] One place where metallic cadmium can be found is the Vilyuy
River basin inSiberia.

Rocks mined to produce phosphate fertilizers contain varying amounts of

cadmium, leading to a cadmium concentration of up to 300 mg/kg in the
produced phosphate fertilizers and thus in the high cadmium content in
agricultural soils.[21][22] Coal can contain significant amounts of cadmium, which
ends up mostly in the flue dust.
Combined global cadmium reserves are estimated at slightly above 630,000
metric tons. China, India and Australia have the largest deposits which total to
almost 285,000 metric tons.[
Production

World production trend

Cadmium output in 2005

The British Geological Survey reports that in 2001, China was the top producer
of cadmium, producing almost one-sixth of the world share, closely followed
by South Korea and Japan.

Cadmium is a common impurity in zinc ores, and it is most often isolated

during the production of zinc. Some zinc ores concentrates from sulfidic zinc
ores contain up to 1.4% of cadmium.[26] In 1970s, the output of cadmium was
6.5 pounds per ton of zinc.[26] Zinc sulfide ores are roasted in the presence
ofoxygen, converting the zinc sulfide to the oxide. Zinc metal is produced
either by smelting the oxide with carbon or by electrolysis in sulfuric acid.
Cadmium is isolated from the zinc metal byvacuum distillation if the zinc is
smelted, or cadmium sulfate is precipitated out of the electrolysis solution.[19][27]
Applications
Cadmium has many common industrial uses as it is a key component in battery
production, is present in cadmium pigments,[28]coatings,[29] and is commonly
used in electroplating.[30]
Batteries

Ni-Cd batteries
In 2009, 86% of cadmium was used in batteries, predominantly
in rechargeable nickel-cadmium batteries. Nickel-cadmium cells have a
nominal cell potential of 1.2 V. The cell consists of a positive nickel
hydroxide electrode and a negative cadmium electrode plate separated by
analkaline electrolyte (potassium hydroxide).[31] The European Union banned

the use of cadmium in electronics in 2004 with several exceptions but reduced
the allowed content of cadmium in electronics to 0.002%.[32]
Electroplating

A photograph and representative spectrum of photoluminescence from

colloidal CdSe quantum dots.
Cadmium electroplating, consuming 6% of the global production, can be found
in the aircraft industry due to the ability to resist corrosion when applied to steel
components.[30] This coating is passivated by the usage of chromate salts.[29] A
limitation of cadmium plating is hydrogen embrittlement of high-strength steels
caused by the electroplating process. Therefore, steel parts heat-treated to
tensile strength above 1300 MPa (200 ksi) should be coated by an alternative
method (such as special low-embrittlement cadmium electroplating processes
or physical vapor deposition). In addition, titanium embrittlement caused by
cadmium-plated tool residues resulted in banishment of these tools (along with
routine tool testing programs to detect any cadmium contamination) from the
A-12/SR-71 and U-2 programs, and subsequent aircraft programs using
titanium.

Nuclear fission
Cadmium is used as a barrier to control neutrons in nuclear fission.
The pressurized water reactor designed by Westinghouse Electric
Company uses an alloy consisting of 80% silver, 15% indium, and 5%
cadmium.[30]
Compounds

Train painted with cadmium orange

Cadmium oxide is used in black and white television phosphors and in the blue
and green phosphors for color television picture tubes.
Cadmium sulfide (CdS) is used as a photoconductive surface coating for
photocopier drums.
In paint pigments, cadmium forms various salts, with CdS being the most
common. This sulfide is used as a yellow pigment. Cadmium selenide can be
used as red pigment, commonly calledcadmium red. To painters who work with
the pigment, cadmium yellows, oranges, and reds are the most brilliant and
long-lasting colors to use. In fact, during production, these colors are
significantly toned down before they are ground with oils and binders, or
blended into watercolors,gouaches, acrylics, and other paint and pigment
formulations. Since these pigments are potentially toxic, it is recommended to

use a barrier cream on the hands to prevent absorption through the skin when
working with them[28] even though the amount of cadmium absorbed into the
body through the skin is usually reported to be less than 1%.[4]
In PVC, cadmium was used as heat, light, and weathering stabilizers.[30]
[36]

Currently, cadmium stabilizers have been completely replaced with barium-

zinc, calcium-zinc and organo-tin stabilizers. Cadmium is used in many kinds

of solder and bearing alloys, due to a lowcoefficient of friction and fatigue
resistance.[30] It is also found in some of the lowest-melting alloys, such
as Wood's metal.[37]
Laboratory uses

Violet light from a helium cadmium metal vapor laser. The

highly monochromatic color arises from the 441.563 nm transition line of
cadmium.
Heliumcadmium lasers are a common source of blue-ultraviolet laser light.
They operate at either 325 or 422 nm and are used in fluorescence
microscopes and various laboratory experiments.[38][39] Cadmium
selenide quantum dots emit bright luminescence under UV excitation (He-Cd
laser, for example). The color of this luminescence can be green, yellow or red

depending on the particle size. Colloidal solutions of those particles are used
for imaging of biological tissues and solutions with a fluorescence microscope.
Cadmium is a component of some compound semiconductors, such as
cadmium sulfide, cadmium selenide, and cadmium telluride, which can be used
for light detection or solar cells.HgCdTe is sensitive to infrared[30] light and
therefore may be utilized as an infrared detector or switch for example in
remote control devices.
In molecular biology, cadmium is used to block voltage-dependent calcium
channels from fluxing calcium ions, as well as in hypoxia research to
stimulate proteasome-dependent degradation ofHif-1
Biological role
Cadmium has no known useful role in higher organisms,[42] but a cadmiumdependent carbonic anhydrase has been found in some marinediatoms.[43] The
diatoms live in environments with very low zinc concentrations and cadmium
performs the function normally carried out by zinc in other anhydrases. The
discovery was made using X-ray absorption fluorescence spectroscopy
(XAFS).
The highest concentration of cadmium has been found to be absorbed in the
kidneys of humans, and up to about 30 mg of cadmium is commonly inhaled
throughout childhood and adolescence.[45]
Cadmium can be used to block calcium channels in chicken neurons

