2011

Lives, Livelihoods &

Environment of
Wayanad
A Preliminary Study
A report of the preliminary study which tried to explore and understand the lives,
livelihoods and the environment of Wayanad, a highland region of Kerala.
Supported by IDRC-TTI Environmental Governance Group undertook this study
with local support by Rural Agency for Social & Technological Advancement,
RASTA, Wayanad. This report is co-authored by both RASTA and Public Affairs
Centre.

Environmental Governance Group

Public Affairs Centre
13-Sep-11

Lives, Livelihoods & Environment of Wayanad 2011

Preface
The Environmental Governance Group (EnGG) at the centre has been working to promote
people centered environmental governance in India. As a pilot project it started working in the
Gulf of Mannar coast of Tamil Nadu. The primary objective of the project is to develop a Climate
Change Score Card, a knowledge product that harvests peoples opinion with scientific
knowledge and connects these to quality of governance. While making progress on designing the
CCSC, we strongly felt the need to broaden our reach into different regions, communities and
geographies. We decided to do so in the highland region of Wayanad in Kerala.
Wayanad is a small district in Kerala, South India that is nestled amidst the Western Ghats. The
region enjoys a unique microclimate, as the district is dominated by a high-altitude valley amidst
higher hill ranges.
The region, once completely forested and devoid of significant human presence, has experienced
rapid population growth and development since independence, with the population of the district
doubling between 1970 and 2000. As a result of unregulated growth and unsustainable
practices, the ecology of the region has been significantly affected over the last few decades. The
effect of ecological degradation on local lives and livelihoods is becoming increasingly evident
over the past decade. Under the influence of global climate change, the existing vulnerabilities of
the region are likely to become worse and the climate risks are likely to become larger.
It is the need of the hour to advocate for sound climate change adaptation and promote climateresilient development in Wayanad through careful study.
As we embarked on this venture, we found that many funding agencies have shifted their focus
out of Kerala to backward North Indian states, as a result of which getting funding support for
this project appeared increasingly difficult. Thus, we decided that more background analysis was
necessary to justify the case for Wayanad, and to preface fundraising efforts. We are indebted to
the IDRC-TTi initiative for giving us the space and the resources to make progress here.

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Lives, Livelihoods & Environment of Wayanad 2011

Supported by the IDRC-TTi, EnGG is undertaking a preliminary study to understand the links
between the environment, livelihoods and governance in Wayanad. We are partnering with
RASTA (Rural Agency for Social and Technological Advancement), a reputed Civil
Society organisation that has been working in Wayanad since 1984 on community
empowerment, introduction of sustainable technologies, ecological conservation and natural
resource management.
The following report is an outcome of two field visits made by team from PAC to Wayanad and
the numerous interactions with people from different backgrounds. All these interactions,
interviews, discussions and secondary research have resulted in this report. Mr. Danesh along
with other team members at RASTA have contributed major portions of this report.
We acknowledge the time and support rendered by the farmers, community leaders, panchayat
ex-officials, plantation owners, traders, researchers and the team of RASTA in undertaking the
study and bringing it to this shape.

Wayanad

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Lives, Livelihoods & Environment of Wayanad 2011

1. Introduction
Wayanad has a long history, obscured like the mist in the hills, long forgotten. Historians
are of the view that organized human life existed in these parts, at least ten centuries
before the Common Era. Numerous evidences about New Stone Age civilization can
be seen on the hills of Wayanad. Rock engravings in the Edakkal caves (pre-historic
rock shelters), of Ampukuthimala located between Sulthan Bathery and Ambalavayal,
represents human, animal figures, appliances of daily use and symbols. These follow a
sequence, progression according to passing era. Speak volumes of the bygone era
and civilization of pre-historic age, it enthuse modern historians to rewrite the history of
Wayanad. The region was known as Mayakshetra (Maya's land) in the earliest records,
The name evolved into Mayanad and finally into Wayanad.
Folk etymology of the Wayanad tells us that the name is a combination of Vayal
(paddy field) and Naad (land), making it 'The Land of Paddy Fields'. Wayanad District,
have probably derived its name from ample land under paddy cultivation in sunken
valleys and alluvial plains-Vayal, Vayal meaning paddy fields. Or the majority of the hills
covered with forest, Vanam. This point is still under dispute, however, today it is neither
of both, but Banana crop dominates the valley, hence it could be called Vayazha
Naad.
Geographically, Wayanad plateau sits where the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats
converge, bringing together the elements of both systems in once place. The forests in
Waynad are unique and ecologically important because they represent a transition
zone from the moist Cullenia-dominated forests in the South Western Ghats to the
northern drier dipterocarp forests. Placed on the southern west tip of the Deccan
plateau, its prime glory is the majestic Western Ghats with lofty ridges interspersed with
magnificent forests, tangled jungles, deep valleys and flood plans. In the centre of the
district, hills are lower in height, while the northern area has high hills and they give a
wild and mountainous appearance.
Wayanad District is located on the crest of Western Ghats, and lies at a height of 7002100 mts above sea level. Some of the major peaks are Vellarimala, Banasura,
Brahmagiri, Chembra, etc. ranging from 1500 mts. to 2100 mts. height. Have distinctive
features, it is hilly and insular; have features that have distinct geographical identity and
features, contrast the other districts of the Kerala, which are on the plains and have
strong influence of the sea. This region is abundant in natural marvel with a vast area of
greenery, mist capped mountains with hypnotizing scenic beauty.
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During the period of colonial rule, they saw it a treasure trove. The forest yielded hard
wood, which was used to make railway sleepers. To continuously carry on the work,
they allowed the migration of people from the plains to settle, for providing labour.
Gradually cleared areas were allocated to these migrants to settle down here. They
were also instrumental starting plantation of Coffee and Tea. It was period of trail and
tribulation for them, it took them more 50 years to stabilize the plantation.
This district was one of the biggest foreign exchange earners of the state, being the
land of cash crops of pepper, cardamom, coffee, tea, and other spices. Migrants
came in hordes in different waves of last century, cleared the forest and swamps to
start cultivation of cash crops, relentless effort start yielding results. It is a homeland of
various ethnic groups. No other district in Kerala has such diversity in terms of its history
and culture, customs and traditions, archaeology and anthropology, wild life and
forest.
The striking feature of Wayanad is abject poverty and penury amidst plenty, with the
region declared backward as it has limited access to modern Institutions, and
developmental activities are slow in coming. Parameters like density of population,
occupational structure, health, educational and communication facilities, distribution
of ration shops, availability of electricity to the residential houses, density of roads, and
types of houses were considered for the identification of its backwardness.
Backwardness is correlated with the relief and other natural conditions, also the
standing in the present social development milieu of its marginalized community.
The District is located on Western Ghats, a chain of high hills rising gradually from the
midlands running parallel to the sea and joining the Mysore Plateau on the eastern side.
The area is lying on the north-eastern part of the state, at the junction of the three
southern states, adjoining to Coorg district of Karnataka and Gudular Taluk of Niligris
District of Tamil Nadu. .
The district is also a part of the Niligris Biosphere, which was one of the first regions of to
be selected for Man, Agriculture and Biosphere under UNESCOs (MAB Programme) in
the country. It is declared eco fragile by the Ministry of Environment and Forest. Typically
the hilly terrain, covered with green cover, its natural capital and asset, is diminishing,
the forest, plantation; homestead farm is being systematically reduced. Valleys and
alluvial plains were cultivated with paddy, now new entrant of banana and arecanut is
making its presence in this area.
The region has been inhabited group of ethnic people for more a long period, and only
in the last half of 18th century it was opened by the Colonial Rulers to migrants, the land
hungry migrants from the plains invaded and cleared the forest and started cultivation.
The soil, remnant of the forest produced bountiful harvest without much effort and
inputs. After a decade or so, this was maintained with farmyard manure and mulch of
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Lives, Livelihoods & Environment of Wayanad 2011

