Eating Your Way to Immortality

Early Daoist Self-Cultivation Diets

SHAWN ARTHUR
Abstract
This paper examines health and bodyrelated claims made in the Lingbao
Wufuxu(The Prefacetothe FiveLingbao Talismans ofNuminous Treasure), an
earlymedievalDaoisttextthatcontainsseventyrecipesforattaininghealth,lon
gevity,andspiritualbenefit.Synthesizingthetextsmyriadclaimsandanalyzing
theirimplicitassumptions,Iworktodevelopanintegratedpictureofwhatwas
consideredcrucialfor a healthy body, what techniques were usedtoattainthis
ideal, and what goals were sought using these practices. I examine the texts
claimsaboutbecomingphysicallyandspirituallyhealthy,itsproposedstagesof
purificationandrefinement,andtherangeofindicatorsbywhichadherentscan
measure progress toward their ideal state. Not only does this study provide a
newinterpretationoftheWufuxusdietaryregimens,italsoillustrateshowChi
nese medical theories influenced the texts authors to present immortality as a
logical evolution of healthperfecting practices. This analysis leads to questions
of how the idea of perfecting ones health functions within the worldview and
ritualpracticesofearlyDaoists.

Daoists are well known for their emphasis on selfcultivation practices

aimed to attune them to the Dao and to achieve longevity. One signifi
cantpracticewhichhasreceivedrelativelylittleattentionisreligiousdie
taryasceticism.AswithotherDaoistpractices,dietaryregimesintegrate
a wide range of ideas such as cosmological correlation, medical theo
ries, andreligioussymbolism todevelop abeneficial andcomprehen
sive exercise that is expected to compliment other selfcultivation and
religiousritualpractices.

32

Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/33
Thisproject focuses ontheTaishanglingbaowufuxu
(Preface to the Five Most High Numinous Treasure Talismans),1 which
was written and edited from the second to the fifth centuries CE in the
Jiangnan region in southeastern China. The Wufuxus first juan
(scroll/chapter) includes instructions for specialized breathing practices
as wellas a description ofthe idealized lineage associated withthetext
anditstalismans fromitsemergenceduringthegenerationofthecosmos
through its various attributed owners including ancient mythological
figures, Masters of Esoterica (fangshi ), and famous immortals. The
textsthirdjuanincludesadetailedtransmissionritualforthefiveLing
bao talismans, which are presented (3.9b111b) and which are well
knownfortheirclaimedabilitytoprotecttheirwearerfromharmwhen
exploring wilderness areas in search of immortality elixir ingredients.2
Theformaltransmissionritual,firstpresentedinthisjuan(3.3a7b3),be
cametheritualmodeladoptedbyDaoistsfromthefifthcenturyforward
(Raz2004,8,15,36381).3
Situated between these sections, the middle juan of this text pro
vides an extensive and detailed example of Daoist dietary practices
manyofwhichareattributedtothefiguresdiscussedinearlierpartsof
the text. This section, whose contents is the subject of this essay, is a
technicalmanualofseventyrecipes(listedintheappendix)thatfocuses
on the attainment ofperfected health andphysical immortality through
theingestionofherbal andvegetalbasedprescriptions.4
1 DZ388;hereaftercitedasWufuxu.Thenumberingsysteminthisworkis

based on that found in Komjathys TitleIndextothe DaoistCanon (2002). For a

detaileddiscussionofthehistoryofthevariouseditionsofthistextanditsclose
relation to other early manuscripts such as the Lingbaojing and Lingbao
wufu ,seeRaz(2004,912,142150).
2 For example,seeWufuxu 3.8b79a10; Ge Hongs Baopuzi(Book of
theMasterWhoEmbracesSimplicity,DZ1185)11.3a18a2;trl.Ware1966,p.1796.
3 Foracomplete list ofthe contents ofthetexts first and thirdscrolls,see
Raz(2004,3137).
4 Although lacking an explicit explanatory statement, the context and
placementoftheserecipesalsoseemtoindicatethattheyfunctionaspreparatory
practices for participation in the later formal ritual which relies on the adept
havingattainedmanyofthegoalspresentedintherecipes,suchashavingones
energypurifiedandstrengthened,havingtheabilitytofast,beingincommunica
tionwiththegods,andhavingtheprotectionoftheJadeMaidens.