Safety
The most dangerous form of occupational exposure to cadmium is inhalation of
fine dust and fumes, or ingestion of highly soluble cadmium
compounds. Inhalation of cadmium-containing fumes can result initially
in metal fume fever but may progress to chemical pneumonitis,pulmonary
edema, and death.
Cadmium is also an environmental hazard. Human exposures to environmental
cadmium are primarily the result of fossil fuel combustion, phosphate
fertilizers, natural sources, iron and steel production, cement production and
related activities, nonferrous metals production, and municipal solid waste
incineration.[2] However, there have been a few instances of general population
toxicity as the result of long-term exposure to cadmium in contaminated food
and water. In the decades leading up to World War II, Japanese mining
operations contaminated the Jinz River with cadmium and traces of other toxic
metals. As a consequence, cadmium accumulated in the rice crops growing
along the riverbanks downstream of the mines. Some members of the local
agricultural communities consuming the contaminated rice developed itaiitai disease and renal abnormalities, including proteinuria and glucosuria.[48]

Jinz River area, which was contaminated with cadmium

The victims of this poisoning were almost exclusively post-menopausal women

with low iron and other mineral body stores. Similar general population
cadmium exposures in other parts of the world have not resulted in the same
health problems because the populations maintained sufficient iron and other
mineral levels. Thus, while cadmium is a major factor in the itai-itai disease in
Japan, most researchers have concluded that it was one of several factors.
[2]

Cadmium is one of six substances banned by the European

Union's Restriction on Hazardous Substances (RoHS) directive, which bans

certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment but allows
for certain exemptions and exclusions from the scope of the law.[49]
Although some studies linked exposure to cadmium with lung and prostate
cancer, there is still a substantial controversy about the carcinogenicity of
cadmium. More recent studies suggest that arsenic rather than cadmium may
lead to the increased lung cancer mortality rates. Furthermore, most data
regarding the carcinogenicity of cadmium rely on research confounded by the
presence of other carcinogenic substances.
Tobacco smoking is the most important single source of cadmium exposure in
the general population. It has been estimated that about 10% of the cadmium
content of a cigarette is inhaled through smoking. The absorption of cadmium
from the lungs is much more effective than that from the gut, and as much as
50% of the cadmium inhaled via cigarette smoke may be absorbed.[50]
On average, smokers have 45 times higher blood cadmium concentrations and
23 times higher kidney cadmium concentrations than non-smokers. Despite
the high cadmium content in cigarette smoke, there seems to be little exposure
to cadmium from passive smoking. No significant effect on blood cadmium

concentrations has been detected in children exposed to environmental tobacco

smoke.
Cadmium exposure is a risk factor associated with early atheroslcerosis and
hypertension, which can both lead to cardiovascular disease.[52]
Regulations
Due to the adverse effects on the environment and human health, the supply
and use of cadmium is restricted in Europe under the REACH Regulation.[53]
Product recalls
In May 2006, a sale of the seats from Arsenal F.C.'s old stadium, Highbury in
London, England was cancelled after the seats were discovered to contain trace
amounts of cadmium.[54] Reports of high levels of cadmium use in children's
jewelry in 2010 led to a US Consumer Product Safety
Commission investigation. The U.S. CPSC issued specific recall notices for
cadmium content applying to jewelry sold byClaire's and Wal-Mart stores. In
June 2010 McDonald's voluntarily recalled more than 12 million promotional
"Shrek Forever After 3D" Collectable Drinking Glasses due to concerns over
cadmium levels in paint pigments used on the glassware. The glasses were
manufactured by Arc International, of Millville, NJ, USA.

Cadmium Toxicity
What is Cadmium Toxicity?
Introduction

Cadmium is an extremely toxic metal which has no known necessary function in

the body. Cadmium toxicity contributes to a large number of health conditions,
including the major killer diseases such as heart disease, cancer and diabetes.
Cadmium displaces zinc in many metallo-enzymes and many of the symptoms
of cadmium toxicity can be traced to a cadmium-induced zinc deficiency.
Cadmium concentrates in the kidney, liver and various other organs and is
considered more toxic than either lead or mercury. It is toxic at levels one tenth that
of lead, mercury, aluminum, or nickel.
Cadmium toxicity is increasing in incidence today for several reasons. One of
the primary reasons is a zinc deficiency in many commonly eaten foods. Zinc,
which is protective against cadmium, is becoming increasingly deficient in the soil
and consequently in foods. Food processing and eating of refined foods further
reduces zinc intake.
Exposure to cadmium is also increasing due to its use as a coating for iron, steel
and copper. It is also used in copper alloys, stabilizers in rubber and plastics,
cigarette papers, fungicides and in many other products. Often these industries then
pollute water, air and food with this metal.