bio mass, the gradually the cropping pattern changed from sustenance to cash crops,
the cattle population diminished; the modern agriculture techniques and inputs
replaced the traditional agriculture, knowledge and inputs.
Productivity is on the decline, saw fast changing of the employment pattern and
opportunities among the marginalised community. The decline of Natural assets
brought about drastic changes, most of the citizens could not comprehend the present
situation, and the blame is piled on, for plundering the natural wealth. The thinning of
the green cover over the hills and changes in cultivation practices of the homestead
farms has brought drastic changes to the micro environment, increase in pest and
disease, resurgence of pest, falling soil moisture and sinking water table.
It was process, from migration to settlers, clearing of forest and swamps to make space
for cultivation and setting up of settlement. Once they were able to meet their
sustenance, they gradually moved to cash crops, the intensification led to erosion of
the primary assets the land. The wheel is moving to make a full circle, getting bleak,
never knew what they have achieved yesterday could be getting out of their hands so
soon.

1.1 Developmental History of Wayanad

The District came into being in 1980, by carving two taluks on the hills of Western Ghats
of the nearby districts of Calicut and Cannanore. From inception it was lagging behind
in infrastructural development, basic communication facilities and other essential
amenities. Most of the staff posted in the District Administration are nonresidents; who
often know little about what would be essential for the development of this backward
region. Neither were the local people taken into confidence for planning or decision
making process.
It is only natural that region that lagged behind in the earlier stage of their
development owing to the various problems, low cohesion among the inhabitants,
barriers in physical communication, lack of infrastructure facilities and information;
would face uncertainty in matter of attracting steady support for its developmental
process. The effect of this reflected more in terms of social and economic development
process.
A region that has lagged behind in the past has not only failed to catch up with those
that have achieved fair measure of growth, but also tended to land in severe crisis. It is
caused by its own problems of not having sufficient personnel to rally behind the
development process as per the need of the region. Being most migrants, cohesion or
taking part in the political process is exceedingly limited. This migrant syndrome is
gradually changing with the coming of the second and third generation

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The adverse impact of this is bound to seen on human development indicators. If
human development indicators are to be considered as a measure of the region's
achievement in the area of poverty eradication or reduction, the experience leave a
lot to be desired. While poverty as such does not lead to the loss of lives, more often
than not, people are deprived of their right to a lead a dignified life.

2. Socio-Economic Profile
The region has been inhabited by migrants from the plains or coast and from elsewhere
from the neighbouring states. Almost all major religions are found here. Hinduism is the
predominant, Christianity and Islam are all thriving side-by-side, animism and sprinkling
of Jains makes the faith of the general population. The settling down of inhabitants from
far and near brought about its own problems. It brought with them different cultural
values and complexities.
In the initial stage, the survival instinct left little time and room beyond their immediate
needs. The complexity in culture left little room for cohesion and whatever pittance
gained was the benevolence of petty local leaders. With passing of time, Political
Bodies started cultivating and bringing them under their fold, soon polarised into
different faction according their social strata. This gave further room for isolating them,
thus reducing their participation of the development process.
The younger generation has started migrating out of this rural district for higher
education. Only a few are returning to their home. This pattern of emigration to other
districts is slowly sapping the human resource. As result agriculture is facing a slump, as
the pace of activities has slow down, there is growing number of absenteeism
landowners. On the other hand it has started a new pattern, cultivating on lease and
contract. It is not a healthy practice; the cultivators have little ownership or care for the
soil.
Harmony between seemingly divergent religious groups and ethnic races appears to
be the norm. Conflicts between different communities and religions are not found,
even though tensions may rise from time to time. However most the conflicts that have
risen are based on resource allocation and land distribution.

2.1 Population
Wayanad is one of the thinly populated dist in the state of Kerala, having 5.48% of the
states area. According to 2011 census, the District has a population of 816,558, which is
2.45 per cent of the states total population. The population density of 383 people per
sq. km is one of the lowest in the state, whose average is 859. The District has the
distinction of female outnumbering male population, which has happened in this
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Lives, Livelihoods & Environment of Wayanad 2011

decade for the first time, male 401,314 and female 415,244. The sex ratio is 1035 female
for every 1000 male. It is decadal growth is 4.60 states against states average of 4.86

2.2 Rural- Urban Ratio

Keralas unique settlement pattern and wider infrastructure development makes it
difficult to see the differences between urban and rural areas and there is a strong
rural-urban continuum in all along the district. Strictly speaking, there is no urban
population in Wayanad District. Kalpetta, the District Head quarters has gained
Municipality status. However, life in Sulthan Bathery, and Mananthavady is in the
process of gaining urban status. Nevertheless, in the context of Wayanad, population
residing in rural area is high as 97%, who have many benefits of urban areas.

2.3 Literacy Rate

The effective literacy rate in the district was 82.73 percent, which was lower than the
state average of 89.81 percent. The effective literacy rate refers to the literacy of the
total population excluding the infants below 6 years of age. While the male literacy rate
in the district (87.59 percent) was the second lowest in the state, the female literacy
rate (77.69 percent) was the third lowest in the state. However, it must be kept in mind
that Kerala as a state enjoys much higher literacy rates than most of the country.
However, using literacy as a singular indicator of human development would fail to
accurately represent the situation in Kerala.

2.4 Livelihoods
The primary motivation for migration into Wayanad District has been to eke out a new
livelihood, to escape the penury and starvation in the plains, and start afresh in a land
still waiting to be harnessed. Cultivating their own piece of land was the chief aspiration
of most people who migrated into the district in the past century. Many first cultivated
their own land for sustenance, and later gradually they shifted to cash crops along food
crops. With cash crops getting established, many started indulging in non-farm activities
as well.
Cultivators form a large part of the workforce in the district, but due to small size of land,
they have had to supplement their income with labour. Only sizeable numbers of
cultivators have been able to make their living from the earnings from their cultivation.