Sources Of Cadmium
Food Sources
The most common sources of cadmium toxicity are foods such as rice and wheat
which are grown in soil contaminated by sewage sludge, super phosphate
fertilizers and irrigation water.
Large ocean fish such as tuna, codfish and haddock concentrate within their
tissues relatively large amounts of cadmium. Oysters, although containing large
amounts of cadmium also contain large amounts of zinc which serves to protect
against cadmium toxicity.
Besides contaminated produce and organ meats such as liver and kidneys, a
significant source of cadmium toxicity is a diet high in refined foods. Zinc, which
normally protects against the toxic effects of cadmium, is largely removed during
the milling process, leaving cadmium behind.
Candies, Processed And Refined Foods
Many processed foods have had the protective elements zinc and calcium
removed in the refining process. Cadmium, however, remains and is readily
absorbed since the zinc and calcium are not available to compete for absorption.
Cadmium may also be used as plating material in food-processing plants,
thereby finding its way into processed food products. Processed meats, refined
grains, instant coffee and cola drinks are among the most common sources of
cadmium toxicity.
Widespread use of white flour and white rice, along with causing various
vitamin and mineral deficiencies, contribute to cadmium toxicity by their high
cadmium/zinc ratio. An excessive carbohydrate intake also serves to reduce tissue
zinc levels, further aggravating a cadmium toxicity problem.

Canned Foods
Solder used to seal cans is a common source of cadmium.
Drinking Water
Cadmium used in industry finds its way into many water supplies. Soft water is
more dangerous since the calcium in hard water has a protective effect. Old
galvanized pipes and new plastic (PVC) pipes are sources of cadmium in our
drinking water.
Batteries, Semiconductors, Electroplating, Polishes
Cadmium is used in numerous industries, in battery electrodes, semiconductors,
etc. Workers in these industries are at risk of exposure. Dental amalgams and
appliances may also contain cadmium.
Cigarette Smoke
One package of cigarettes deposits between two and four micrograms of
cadmium into the smoker's lungs. Cigarettes are especially dangerous because
cadmium is efficiently absorbed when inhaled.
Motor Oil, Exhaust, Incineration of Rubber Goods, Tires, Plastics and Paints
Cadmium levels are highest in urban areas where incineration takes place and
where vehicle exhaust levels are higher.
Congenital Cadmium Intoxication
Cadmium was passed to the fetal rat brain when the pregnant mother was given
a subcutaneous cadmium injection. We commonly observe high concentrations of
cadmium in babies and young children, with no other possible source except from

the mother.
Congenital cadmium toxicity is becoming increasingly common and probably
helps account for the increase in birth defects, hyperkinesis, learning disorders,
minimal brain dysfunction and the failure to thrive syndrome.
Detection Of Cadmium
Blood Tests
Even when high dietary cadmium is fed, the blood level of cadmium remains
extremely low. Even intravenously injected cadmium rapidly disappears from the
blood. Consequently, cadmium data from blood have little diagnostic value.
Challenge Tests
Chelating agents may be given and a 24-hour urine sample collected to detect
cadmium in arteries and blood. However, cadmium which is stored in the liver,
bones, joints and other tissues will not be detected using challenge tests.
Hair Analysis
Cadmium levels in the hair show statistically significant correlations with
cadmium levels in the kidneys.
However, excessive tissue cadmium is often not revealed on the first mineral
test. As with the other toxic metals, cadmium can be so tightly bound that it may
require months or even several years on a nutritional program before cadmium is
released from storage and is revealed on a hair analysis.

Metabolism Of Cadmium
Absorption
Absorption of cadmium is highest through inhalation. Women are more prone to
cadmium toxicity than men. This may be due to the fact that females in general
tend to have a lower metabolic rate than males.
Dietary absorption of cadmium is favored by a deficiency of calcium, zinc, copper,
iron and protein in the diet.
Retention
About 50 percent of ingested, or inhaled cadmium is stored in the liver and
kidneys. High concentrations of cadmium are also deposited in the pancreas and
salivary glands. Other storage sites may also include the joints, arteries, periosteum
or covering of the bones and virtually all body tissues.
In the blood, cadmium moves from the plasma to the red blood cells, where it
binds mainly to metallothionein and hemoglobin.
Cadmium ingestion stimulates production of metallothionein, a zinc and
cadmium binding protein.
The cadmium content of the body increases with age in industrialized societies,
from less than 1 mcg. in the newborn, to 15-20 mg. in adults.
Excretion
Metallothionein plays an important role in the excretion of cadmium, inasmuch
as it acts as a chelating agent. Excretion of cadmium occurs through the kidneys
and liver, but the excretion rate is normally very low. The biological half-life of
cadmium is probably between 10 and 30 years.

Metabolic Effects Of Cadmium

Effects On Energy Production
Cadmium is a well-known inhibitor of cellular respiration. It forms strong
covalent bonds with many bio-molecules and so its potential targets for damage are
numerous. Some of the most vulnerable enzymes are glutathione reductase and the
enzymes of the Krebs energy cycle - pyruvate and a-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase.
Displacement Of Zinc
Many of the toxic effects of cadmium including kidney disease, neurological
damage, arteriosclerosis and birth defects stem from replacement of zinc in
sensitive enzyme binding sites.
Metallothionein binds zinc and copper as well as cadmium. Cadmium binds
more tightly to metallothionein, and as a result, less copper and zinc are bound
which results in a copper and zinc deficiency. Since binding to metallothionein is
necessary for utilization of zinc and copper, cadmium poisoning can lead to a zinc
and copper deficiency.
An interesting aspect of cadmium poisoning is that by replacing zinc in critical
enzyme systems; cadmium can perform a homeostatic function. That is; many
zinc-dependent enzymes can continue to function to a certain extent with cadmium
instead of zinc. However, enzymatic activity is reduced and problems eventually
occur as a result of impairment of the zinc-dependent enzymes.
Renal Effects
Many of the toxic effects of cadmium stem from its accumulation in the kidneys.
Renal dysfunction affects calcium, vitamin D, phosphorus and sodium levels,
resulting in proteinuria, glycosuria, renal hypertension and other metabolic
disorders.

Carcinogenesis And Teratogenesis

Cadmium has been suggested as an etiologic factor in certain human cancers.
Birth defects, probably due to zinc deficiency, have been observed in mice, rats
and hamsters.
Metabolic Dysfunctions Associated With Elevated Cadmium
It is difficult to ascribe metabolic dysfunctions to cadmium toxicity alone;
inasmuch as many metabolic dysfunctions are the result of displacement of zinc, or
a zinc deficiency. However, the major categories of metabolic dysfunctions
associated with cadmium toxicity include:
Nervous System
Neurotransmitters: Cadmium inhibits release of acetylcholine, probably by
interfering with calcium metabolism. Cadmium also activates the enzyme
cholinesterase, while zinc inhibits cholinesterase activity. Cooper and Steinberg
concluded that cadmium at any dose was a more potent blocking agent of
cholinesterase activity than lead.
Adenylate cyclase and monoamine oxidase activity is inhibited by cadmium.
Uptake at synapses of choline, catecholamines, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
and glutamic acid is inhibited.
Cadmium also inhibits the methylation of phospholipids, interfering with
cellular membrane functions.
Other damage: Cadmium causes hemorrhages in the autonomic ganglia with
secondary nerve cell necrosis. Also reported is direct damage to nerve cells,
particularly nerve fibers.
Peripheral neuropathy can also result.

Musculo-Skeletal System
Alterations in calcium and phosphorus metabolism can result in osteoporosis,
osteomalacia and arthritic conditions. Interference with zinc metabolism can result
in neuromuscular dysfunctions associated with a zinc deficiency.
Cardiovascular
Cadmium replaces zinc in the arterial walls, leading to reduced flexibility and
strength of the arteries. The body then will coat the arteries to prevent aneurysms,
resulting in atherosclerotic plaque, narrowing of arteries and hypertension.
Digestive System
Interference with zinc-dependent enzymes such as carboxypeptidase can result
in impaired digestion.
Reproductive System
Cadmium may contribute to prostate difficulties and impotence problems by
interfering with zinc enzymes and by interference with cellular energy production.
Endocrine/Metabolic System
Growth impairment and the failure to thrive syndrome are often associated with
cadmium toxicity. Zinc is essential for normal growth.
Excretory System
The major storage sites of cadmium are the kidneys. It is not known whether the
cadmium itself or the cadmium bound to metallothionein is responsible for tubular
damage, which can result in high blood pressure and other renal disease.

Dental
Alterations in calcium and vitamin D metabolism can result in dental caries and
tooth deformities.
Mental/Psychological
Cadmium is associated with hyperactivity and learning disability, most likely
due to a cadmium induced zinc deficiency. Inhibition of acetylcholine release may
also result in hyperkinetic behavior.
Metabolic Dysfunctions Associated With Cadmium Toxicity
Alcoholism
Alcoholism is frequently associated with a zinc deficiency and with
hypoglycemia. Cadmium may be implicated in alcoholism, principally due to its
effect upon zinc metabolism.
Alopecia
Alopecia (loss of hair) is commonly associated with a cadmium-induced zinc
deficiency.
Anemia
Anemia is an early sign of cadmium toxicity.
Atherosclerosis
Zinc is necessary for the optimal metabolism of fats. By interfering with zinc
levels, cadmium toxicity can contribute to atherosclerosis.

Arteriosclerosis
Zinc is required to maintain the normal elasticity of arteries. By displacing zinc,
cadmium causes the arteries to become less elastic and therefore more vulnerable
to rupture. The body may then deposit calcium plaques to help strengthen the
arterial walls.
Arthritis, Osteo and Rheumatoid
Displacement of zinc by cadmium results in impaired protein synthesis.
Inadequate protein synthesis interferes with regeneration of joint surfaces, which
leads to pain and inflammation of the joints.
Bone Repair, Inhibited
Zinc is required for bone repair. Cadmium can also displace calcium in bone
structures.
Cancer
Cadmium toxicity is intimately associated with various malignancies. A high
percentage of cancer patients on tissue mineral analysis programs, at one time or
another, reveals cadmium toxicity. Interference with zinc-dependent enzymes may
be the link to malignancy.
Cardiovascular Disease
Dr. Isabel H. Tipton at the University of Tennessee noted that victims of
cardiovascular disease, particularly stroke victims, had high levels of cadmium in
their body tissues.
Cerebral Hemorrhage

Weakness and hardening of cerebral arteries, due to cadmium toxicity, results in

an increased tendency for cerebral hemorrhage.
Cirrhosis of the Liver
Zinc deficiency due to cadmium impairs detoxification of alcohol in the liver,
which may explain the connection between cadmium toxicity and liver cirrhosis.
Diabetes
Zinc is required for the production, release and transport of insulin. By
interfering with zinc metabolism, cadmium can initiate or aggravate a diabetic
condition.
Emphysema
Cadmium from cigarettes acts as a lung irritant. Cadmium also replaces zinc in
collagen, causing brittleness and breakage of the fragile alveoli in the lungs.
Enlarged Heart
An enlarged heart is often secondary to narrowed arteries and high blood
pressure. Cadmium toxicity is a common contributor to these cardiovascular
conditions.
Fertility, Decreased
Zinc is critical for male fertility. Sexual potency is decreased, due to a cadmiuminduced zinc deficiency.
Hemochromatosis
This disorder involves deposition of excessive iron in the tissues.