2.5 Ethnic Profile

The District is inhabited by various groups of people who came at different period of
history. The earliest were the tribal groups, who are a heterogeneous community,
consist of six groups, two of the groups are cultivators, and have their own land, namely
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Kurchiyans and Mullakuramban. They show remarkable adaptation and have strong
clanship. There is another group called Uralikurmaban, who are the only artisan tribe,
they made clay pots without the use of the potters wheel. The other two groups consist
of Paniya and Adiyans, mostly landless and were formerly bonded labourers. The
Kattunaicken, a primitive tribal group, the last to join the mainstream, live in periphery or
on the fringe of the forest land. Many of them have land of their own for cultivation of
coffee, pepper and other crops.
Jains, was the group who have migrated from Mysore area to Wayanad around 1800
AD, and made their home. As early entrants, they have captured the essence of
farming. Their homestead farms were closely linked the wetland. Most of them have
large holdings of coffee, declared under plantation. As planters, they are the most
progressive ones.
Early in the 18th Century, the rulers in the plains brought under the domain. Wayanad
District was divided under the local chieftains of Nair tharavad. The division is still
followed today, divided into Amsams (villages) and desams (sub-divisions). Controlling
tracts of land in their possession, later on, they sold some of the land to the migrants.
They now do cultivation of the remaining tracts of land; however their children have
moved out of cultivation, many have secured employment in Government and private
sector.
The Christian community came in small numbers in early 20th Century. Most of them sold
their property and left their ancestral land to escape its problems. After the Second
World War, they came in hordes, which went on for nearly for two odd decades. They
had the support of the Church for finding land to settle down. New crops, ginger,
tapioca and other crops were introduced by them. Most of this community owns land
sufficient to meet the needs of the family. Many have converted the coffee growing
areas to Rubber cultivation. Their children are moving out agriculture, as they have
secured employment.
The Muslim community arrived here due to continuous struggles between British and
Khilafath movement and poverty attracted them from Malabar plains. The plantations
absorbed some, while others took land for cultivation on lease; some became labourers
with land lords, while the other became petty traders. Many of them have become
traders, and only small amount of them does actual cultivation.
After the district was formed in the 1980, migrants who came in largely to set up small
businesses in the non-agricultural, services sectors.
The district has a mixed population of Hindus, Christians and Muslims. As per 1991
census, of the total population of the District, 50% is Hindu, 26% is Muslim and 23% is
Christian. Other religious groups include a small Jain community, which has a long
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history in Wayanad, forming less than 1% of the total population. Tribal communities,
numbering 136,062 (17.43% of the total population of Wayanad) do not form a
homogenous entity. Major communities found in the district are Paniyan (44.77%), Mullu
Kuruman (17.51%), Kurichian (17.38%), Kattunaickan (9.93%), Adiyan (7.10%) and Urali
Kuruman (2.69%). They can broadly be categorized into three avocations viz., marginal
farmers, cultivators cum agricultural labourers, and agricultural labourers.

3. Geography and Natural Resources

3.1 Location
The district of Wayanad is located in the Northern Eastern part of Kerala State. It lies
between 11 27' N and 12 58' N latitudes and 74 52' E and 76 07' E longitudes.
Geographical area is about 2,132 Sq.Km, Bounded on the east by Nilgiris Dist of Tamil
Nadu, and Mysore and Kodagu district of Karnataka on the north and east, in the south
by Malappuram and on the west by Kozhikode and Kannur.

3.2 Land Utilization

Geographically, Wayanad can be divided into six categories of land forms: mountains,
highly steep land, moderately steep land, valleys, marshy lands or submerged and
flood plains. Of these six land forms, about 87 percent of the total area is dry land
classified under mountains, highly steep land, and moderately steep land with
undulating topography. The remaining are wet lands, consisting of valleys, marshy
lands, flood plains totaling to 13 percent. The western part of the district receives heavy
rainfall from the south west monsoon, while the North and east is in the rain shadow. The
forest of Wayanad accounts for 37 percent of it land area. The last remaining green
patches are under various stages of devastation.
1. Total Area (Sq.Km)
Wet Area (hect)
Dry Area (hect)
2. Forest Area (hect.)

2,131
24,731
100,869
78,787

Land capability: Considering the characteristics of soil, drainage/wetness, erosion,

runoff etc, broad land capability (LC) classes
Land
Class I
Class II (Good cultivable land)

Type
Wet
lands
Dry land

Class III (Moderately good cultivable land)

Class IV (Fairly good cultivable lands)

Dry land
Dry land

Crops /Vegetation
Rice, Banana, Areca nut
Coffee,
Pepper,
ginger,
turmeric
Coffee, Pepper, Agroforestry
Coffee, Pepper, Agroforestry

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Class VI (Well suited for forestry or grazing)
Class VIII (Land suited only for wildlife and
recreation).

Dry land
Dry land

Land Utilization pattern

1. Total Geographical Area
2. Forest Area
3. Land put to non agricultural use
4. Barren & uncultivable land
5. Permanent pastures and other grazing land
6. Land under misc. tree crops
7. Cultivable waste
8. Fallow other than current fallow
9. Current fallow
10. Net area sown
11. Area sown more than once
12. Total cropped area

Tea
Forest

(in Ha)
212,560
78,787
273
52
489
1,032
391
1,598
117,384
87,643
205,027

3.2.1 Uplands
Wayanad being part of Western Ghats is having a hilly terrain with undulating
topography. Most of the uplands are having land classification of VI, VII and higher is
Class VIII.
Class VI has been cultivated or turned in to plantation. Most of these are plantations,
almost an extension of Forest; it has been terraced and cropped with standing crops of
Coffee and pepper.
While the land under Class VII are mostly under permanent cover of tea plantation,
lightly interspersed with shade trees.
The land under Class VIII is permanently forest land, normally steep hills and mountains,
under green cover, trees, it some area it is under Shola forest, one of the unique one
particularly of the Western Ghats. Much of the vegetation in the shoal is in the valleys,
trees are stunted because extreme climate and winds. The most important other
component is the adjacent grass lands associated with it, they capture the rainfall only
to release them gradually, tiny streams spring to life, continuously yielding water to tiny
brook, they join together to become watercourse for the streams. These small streams
further flows into the tributaries of the main river Kabini. There were some attempt to
convert tem to forest plantation, in lower elevation it had become tea plantation, while
others exotic tree species have been introduced, it results are not encouraging for
continued aforestation.

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3.2.2 Midlands
The land between the valleys and upland are the midlands. It comes under the land
classification of II, III and IV, ranging from rolling landscape of hills and dales. Much is
under cultivation. It is here where the homestead farming takes place and where most
people live.
Homestead is defined as an operational farm unit or farming environment in which
crop, livestock, poultry, apiculture etc is carried out mainly for the purpose of satisfying
farmer's needs. This type of farming is a common feature of the region, where farmers
utilises the available land around the house for cultivating a variety of annual/seasonal
or perennial crops of their choice, based on the home requirement and marketing
preferences if surplus is produced subject to the extent of the land availability.
The number of home stead farms could be as many as the number of families in the
area, where the home is always surrounded by a small piece land, where ploy crop
combination are cultivated with animals and poultry. Predominance of marginal and
small farm holdings is of common occurrence. Homestead farming is not the main
occupation of more than sixty percent of the landholders. It is only a secondary
occupation for them.
The region's climate permits cultivation of high value perennial crops. The climate also
permits relative high cropping intensity (136 %) inspite of the low proportion area
irrigated. The varied terrain and high rainfall permits a wide array of cropping patterns,
mix of perennial and field crops. Nearly all the farm is devoted to three or more major
crops. The wide variety of the cropping pattern is reflected in most homestead farms.
Predominance of tree or perennial crops and mainly rainfed farming are the
remarkable features of the regions agriculture. The region is well above the national
average of 85% in cultivation efficiency. The cropping system practised is a multi storied
high intensity agricultural system where mixed cropping and perennial plantations coexist at different heights on the same unit area of land and take advantage of the
rainfall and sunshine

3.2.3 Lowlands
Wayanad District, have probably derived its name from ample land under paddy
cultivation in swamps, marshy land, sunken valleys and alluvial plains-Vayal, The Folk
etymology of the word says it is a combination of Vayal(paddy field) and Naad (land),
making it 'The Land of Paddy Fields'. It was the chief attraction of all early settlers for
cultivation for sustenance
Vayal is the term used to describe the fields, where the cultivation of paddy takes
place. Generally it collects water in the monsoon months. These are basin or valley, or
flood plains, distinguish a typical paddy fields, are surrounded by low range of
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undulating hills, with a drainage system. These can be classified into four categories,
namely Kara kadam or Kuni Vayal, Kundu Vayal, Koravu Vayal and Poyil on the basis of
soil texture, clay content, percolation and retention of water, fertility and location of the
field
These fields (lands) are important part of the local agro ecosystem. Serve the
community in many ways. First, it serves to grow the staple crop (rice), the varieties
planted here would vary according to the physical parameters the fields. The activity is
helping to recharge the ground water, therefore balancing the hydraulic gradient of
the water table of the area. It collects the water from and the runoff from the hills, the
running water is made to stand. The stream adjoining the field supports varieties flora
and fauna. The former supplements the needs of the community, from supplementary
food to making of various herbal preparations for common ailments. While the latter
plays an important role in maintaining a healthy ecosystem, besides toping of the
ground water in the region
Categorization of paddy fields (Vayals)

Kara kadam or Kunivayal, lowland normally adjacent to the rolling foothills. This field
springs to live after the monsoon has started. It is the first stop point of the excess
water flowing from the hills. This Vayal type contains more soil (sandy loam) with less
clay content, has low retention or water holding capacity. Cultivation is primarily
under rain fed condition, one crop raised during Nancha season (monsoon), is also
used for growing vegetable in summer months.

Kundu vayals are the flat fields located in the valley bottoms. They are the
continuation of the kara kandam, it collects the runoff, retains inflowing sediment.
This type of Vayal is characterized by standing water throughout rainy season. The
soil is clayey with less sand content, thereby increasing its water retention capacity.
The water is retained here for a longer period want of proper drainage facilities. It
supports wide variety of aquatic life and flora.

Koravu Vayal is also known as Aathi kandam, is remnant of the swamp, marshy
characteristics . The profile of this Vayal type is like that of quick sand, with
practically low soil with little clay content, have high content of submerged biomass,
its remnants under various stage of decomposition. These are one of the most fertile
fields, need little manure, the cultural operations are done manually with skills.

Poyil are fields adjacent to the river banks, due to constant flooding during the
monsoon, good amount silt is deposited here. However the soil is mostly sandy, little
of clay; due to delay in getting the land prepared because of flooding, quick
maturing variety of paddy is planted here, It is prone to flooding and onslaught of
winds.

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Much of the Kara kadam or Kunivayal has been converted into settlement or areca
nut groves. While the Kundu vayal has been utilised for cultivation of banana or
ginger more than cultivating of paddy. In the process of cultivation of cash crops, it
natural functions has been curtailed drastically. The Koravu vayal, is being gradually
dying a natural death, due insufficient recharge in the up hills due to loss of green
cover and land fragementation. Poyil is one area, where paddy cultivation is going
on, however summer crop has been falling due lack of water in the river for
irrigation.

3.3 Area under different crops

The migrants from the plains of Malabar came to the forested tracts of Wayanad
around 1780s, started homestead cultivation with pepper (Piper nigrum). The multistrata garden land homesteads prevalent have evolved over a long period of time
under variable planting and/or extraction regimes.
In 1828 the coffee introduced in Wayanad, and the first coffee plantations appeared
1838. Coffee was produced along with pepper, in agroforestry combinations. But
coffee plantation did not succeeded as expected due to diseases, and many
alternatives crops were tried. Tea plantations were developed in several areas from
1892, and crops such as Cardamom (Elettaria cardamom), pepper, cinchona
(Cinchona officinalis), and arecanut were also introduced, though to a lesser extent.
The major plantation crops (tea, coffee, pepper and arecanut) together constitute 38%
of cropped area. Coffee, which covers a total area of 67,429 hectares, is grown as
under-crop in the homesteads of over 80% of small and marginal farmers in Wayanad
district. Pepper, the second most important crop in the district, is also grown in home
gardens, mostly in combination with coffee. Of the total estimated 155,855
landholdings in the district of Wayanad, 83% belong to either small or marginal farmers.

3.4 Soil & Fertility Status

The soil types seen in the area are mainly the remnants of forest loam. It is a product of
weathering of crystalline rock under continuous vegetative cover, high rainfall, and
moisture. It is characterised by surface layer of humus and other organic matter at
various stages of decomposition under humid tropical climate. Soil profile is immature
with shallow soil followed by gneissic parent material. It is dark reddish or yellowish
brown to black in colour with loam to silky loam texture. Laterite soils are also common,
particularly in exposed areas, and are generally poor in Nutrients besides lack organic
matter and acidic in nature.
The valleys and alluvial plains are deposits of materials eroded from the hills. The soils in
the paddy field are mainly the sandy loam, fine silt, silt laden with debris and
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lithomargic clay being under the constant cover of water, much of the accumulated
biomass is in the process of becoming peat. This makes the soil acidic.
The soil has gone under marked changes due to intensive cultivation, reduced
recycling, falling tree cover and indiscriminate usage of chemical fertilizers. Use of
excess nitrogenous fertilizer has resulted in a reduction in soil organic carbon besides
creating acidic conditions. Little care has been given to the replenishment of
micronutrients in the soil, It has also be creating the silent hunger of soil, micro elements
are mined, without proper recycling it has made the soil poorer.