Hemochromatosis may be due to inadequate ability of the liver to detoxify iron.

Cadmium toxicity may impair the ability of the liver to detoxify iron. A deficiency
of zinc and copper due to cadmium toxicity may also be involved in this disorder.
Hypercholesterolemia and Hyperlipidemia
By causing a zinc deficiency, excess cadmium can cause a rise in cholesterol
levels.
Levels of other fats may be adversely affected if liver function is impaired by
cadmium toxicity.
Hypertension
High levels of cadmium are considered to be an important causative factor in
hypertension. Cadmium, by impairing kidney function and causing hardening of
the arteries, can result in high blood pressure.
Hypoglycemia
A zinc deficiency, secondary to a cadmium toxicity, is a frequent cause of
hypoglycemia.
Inflammation
Cadmium causes an increased retention of sodium by way of its action on the
kidney. This aldosterone-like effect is capable of inducing an inflammatory
process.
Also, zinc has an anti-inflammatory effect. Zinc deficiency due to cadmium
toxicity can increase inflammation.
Libido, Decreased

By interfering with zinc metabolism, cadmium can cause impotency or

decreased libido.
Lung Disease
Cadmium can adversely affect the elasticity of lung tissue.
Migraine Headache
By interfering with zinc metabolism, cadmium toxicity may allow tissue copper
buildup to occur, resulting eventually in the causation of migraine headaches.
Osteoporosis
High levels of cadmium can cause demineralization of the bones and total
inhibition of bone repair mechanisms. Zinc is essential for bone mineralization.
Renal Arteriosclerosis
Cadmium concentrates in the kidneys, thus contributing to renal arteriosclerosis.
Renal Dysfunction and Hypertension
Cadmium has a unique tendency to concentrate in the human kidney. There it
can cause renal hypertension and proteinuria. Cadmium acts directly on the kidney
to enhance sodium and water retention. No other substance, save aldosterone, is
known to enhance resorption of sodium.
Schizophrenia
Cadmium-induced schizophrenia is most likely due to displacement of zinc.
Zinc is a central nervous system stabilizer and is now considered a
neurotransmitter substance. A low zinc level may result in mood alterations and

can allow copper to accumulate in excess in the brain. Copper toxicity is linked to
a specific type of schizophrenia.
Vascular Disease - Strokes (cerebral vascular disease)
When cadmium replaces zinc in the cerebral arteries, vascular elasticity is
diminished. Frequently the body coats the weakened arteries with fatty or calcium
plaques to protect against rupture of the artery. If a bit of plaque or cholesterol
breaks free, it can lodge in a cerebral artery, causing a stroke.
Metabolic Dysfunctions, Signs And Symptoms That Can Be Caused By A
Cadmium-Induced Zinc Deficiency
Acne
Alcoholism
Amenorrhea
Atherosclerosis
Appetite (loss of)
Back pain, low
Bone Disorders
Colds
Cholesterol, elevated
Cirrhosis of liver
Circulation, poor
Cutaneous striae
Diabetes
Eczema, facial
Epilepsy
Fatigue
Fertility, decline in

Hair-coarse in eyebrows
Hair growth, decreased
Influenza
Leukemia
Liver damage
Prostatitis
Psoriasis
Retinal detachment
Reye's Syndrome
Schizophrenia
Sexual ardor diminished
Skin lesions
Taste, lost sense of
Ulcer, stomach
Vascular disease
Wound healing, delayed

Effects On Other Minerals

Displacement Of Zinc

As described above, cadmium can replace zinc in many metallo-enzyme binding

sites.
Disruption Of Calcium And Phosphorus Metabolism
Cadmium deposited in the kidneys disturbs the calcium and phosphorus balance,
probably by altering vitamin D metabolism. A disturbance in the
calcium/phosphorus ratio can result in osteoporosis, osteomalacia and pseudofractures.
Cadmium has a potent inhibitory effect upon calcium incorporation, even when
dietary calcium intake is adequate. This may be due to inhibition of 1,25
dihydroxycalciferol by the renal tubules.
Effects On Sodium Levels
By damaging the filtering capacity of the renal tubules, cadmium causes sodium
retention which can contribute to a wide array of disorders ranging from
hypertension to hyperactivity.
Reduction Of Copper In The Liver
Cadmium reduces copper levels in the liver. Cadmium binds more tightly to
metallothionein than does copper. Because copper is not adequately bound, it
becomes biounavailable.
Manganese
Hepatic and renal manganese are apparently increased by cadmium.
Effects Of Other Nutrients On Cadmium
Zinc

Zinc is a cadmium antagonist. Adequate zinc in the diet affords some protection
from exposure to cadmium. Zinc may also be administered to assist in detoxifying
cadmium.
Calcium And Vitamin D
Adequate calcium and vitamin D intake can help prevent or reverse the
osteomalacia induced by cadmium toxicity. Presumably cadmium causes
disruption of calcium metabolism by altering vitamin D metabolism in the kidney.
A calcium deficiency results in increased cadmium absorption from the
intestines and its subsequent deposition in bone and soft tissues.
Copper
Copper competes with cadmium for absorption in the gut. Copper also enhances
recalcification of bones, helping to reverse cadmium-induced osteoporotic
changes.
Iron
Adequate dietary iron protects against cadmium absorption.
Selenium
Induction of testicular tumors and sarcomas by cadmium is inhibited by
selenium.
Manganese
Manganese when taken with appropriate amounts of zinc and copper exerts a
protective effect against low levels of cadmium toxicity.