3.5 Forests of Wayanad

Forest is a complex ecological system in which trees are the dominant life form. They
are developed under a variety of conditions within the climatic limits, and the type of
soil, plant, and animal life differs according to the extremes of environmental
influences. The forests of Wayanad are unique and important because they represent a
transition zone from the moist forests in the south Western Ghats to the northern drier
forests in the north. Overall forest coverage of Wayanad plateau falls under one of the
five categories of vegetation types mainly evergreen, semi-evergreen, moistdeciduous, dry-deciduous, scrub and plantations.
Forest types are distinguished from each other according to species composition
(which develops in part according to the age of the forest), the density of tree cover,
type of soils found there, and the geologic history of the forest region. Soil depth is
important because it determines the extent to which roots can penetrate into the earth
and, therefore, the amount of water and nutrients available to the trees.
Water may be lost by evaporation from the surface or by leaf transpiration. Evaporation
and transpiration also control the temperature of the air in forests, which is always
slightly warmer in cold months and cooler in warm months than the air in surrounding
regions. The density of tree cover influences the amount of both sunlight and rainfall
reaching the layer beneath them. The movement of rainfall into the forest is
considerably influenced by leaf cover, which tends to slow the velocity of falling water,
which penetrates down to the ground level by running down tree trunks or dripping
from leaves.
The forest floor consists of humus layer which is affected by the high levels of heat and
humidity, which quickly decompose whatever organic matter exists. Fungi on the soil
surface play an important role in the availability and distribution of nutrients. Some
species of fungi live in partnership with the tree roots, while others are parasitically
destructive. In tropical forests, fruit bats, bees and birds play an important pollination.
The forest is nature's most efficient ecosystem, with a high rate of photosynthesis,
moving both plant and animal systems in a series of complex organic relationships.
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The tropical evergreen forest (west coast tropical evergreen forest) occurring within a
narrow strip along the Western Ghats is perhaps the most endangered natural habitat.
Extremely fragile, it has suffered most from human interaction. In species diversity it is the
richest habitat and has developed in areas of the heaviest rainfall. There is very little soil
erosion and that the streams and rivers originating from the rain forests are clear and
perennial. This may be attributed to the thick canopy and closely packed trees.
The evapo-transpiration from the forests is much higher than that from any other
surface. This cools the atmosphere, because of the altitude it helps in easy
condensation of water vapor. This is the origin of the local summer rains. Tropical
evergreen forests constitute the climax vegetation, is characterized by at least three
tiers, the highest often attaining a height of 40-45m. Many species develop plank
buttresses. The middle stratum is more or less candle shaped and the lower
characteristically conical. The trees are heavily infested with epiphytic orchids, aroids,
mosses, and ferns.
Semi-evergreen forests (Indian west coast semi-evergreen forests) are generally
considered as a transitional stage between evergreen and moist deciduous forests. It is
also found in localities where the evergreen forests are subjected to high disturbances.
The species occurring in the lower layer are the same as seen in the evergreen forests. A
small variety of plant species possessing medicinal property are found exclusively in this
forest type. Major part of this forest has been subjected to selection felling in the past.
Under continued anthropogenic disturbances such as frequent fires and biomass
extraction, semi-evergreen forests retrograde to moist deciduous forests. This is a
common depredatory phase in the forests.
In the moist deciduous forests (southern moist mixed deciduous forests) the trees reach
30 to 35 m height. Compared to evergreen forests, moist deciduous forests are superior
in species richness. But in contrast to evergreen forests, these deciduous forests are
commercially very valuable. Bamboos and reeds are also common. The differentiation
into various layers is not distinct. Moist deciduous formation occurs at 200-1250 m
altitudes, where temperature ranges between 15 -35 C and rainfall between 1500 to
2500 mm. These forests are also important for bamboos, which form important forage of
wild animals.
Ground vegetation is rich with grasses, herbs and shrubs offering wide range of forage.
Due to abundance of ground vegetation, bamboos and other species and due to
good light and spaced tree growth, these forests provide wide choice of habitats for
wild ungulates, arboreal mammals, birds and butterflies. Common ground flora consists
of many species of herbs, possessing medicinal properties.
Moist deciduous forest is a forest type of intermediate density, coming in succession
before wet evergreen forests and in low rainfall regions moist deciduous forests.
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However, due to local factors, fire and other anthropogenic disturbances the forests
can show an arrested succession. Moist deciduous forests are considered to be the
richest in terms of the variety of medicinal plants (about 300 species). Apart from
medicinal plants, a number of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are also collected
from the deciduous forests..
Plantations (Forest), less productive forest is planted up with commercial species such as
Teak. Eucalyptus plantations are raised for paper mills. There are also plantations of
softwood trees and bamboo. These plantations are mostly made after clearing existing
vegetation. There are prescribed treatments such as thinning and weeding for different
trees.
Large proportion of Wayanad landscape comprises of plantations which have resulted
in the severe fragmentation of its forests. Remaining forests of Wayanad plateau are of
small packets of evergreen and deciduous forest, with scrub. Wayanad forest region
consists of two parts. The first part comprising Wayanad Wild Life Sanctuary and
surrounding areas consist of deciduous forests and plantations. Second part consist of a
belt of forest covering areas such as Wild Life Sanctuary, which are mostly hilly areas are
covered with evergreen forests, but the continued and indiscriminate exploitation of
the natural resources points towards an imminent environmental crisis. There are some
important animal corridors in these sanctuaries, it is also the reason of man-animal
conflict.
Conserving these forests is a big challenge due to this fragmentation and the prospect
of increasing degradation due to overexploitation. Moreover, a number of crops,
currently cultivated extensively, have their wild relatives here. Among spices, the wild
cousins of black pepper, cardamom, cinnamon and curcuma are largely found in the
wet forests. This area that receives high annual rainfall within a short span of three to
four months, the forest land in Wayanad also performs important hydrological functions.

3.6 Water
Wayanad is a largely a mountain area that receives high annual rainfall from the
bimodal seasonal within a short span of four to six months, land performs important
hydrological and watershed functions. A large number of people living in the adjoining
areas receive most of their water supply from rivers originating in the area. Thus, the soils
and waters of this region sustain the livelihoods of many people. The geographic setting
of Wayanad makes it highly sensitive to environmental stresses.
Most of the crops are rain fed, and irrigation is done for only summer crop of paddy by
farmers, and for this small streams by bunded, allowed the collected water to flow by
gravity. The others bunds the rivers for pumping water to irrigate the poyil alnds. In the
year when the cherry blossom showers (February) fails, the large cultivators of coffee
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crops resort of bunding the streams and pumping the impounded waters with large
capacity pumps, this cause serious shortage downstream often leading to social unrest,
sometime flaring up to physical violence. The constant dredging of sand from the river
have lowered the riverbeds considerably, besides the cultivation of other cash crops in
the valleys. This results in a reduced hydraulic gradient, leading to the falling ground
water levels, drying small streams and shallow wells in the pre-monsoon period.
The submerged valleys' prime function of harvesting the rainwater and recharging the
water table has been drastically curtailed with their conversion for non rice cash crops,
and converting to non agricultural purposes. The area is moderately well drained and
exhibits a dendrite pattern. The area being undulating has a number of streams, which
drain into Kabini River. Depth of ground water fluctuates considerably with the
phyisography but generally remain below a depth of 10-17 metres in the homestead. It
is available at 1-5mtrs in valley portion.
Rivers and streams are having serious setback with the smooth flow of water in the
summer with constant mining of sand from the riverbeds. The main water sources are
surface water and ground water. Ground water is used extensively for drinking and
other domestic purposes drawn from domestic dug wells. These wells are been deepen
on a regular basis to supply water. The average density of wells is about 70 per sq Km.
In summer, most wells around valleys show discoloration in the water, this is due to
dissolved iron. When the recharge is low, the ground water movement comes to halt,
and stagnates. With low rate of aeration, the iron dissolved starts showing a rusty red
colour. Such water is not acceptable to the people, as it discolors white clothes, stains
the rice when cooked, apart from imparting a strong odour of iron. During the monsoon
months it gets aerated with recharged water, while in the pre monsoon months, this
problem gets pronounced. If the recharge of the ground water can be increased in the
given area, the problem will solve itself.

3.7 Agro Biodiversity

Geographically, Wayanad plateau sits where the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats
converge, bringing together the elements of both systems in once place. The forests in
Wayanad are unique and ecologically important because they represent a transition
zone from the moist Cullenia-dominated forests in the South Western Ghats to the
northern drier dipterocarp forests. Thus it is a hotbed for developing of two different
types of vegetation in a place. Forests also serve as repositories of genetic diversity and
confer hydrological benefits.
The area falls entirely within the Western Ghats of India, one of the 18 biodiversity
hotspots. It is characterised by high levels of species endemism. The forests here are
globally important as they house endemic flora and fauna, including species of plants,
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species of mammals, species of birds, species of amphibians. Among these, there are
species are critically endangered, species are endangered, and species are
vulnerable, according to IUCN classification. A number of cultivated food plants have
their wild relatives in these wet evergreen forests, including the spices pepper,
cardamom, cinnamon, ginger and curcuma.
The district of Wayanad is characterised by homestead farming at the subsistence level
and smallholder plantations. Paddy, is the staple food of the region. Wetland-based
cropping systems involve mainly paddy, with summer cultivation of vegetables and
banana. The uplands adjoining the wetlands are characterised by homestead farming
with coffee and pepper. Coffee-based cropping systems involving coffee, pepper and
ginger, along with many trees, are the most prevalent land use patterns. In traditional
agro-forestry systems composed mainly of home gardens, the native tree composition
of farmlands was largely left intact; only the under-storey plants were replaced by
crops.
This system lies contiguous with the natural forests and provides an unhindered habitat
for wildlife in the area due to plant diversity and shade. Most farmers in Wayanad are
small, marginal, and tend to grow multiple sets of crop on their farmlands. Farmers
maintain a spectacular variety of plants in their home gardens to meet their varied
needs.
A typical home garden represents an operational farm unit that integrates trees with
field crops, livestock, and poultry, with the basic objective of ensuring sustained
availability of multiple products such as food, vegetables, fruits, fodder, fuel, timber,
medicines and/or ornamentals, besides generating employment and cash income.
Home gardens constitute a dominant and promising land use system, maintaining high
levels of productivity, stability, sustainability and equitability. Home gardens with a multistorey canopy structure are deliberately planned to mimic a natural forest and thereby
lack a discernible planting pattern. Physiognomically, home gardens exhibit a multitiered canopy structure somewhat similar to that of a tropical evergreen forest.
The mean density of trees in a home garden is estimated to be as high as 116 trees per
hectare. Home gardens play an important role in the food security of the region as they
supply varied products throughout the seasons. Tubers, vegetables, fruits and spices
from home gardens make up a significant part of the nutritional requirements of the
household.
Crop diversity in homesteads results in a range of output from a given area, increasing
self-sufficiency and reducing the economic risks associated with adverse climatic,
biological and market impacts on particular crops. Another important function of home
gardens is the generation of a cash income. Most of the income from a home garden is
from marketable surplus derived from perennials such as fruit trees.
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The high degree of biodiversity present in a home garden is unique and totally distinct
from the biodiversity present in a natural forest. The biodiversity of a home garden is the
result of generations of conscious selection by farmers, and bears the imprint of their
choices. Moreover, these components are, in most cases, the last refuge for species
that are useful but not commercially viable for cultivation. These home gardens satisfy a
substantial proportion of society's demands.

4. Environment and Climate

4.1 Climatic condition
The region lying on the crest of the Western Ghats, with average altitude of 3,000 ft,
receives rain from both the monsoons bringing in more than 3,000 mm. The distance
from the coast, the altitude and vegetation on surrounding forest on the hills and
cultivated green cover creates a salubrious climate. Lakkidi on the edge of western
face of the Western Ghats in Vyttiri taluk has the highest average rainfall in Kerala,
above 4,500 mm.
Rainfall distribution is bimodal. It herald with arrival of Southwest monsoon
(edavappathi), in June which is known locally as Kalavarsham, July is the most rainy
month in the district and North East monsoon is known as tulaavarsham.
Generally the year is classified in four seasons namely, cold weather (DecemberFebruary) with mist hovering the region in the evening, hot weather (March-May) dry
spell interspersed with pre monsoon showers in the afternoon with high velocity winds
followed by bouts of lighting and hail storms, Southwest monsoon (June-September)
with torrential showers, in July which is the peak, and then mist like needle rains to close
the season. The northeast monsoon (October-November) announces its arrivals with
thunder and heavy showers. Wayanad experience a high relative humidity
The district gets the advancing monsoons during the months of June-September known
as edavappathi in the windward side on the western and the retreating monsoon
tulaavarsham of October to December in the leeward side. And both them together
are known as Kalavarsham. In terms of volume the advancing monsoons bring more
rain than the retreating monsoons.
The southwest monsoon contributes about 60 % while the Northwest monsoon
contributes about 30%, with the rest coming from pre monsoon showers. The climate is
generally mild, with mercury touching about 35C in the day during short summer
months (March to May). In the fall of the year the temperature drops around 15C. It
has rains for more than 126 days in year.