Vitamin C.
Large amounts of vitamin C have been found to prevent signs of cadmium
poisoning in quail.
Protein
Different sources of protein are more effective in protecting against cadmium
toxicity than others. Egg white had a more protective effect than casein, soy, or
gelatin, probably due to the high amounts of selenium in egg white.
A low protein intake can contribute to an increased cadmium toxicity.
Pyridoxine
Pyridoxine (vitamin B-6) appears to increase the toxic effects of cadmium,
probably by enhancing its absorption.
Detoxification Of Cadmium
Although the medical literature states that cadmium toxicity is largely
irreversible, we have had excellent success in reversing cadmium-induced
pathology using the mineral balancing approach.
The nutritional method involves several aspects, all of which must be combined
for greatest effectiveness.
Improving Energy Levels
The most important principle for correcting cadmium toxicity is increasing
biochemical energy production, which frees more energy for all normal metabolic
activities. This is accomplished by precisely balancing the tissue electrolyte levels
and ratios as revealed in an unwashed hair sample.

Antagonists
Dietary cadmium absorption can be reduced by administration of iron, zinc and
copper. Zinc and calcium are cellular antagonists to cadmium. Selenium appears to
reverse certain effects of cadmium toxicity.
Chelating Agents
Vitamin C can bind cadmium and facilitate its removal. Sulfur compounds may
also be helpful. EDTA therapy is used by some doctors to remove cadmium from
the kidneys.
Improving Channels of Elimination
Any therapy which improves the activity of the kidneys will assist detoxification
of cadmium. Kidney glandular substance, combined with synergistic factors, to
support kidney activity has proven to be effective.
Diet
Diet plays an important role not only in avoiding sources of cadmium including
refined and contaminated foods, but also to help balance the oxidation rate and
provide adequate protein, minerals and vitamins.
Reduce Exposure
Occupational cadmium exposure, cigarette smoking and ingestion of cadmiumcontaminated foods should be discontinued.

Combined Therapy

While these methods seem simple enough, their application at times is complex
because cadmium may perform an adaptive function by raising sodium levels. In
order to reduce cadmium levels, the need for this adaptation must be removed.
Over the past twelve years, we have researched many aspects of cadmium
detoxification in over 10,000 cases and have identified those nutrients which are
most effective.
The dosage of manganese, iron, calcium, zinc, inositol, choline, methionine,
vitamin C, selenium and other nutrients should be adjusted for each individual. A
hair mineral retest should be done every three months to maintain optimal mineral
ratios and levels to assure optimal results.
Protection Against a Cadmium Crisis
The active removal of cadmium from tissue storage occasionally results in a
cadmium crisis which causes disagreeable symptoms. These symptoms may
include fatigue, metallic taste in the mouth, low back pain, stomach distress, poor
appetite, skin eruption and/or headache.
These symptoms are temporary, but can be reduced or eliminated by increasing
the intake of vitamin C and calcium. The dosage of vitamin C and calcium during
a crisis period can be increased to 3000 mgs. for vitamin C and 1600 mgs. for
calcium. The dosage can be reduced as symptoms subside.

Recent work on Cadmium Toxicity

Cadmium element and toxicity by Ray Sahelian, M.D.

Cadmium is a natural element in the earth's crust. It is usually found as

a mineral combined with other elements such as oxygen (cadmium oxide), chlorine
(cadmium chloride), or sulfur (cadmium sulfate, cadmium sulfide). All soils and
rocks, including coal and mineral fertilizers, contain some cadmium. The general
population is exposed to cadmium from breathing cigarette smoke or eating
cadmium contaminated foods. Cadmium damages the lungs, can cause kidney
disease, and may irritate the digestive tract. See body toxins link for additional
toxins that can harm the body.

Exposure to cadmium
Exposure happens mostly in the workplace where cadmium products are made.
Children with high levels of this heavy metal in their urine may be more likely to
have learning disabilities and/or need special education. This mineral occurs
naturally in some soils. Children are most likely to be exposed to it through food
such as grains and root vegetables, as well as through tobacco smoke. Some
children's toys and jewelry have also been found to contain it.

Cadmium

Toxicity

Protective effect of quercetin on experimental chronic cadmium nephrotoxicity in

rats

is

based

on

its

antioxidant

properties.

Food Chem Toxicol. 2006. Instituto Reina Sofia de Investigacion Nefrologica,

Departamento de Fisiologia y Farmacologia, Edificio Departamental, Campus

Miguel

de

Unamuno,

Universidad

de

Salamanca,

Salamanca,

Spain.