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From June to August, the South West monsoon rains incessantly, with a short dry spell in
between, and heavy showers with lighting in July which is the peak and slows down
gradually in August to continuous light drizzle. The Northwest monsoon starts in late
September to November, and is usually announced with bouts of lighting. From
December to January is the dry spell, the mercury drops, heavy mist in the late
evenings, which finally gets lifted in the late mornings after a chilly night. It is also visited
by dry winds.
Physically, Wayanad sits where the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats converge,
bringing together the elements of both systems in once place. The geographical
position of the area is unique and peculiar. The lofty hills of the district are one of the
highest point facing the southern end of the Deccan Plateau. Any atmospheric
disturbance, either in the western coast Arabian Sea or Bay of Bengal, is felt in the
District, it brings extra rains. The temperature during the day varies from 15C in the fall
of the year to 32C in the post monsoon months of summer. In the fall of the year,
ambient temperature falls early in the evening and gaining after the sun rises above the
horizon late in the morning. The altitude and the cover of vegetation of the region play
the reigning role of the climate. The diurnal temperature difference is more than 8-12O
C The relative humidity varies from 90% to 70% in Monsoon and summer respectively.
The short interim rains in February is crucial for all rainfed , lasting for a few days, called
Cherry blossom showers, is crucial for the flowering and the Backing showers for the
initial setting of Coffee beans, has become elusive. Its failure is taking a heavy toll of the
coffee crop, agriculture on the whole. If the North East Monsoon is weak, it would affect
the availability of drinking water, and put much stress on the perennial crops.
The pattern of rainfall has changed much, along with the reduced quantity. Pre
monsoon showers in the afternoon are visited with hailstorms and strong winds, taking
toll of standing crops particularly in flood plains and valleys. Rains are of heavy
downpours are coming common during the monsoon period, which is destructive and
disrupting the daily life of the inhabitants.
Earlier the rains would have been of drizzle all through the period, with a break of few
days of clear sky. From the former, run off was pronounced, while with the latter,
greater absorption by the ground. The large difference of the diurnal temperature and
long days with cloud cover, typical of the hills, give the crops planted here distinctive
characteristics because of the reduced metabolism due reduced sunlight and to fall of
mercury, have longer gestation period before maturing. This has builds a distinct
characteristics of the produce from this district.
In the past two decades or so, the green cover of the hills, plantations and homestead
farms is undergoing sweeping changes. The traditional custodians of the green heritage
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removal of large trees, followed by clear felling, final removal of remaining uneconomic
& under growth, planting with teak, some area, witness the planting exotic varieties. The
large plantation and homestead farms also saw the onslaught the green cover. The
former removed them, whenever they were passing over a bad patch, while the latter
removed the trees cover after land were fragmented to make place for dwellings and
use for construction of dwellings.
All these activities is changing the micro climate, change of the water regime, springs
are hard to come, streams exist only for short duration, ground water level is falling. Early
drying of soil, moisture stress is common during the summer; the ambient temperature
has been shooting up has been widely noticed. This in turn has promoted crops to
mature earlier by two-four weeks, has been gradually changing the annual harvest
season period. Earlier in the fall of year, the harvest of crops followed a set pattern, now
the overlap, and this necessitated importing unskilled labour from the neighbouring
states to carry out the operations.

4.2

Climatic data
Mean summer temperature
Mean winter temperature
Difference
Annual mean temperature
Soil temperature regime
Soil moisture regime

27.82 OC
15.47OC
12.45 OC
19.57 OC
Isohyperthermic
stic

4.3 Natural & Man made Hazards & their impact: Waste Management
With cash crops being intensified, and in order to increase the productivity, blind usage
of fertilizers, pesticides, seed treatment chemicals, plant growth regulators, etc. are
being used in increasing quantities. Such indiscriminate usage is leading to the
deterioration of the environment. The water bodies serve as sinks to these
agrochemicals which ultimately reach biomass and have its impact on individuals and
communities.
The presence of visible indicators of degradation are the absence of commonly seen
species, reduction of earthworms both in dry land and wetlands, absence dragon flies
in the paddy lands, reduced number of crabs, almost absence of frogs, elimination of
foxes, reduced number of owls, heron etc. All the above mentioned played an
important part in maintaining the ecosystem, its reduction has brought secondary
problems, for which the farming community have to further use pesticides to keep up
the production level.

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Wetlands are the sink of the flow of residual from the agricultural operations. The
deposition of leach materials is being absorbed by different levels in ecosystem. With
bio magnification, it has reduced the population of local fauna, evidenced by
disappearance of many species which were abundant. The leached materials is slowly
passing over the threshold level, ground water is getting contaminated, only because
of the high rate of rainfall, the dilution takes places. Water samples collected in pre
monsoon months shows levels of contamination, while in the post monsoon months; the
level is below the safe level.
The urbanisation process started the usage of natural materials for construction. The hills
were the source of rubble. With fast mechanisation, new methods were used for
blasting, which is also a nuisance for people in its proximity. Many houses in nearby
locations show telltale signs of this nefarious activity, with cracks in the walls and fallen
plaster from ceiling. Sand is dredged from the river beds, creating large cavities in the
beds, and dried up streams. Stream and river banks are also targeted, and as much
sand as possible is mined before the monsoon. Once the monsoon arrives, this leads
rivers to meander, taking away huge chunks of cultivable area of the poyil, the last
refuge of rice cultivation. The brick kilns located on the adjacent of river banks mine
clay, and the resulting cavities in the ground drain water from nearby paddy fields.
With reduced recharge due to change cropping pattern and land utilization in the
wetlands, which are converted to cash crops, the runoff and received rains, doesnt
have time to stand for recharging. The lowering of river beds also reduced the water
retention of the water in the ground. As a result the water table is falling, with reduced
pressure from the hydraulic gradient, soil is sinking. Most of the houses show cracks in
their foundation and walls, this due to submergence.
Accumulation of waste from houses and urbanized areas is increasing, which is a
problem as there is no planned solution in sight. Waste water from the home is let into
soak pits, from the latrine are led to septic tanks. In areas of high water table,
particularly in the low lands and valley, it has become a problem in monsoon season,
due to rise in groundwater level. The safe distance between the sanitation and wells
has fallen to less than 5 meters.
Solid waste from commercial centers also pose a problem, there are no safe way to
dispose them. There is no segregation of the material disposed. Much of the
accumulated waste are biodegradable, along with assorted mixture of plastic, waste
from failed electronic components make the remaining bulk. It is collected on alternate
days and disposed in place allotted by the Gram Panchyat. Individuals in the vicinity of
the dumps have started complaining, the smoke and fumes from the burning reaches
their home.

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5. Environmental Degradation and

Livelihood Security
The ecological base of Wayanad is very fragile as is the case with most hilly and
mountainous ecosystems. Over a period of time agricultural land in Wayanad has
borne the brunt of inconsiderate agricultural practices as farming communities here
had adhered to plain land management, which they had hitherto used for the
cultivation that was different from the hill land management of agricultural terrain that
was required for the ecosystem of Wayanad.
This has resulted in environmental degradation; a long term effect of land
mismanagement, unscientific cultivation, and uncontrolled use of fertilizers and
pesticides manifesting itself in plant disease, and reduced yield. There is an increase in
the area under cultivation of major cash crops from the early 70s onwards as the cost
benefit ratios began favouring the cultivation of cash crops over food crops as profits
were higher. The environmental consequence of shifting agricultural patterns based on
price rather than a premeditated approach is a very serious concern which has led to
an emergence of inconsistencies.
In paddy cultivation, standing water is required in fields for its growth, the impounded
water to percolate down to the water table, which helps to stabilize and maintain the
ground water level. But with the conversion of paddy fields to ginger, banana and
arecanut plantations, the wetlands of Wayanad are being drained for the cultivation of
these crops. Therefore, with shrinking wet lands the ground water levels in the district has
also reduced considerably making some areas prone to droughts during the long
summer months.
The changing cultivation patterns, reduced recycling, removal of tree cover have
made this region vulnerable to environmental disasters like drought, which have been
taking a heavy toll on agriculture, partially or totally damaging crops like pepper and
coffee in Wayanad. In the case of partial damage the yield recovery period is an
average of 3 years and for total damage the recovery period is 5 to 7 years.
During the period of boom in Wayanad, farmers began raising the input level in the
land as they were trying to maximize their output to get a profit and in the period of
crisis the farmers were not able to keep up the levels of fertilizers and pesticides leading
to disease and crop loss. The reduction of fertilizer subsidies also played a role in making
inputs more inaccessible to the farmer. This led the farmers to use imbalanced ratio of
fertilizer, led to proliferation of insects, leading to use pesticides.