Oxidative stress can play a key role in cadmium -induced toxicity. Quercetin is a
potent oxygen free radicals scavenger and a metal chelator. Our aim was to study
the effect of quercetin on cadmium -induced kidney damage and oxidative stress as
well as its mechanism of action. Wistar rats were distributed in four experimental
groups: control rats; cadmium; quercetin and cadmium + quercetin. Animals that
received both cadmium and quercetin showed a better renal function than those
receiving cadmium alone. Cadmium -induced tubular lesions were markedly
reduced in rats that also received quercetin. Cadmium -induced increase in plasma
TBARS was prevented by the administration of quercetin. Total plasma
antioxidants and renal superoxide dismutase and glutathione-reductase activities
were higher in the group that received cadmium and quercetin than in rats that
received cadmium alone. Quercetin administration does not modify the renal
content or the urinary excretion of cadmium. In conclusion, quercetin treatment
prevents renal tubular damage and increased oxidative stress induced by chronic
cadmium administration, most probably throughout its antioxidant properties.

Smokeless

tobacco

and

cataract

Using snuff or chewing tobacco is associated with an increased likelihood of

developing cataracts. Smokeless tobacco users have higher levels of cadmium in
their blood than non-users. Cadmium present in tobacco inactivates superoxide
dismutase, an antioxidant, resulting in oxidant damage to the lens of the eye.

Uses of Cadmium

Most cadmium used in the United States is extracted during the production of other
metals like zinc, lead, and copper. It does not corrode easily and has many uses,
including batteries, pigments, metal coatings, and plastics.

Research
Cadmium exposure aggravates mortality more in women than in men.
Int J Environ Health Res. 2006. Department of Occupational and Environmental
Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan.
This study aimed to examine whether the mortality associated with exposure to
cadmium differs between the sexes. Target subjects were 14,604 (6,944 men, 7,660
women) from a list of all residents in the Jinzu River basin in 1967 and 1968.
Trend of proportion of the population aged 70 years and older was significantly
higher in women in the following decreasing order: non-Jinzu River basin, a region
receiving a mixed water supply, and the Jinzu River basin. Sex ratios (proportions
of population of men to that of women) in those aged 70 years and older became
significantly higher in the same order. This tendency was compatible with the
geographical distribution of the prevalence of abnormal urinary findings and
cadmium concentration in rice which was grown and consumed in the area. This
study revealed that cadmium exposure aggravates mortality more in women than in
men.
ScienceDaily (Feb. 18, 2005) CINCINNATI -- A team of
researchers from the University of Cincinnati (UC) has identified the gene
responsible for spreading the poisonous (toxic) effects of cadmium--a

finding, say the researchers, that may one day lead to the prevention of
cadmium toxicity in humans.

Cadmium--a heavy metal suspected of causing human birth defects, lung cancer
and testicular cancer--is found in cigarette smoke, some shellfish and seafood, soil
and some plants. It is known to damage the human central nervous system, the
kidneys, lungs and developing embryos.
The UC researchers, studying low doses of cadmium in mice, found that the gene
Slc39a8 works to transport cadmium to the testes, causing tissue to die.
The study, led by Daniel W. Nebert, MD, professor in UC's Department of
Environmental Health and researcher at the Center for Environmental Genetics,
will appear in the March 1, 2005 edition of the Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences (PNAS).
"We suspect that cadmium at higher doses could be transported to other regions of
the body via the Slc39a8 gene or another gene in this family," says Dr. Nebert. "We
know that humans carry the same gene and gene family. Thus, we have identified a
target that could be used to prevent cadmium's toxic effects in human populations."
This is especially important, says Dr. Nebert, for many Third World countries.
When populations are malnourished or have iron-deficient anemia, the damaging
effects of cadmium increase dramatically.
Humans need certain essential metals--including zinc, calcium, magnesium, iron,
copper, cobalt and manganese--for normal metabolism and biological processes.

Industrialization, however, has introduced many nonessential heavy metals, such as

cadmium, lead, silver, mercury, nickel, arsenic and chromium into the
environment.
In the 1920s, UC researchers determined that exposure to lead (a nonessential
heavy metal) in gasoline resulted in birth defects, mental retardation, loss of
balance and other brain, kidney, liver or lung damage. Since then, there have been
many studies on heavy metal toxicity, but until now no study has determined how
nonessential heavy metals cause toxicity in humans or other vertebrates.
"We believe that the Slc39a8 gene could be responsible for the transportation not
only of cadmium, but also of other nonessential heavy metals such as lead, nickel
and mercury," says Dr. Nebert. "Identification and characterization of this gene in
mice is a significant breakthrough that will improve our understanding of how
heavy metals actually cause toxicity and cancer in humans."

References
1.

^ Lide, D. R., ed. (2000). "Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and

inorganic compounds". CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (81st
ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 978-0849304811.

2.

^ a b c d e f g h Morrow, H. (2010). "Cadmium and Cadmium

Alloys".Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. John Wiley &
Sons. pp. 1
36.doi:10.1002/0471238961.0301041303011818.a01.pub3.ISBN 9780471238966.

3.

^ a b Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E; Wiberg, Nils (1985).

"Cadmium".Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie, 91100. Walter de
Gruyter. pp. 10561057. ISBN 978-3110075113. (German)

4.

^ a b "Case Studies in Environmental Medicine (CSEM) Cadmium".

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Archived from the
original on 2011-06-06. Retrieved 2011-05-30.

5.

^ Cotton, F. A. (1999). "Survey of Transition-Metal

Chemistry".Advanced Inorganic Chemistry (6 ed.). John Wiley and Sons.
pp. 633. ISBN 0471199575.

6.

^ a b Audi, G.; Bersillon, O.; Blachot, J.; Wapstra, A.H. (2003). "The
NUBASE Evaluation of Nuclear and Decay Properties". Nuclear Physics
A 729 (1): 3
128. Bibcode 2003NuPhA.729....3A.doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001.