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With intensification cropping higher inputs fertilizer to maintain productivity, followed by
pesticides to reduce pest attack and curtail the diseases. It also led of mining away of
soil micro nutrients, with reduced recycling, soil organic carbon felled, leading stress in
summer, and reduced soil microbial activity. The absence of soil organic carbon,
because of reduced recycling and burning out because of high Nitrogenous fertiliser
created imbalance, increased soil borne diseases, made it more prone to attack in
mono cropping leading to failure in Wayanad. Similarly, the excessive use of fertilizers
has raised the ph levels in the soil making it acidic, again affecting the productivity.
Because of this, supply of certain nutrients is curtailed, required for essentially for proper
growth.
Thus, the uncontrolled use of fertilizers and pesticides has led to the reversal of the
intended aim to increase production resulting in a decrease instead. In the recent past,
man-made factors affecting the environment have coupled with a relatively new
phenomenon of unpredictable climate change. Climate change has led to the
deepening of the crisis through droughts, rise in temperature, higher rates of
evaporation and erratic rainfall patterns affecting the yield and growth of crops.
Some of these factors of change can be reduced with better knowledge imparted to
farmers, some can be controlled by the development of infrastructure and safety-net
measures and some cannot. For example coffee yield is determined by a spell of rain
before the plant blossoms every year; called the blossom showers; if its timing is altered
it could result in failure of the crop or reduced yield. Similarly, in the case of pepper it is
the rainfall that helps in the pollination determining its yearly yield. Temperature change
again helps in the spread of fungal diseases in crops which if not controlled can cause
heavy losses.
The environmental problems associated with livelihood vulnerabilities can be classified
into two categories:

The first group consists of factors affecting the environment that are a direct
consequence of features, which are manmade and are influenced by primary
factory like land use, fertilizer management, recycling and cropping patterns
fueled by secondary factors like markets and price.
The second group of factors influencing the environment is beyond the control
of man as they are climatic in nature and have to be dealt with through
proactive and precautionary measures at infrastructural and policy levels.

Environmental degradation is a more physical and a long term reality which needs to
be looked at seriously from national and international levels in order to prevent more
disastrous manifestations. The difficulty, the separation of livelihood and environment is
near to impossible as they are interconnected, especially with reference to agriculture
and development. Therefore, what is required is a studied and rational pattern of
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change brought about with the aid of R&D in agriculture and development to protect
livelihoods and the environment. The pressure from the markets has forced the farmer to
increase their inputs and produce more crops leading to the popularisation of harmful
agricultural practices in order to meet their survival needs which in-turn has adverse
effects on the environment.
Alternatives like organic farming that could be made lucrative through proper
encouragement and incentives to farmers and developing new markets for such
goods, to integrate mechanisation into farming systems to compensate for reduced
manpower through which the cost of production in agriculture can be reduced,
helping in making the product more competitive in the international market. But the
accomplishment of these measures would also require cooperation to provide
technical know-how and concessions for their development.

6. Bibliography
Livelihood risks and coping strategies:
A case study in the agrarian village of cherumad, kerala
K.N.Nair, Antonyto Paul , Vineetha Menon November 2007
Shrinking World, Expanding Crisis
WTO, Globalisation and the Agrarian Crisis in Wayanad, Kerala
Masters Program in Asian Studies
Centre for East and South East Asian Studies
Lund University, Sweden
Mathew Abraham
Settler Colonists, Agrarian Entrepreneurs and the Permissive State.
Aspects of the Political Economy of Hill Produce in Wayanad, South India,
1920 1998 Daniel Mnster
Institute for Social Anthropology, University of Halle-Wittenberg, Germany
The home gardens of Wayanad
A V Santhoshkumar and Kaoru Ichikawa
Infochange News & Features, July 2010

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Livelihoods in Wayanad in the 20th century.

A quick overview of the livelihoods of Wayanad, and how they have evolved in the last century.
1. Coffee and other plantations: During the British era, a small but significant
number of coffee and other plantations were set up in Wayanad, with some
migrants from nearby Coorg as well. Oral testimonies told us that the British
introduced coffee to the region first in the Manatthavadi area. Later on, Jain
and Gowda communities from nearby started moving in as well. It is to be
noted that Coffea robusta is the primary variety of coffee grown in the region,
and not the more high-value Coffea arabica. Robusta coffee is more often used
in low-grade coffees such as instant and flavoured coffees.
2. Forest-based livelihoods: Taking advantage of the ready availability of firewood and other forest-based
resources, migrants in the last century practiced livelihoods such as lemongrass cultivation. It was grown
to extract lemongrass oil, a lucrative commodity. However, the extraction of the oil required very large
quantities of wood (with 50 head loads of firewood needed for 1kg of oil). An added advantage of
lemongrass cultivation was that it had a 6-month payback period, which was short enough to be attractive
for new immigrants looking for income before too long.
However, the livelihood was discontinued in 5-10 years because they ran out of readily available firewood.
It is likely that a large and non-renewable amount of the forests were cut down in this period, perhaps
irrevocably altering Wayanad. With significantly higher prices for firewood, most communities had to
switch to other livelihoods. It should be noted that crops like Ragi and Maize were also cultivated to some
extent, concurrent with lemongrass.
3. Extensive coffee & pepper cultivation: Coffee cultivation became increasingly popular
in the 1960s and after, with smaller landholders (with 1-2 acre or 5-10 acre land
holdings) entering the fray. This form of small-scale coffee cultivation mostly follows a
mixed-cropping model, where coffee is cultivated alongside pepper, betel leaf, ginger
and other plants. After the intensification of pepper growth and the introduction of
hybrid varieties, pepper is now almost universally pest-ridden and provides little or no
income to the farmers today. Native pest-resistant varieties are still being grown
successfully only in small scattered pockets, and unfortunately cannot be easily reintroduced to already pest-prone areas.
4. Paddy and Areca cultivation: Paddy and areca have usually
been cultivated in the lowland and valley regions of
Wayanad, where the natural drainage systems have been
harnessed, as both crops require far more water than
coffee or other crops. Today, paddy gives a fairly low net
return compared to other cash crops and areca is riddled
with a yellowing drought (the source of which is a microbial
infection), which results in significant losses to yield and
quality.
5. Banana cultivation: Off
late, thanks to high market
prices, many local farmers
have switched from paddy
to banana in the low-lying
areas and valleys.
Public Affairs Centre | Environmental Governance Group