7.

^ Knoll, G. F. (2000). Radiation Detection and Measurement. Wiley.

p. 505. ISBN 978-0471073383.

8.

^ Padmanabhan, T. (2001). "Stellar Nucleosynthesis".Theoretical

Astrophysics, Volume II: Stars and Stellar Systems.Cambridge University
Press. pp. 230236. ISBN 978-0521566315.

9.

^ Hermann, C. S. (1818). "Noch ein schreiben ber das neue

Metall". Annalen der Physik 59 (5):
113. Bibcode1818AnP....59..113H. doi:10.1002/andp.18180590511.

10.

^ Waterston, W.; Burton, J. H (1844). Cyclopdia of commerce,

mercantile law, finance, commercial geography and navigation.H. G. Bohn.
p. 122.

11.

^ Rowbotham, T.; Rowbotham, T. L. (1850). The Art of Landscape

Painting in Water Colours. Windsor and Newton. p. 10.

^ a b Ayres, R. U.; Ayres, L.; Rde, I. (2003). The Life Cycle of

12.

Copper, Its Co-Products and Byproducts. Springer. pp. 135141.ISBN 9781402015526.

13.

^ Dunglison, R. (1866). Medical Lexicon: A Dictionary of Medical

Science. Henry C. Lea. pp. 159.

14.

^ Burdun, G. D. (1958). "On the new determination of the

meter". Measurement Techniques 1 (3): 259264.doi:10.1007/BF00974680.
^ a b Lansche, A. M. (1956). "Minerals Yearbook, Volume I: Metals

15.

and Minerals (Except Fuels)". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved

April 21, 2008.
16.

^ "USGS Mineral Information: Cadmium". United States Geological

Survey. Retrieved August 8, 2009.

17.

^ Wedepohl, K. H. (1995). "The composition of the continental

crust". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 59 (7): 1217
1232.Bibcode 1995GeCoA..59.1217W. doi:10.1016/0016-7037(95)000382.

18.

^ Plachy, J. (1998). "Annual Average Cadmium Price". U.S.

Geological Survey. pp. 1719. Retrieved June 16, 2010.

19.

^ a b Fthenakis, V. M. (2004). "Life cycle impact analysis of cadmium

in CdTe PV production". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 8 (4):
303. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2003.12.001.

20.

^ Fleischer, M; Cabri, L. J.; Chao, G. Y.; Pabst, A. (1980). "New

Mineral Names". American Mineralogist 65: 10651070.

21.

^ Grant, C. A.; Sheppard, S. C. (2008). "Fertilizer impacts on

cadmium availability in agricultural soils and crops". Human and
Ecological Risk Assessment 14 (2): 210
228.doi:10.1080/10807030801934895.

22.

^ Jiao, Y.; Grant, C. A.; Bailey, L. D. (2004). "Effects of phosphorus

and zinc fertilizer on cadmium uptake and distribution in flax and durum
wheat". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 84(8): 777
785. doi:10.1002/jsfa.1648.

23.

^ Bettinelli, M.; Baroni, U.; Pastorelli, N. (1988). "Determination of

arsenic, cadmium, lead, antimony, selenium and thallium in coal fly ash
using the stabilised temperature platform furnace and Zeeman-effect
background correction". Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry 3 (7):
10051011. doi:10.1039/JA9880301005.

24.

^ "World Cadmium Mine Production Dropped in 2011, China Prices

Started to Fall" (Press release). Market Publishers. 30 March 2012.
Retrieved 2012-0415.

25.

^ Hetherington, L. E.; et al. (2008). "Production of Cadmium".World

Mineral Production 200206. British Geological Survey. p. 15. Retrieved
2012-04-15.

26.

^ a b Golberg, D. C.; et al. (1969). Trends in Usage of Cadmium:

Report. US NRC/NAS/NAE. pp. 13.

27.

^ Scoullos, M. J. (2001). Mercury, Cadmium, Lead: Handbook for

Sustainable Heavy Metals Policy and Regulation. Springer. pp. 104
116. ISBN 978-1402002243.
^ a b Buxbaum, Gunter; Pfaff, Gerhard (2005). "Cadmium

28.

Pigments". Industrial inorganic pigments. Wiley-VCH. pp. 121

123. ISBN 9783527303632.
^ a b Smith C.J.E., Higgs M.S., Baldwin K.R. (April 20,

29.

1999)."Advances to Protective Coatings and their Application to Ageing

Aircraft". RTO MP-25. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
^ a b c d e f g Scoullos, Michael J.; Vonkeman, Gerrit H.; Thornton, Iain;

30.

Makuch, Zen (2001). Mercury, Cadmium, Lead: Handbook for Sustainable

Heavy Metals Policy and Regulation. Springer.
31
.
32
.
33
.
34
.
35
.

Cranston & Passwater, Trace Elements, Hair Analysis, And Nutrition, Keats
Publishing, Inc., New Caanan, CT, 1983.
Larson and Piscator, 1971; Itokawa et al., 1974; Pond and Walker, 1975.
Linder, M., ed., Nutritional Biochemistry and Metabolism, Elsevier Science
Publishing Co., Inc., New York, 1985.
Nriagu, J. O., ed., Changing Metal Cycles and Human Health, Springer-Verlag,
1984.
Pfeiffer, C., Mental and Elemental Nutrients, Keats Publishing Co., New

Canaan, Ct., 1975.