34/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

Techniques
TointroduceDaoistdiets,itmustberecognizedthatalloftheWufuxus
dietarypracticesandtheirexpectedbenefitsare predicatedonearlyChi
nese medical understandings of the physical body and the food it con
sumesinenergeticterms.Qi (organic,materialessentialenergy)isthe
fundamentalenergythatisfoundineverythingthroughoutthecosmos,
includingthehuman body,whichrequires qi tomaintainhealthandlife.
ThisideaisreflectedthroughouttheWufuxu,especiallyinitsmany
recipes that present benefiting and increasing qi as a basic self
cultivation achievement.5 For example, properly ingesting a compound
ofChinaRootfungus(fuling;Poriacocos),Rehmannia(dihuang;
Rehmanniaglutinosa Libosch),sesameseed(huma;Sesamumindicum),
andasparagus root(tianmendong;Asparaguscochinensis)powders
is thought to strengthen ones qi in just thirty days and to double it
withinonehundreddays necessary attainmentsbefore furtherrefine
mentcantakeplace(2.15a38;recipe20).
Oneresultofthisworldviewisanattempttoingestthemosteffica
ciousformsofqiin order tohave thebeststartingplace forproficiently
refiningandtransformingonesbodytoitsultimatepotential.Forexam
ple,thetextstates:Eatingthatwhichiscleanandpurebringslonglife,
andeatingthatwhichisuncleanandcorruptcausesoneslife(ming)
to be interrupted (2.23b2; recipe 28). Therefore, proper selection and
preparation of foods is crucial to Daoist selfcultivation. In fact, the
Wufuxuisfilledwithadmonitionstoingestonlyingredientsthatarehar
vestedandpreparedonparticulardaysassociatedwithoptimalqi condi
tionsandcorrespondences.
The Wufuxu contains seventythree different ingredients, the most
popularof which areSesameseeds,Asparagusroot,Rehmannia,China
rootfungus,Pinetreesap(songzhi;Pinus),Pokeroot(shanglu;
Phytolaccaacinosa),Locusttreeseeds(huaizi;Sophorajaponica),Wolf
berries(Gouqi;Lyciumchinense),andGinger(jiang;Zingiberoffici
nale).6 Eachingredienthasitsownmedicinalproperties,manyofwhich
5 Seerecipes1,2,7,12,14,20,25,27a,28,36,43,44,46.

The text contains fortyone plantbased active ingredients, as well as

twelvevarietiesofrice(mi),wheat(mai),andmillet(chishumi,shu
6

Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/35
arestatedexplicitlyinthetextandwhichcorrespondtootherearlyma
teriamedicainformation(seeArthur2006a,190213).
In addition to the ingredients innate qualities, the text stipulates
thatadeptsmusttakeintoconsiderationvariousimportantcosmological
correlationsespeciallydates,seasons,yinyangstates,andFivePhases
energies when collecting, preparing, and ingesting the various ingredi
ents.Forexample,ARecipeforLengtheningYearsandImprovingLife
Expectancydiscusses harvestingthechrysanthemumplant
(ju;Chrysanthemummorifolium),eachpartofwhichhasaspecialname
indicatingitskeyproperty, and says:
Duringthecourseofthethreespringmonths,onthejiayin
day in the middle of the day, gather transform life
leaves.Duringthecourseofthethreesummermonths,onthe
bingyindayinthemiddleoftheday,gatherthereplen
ishandrefillstalkDuringthethreeautumnmonthson
theyuyi dayintheafternoon,gatherthesunsessence
.Suns Essence isthe chrysanthemumsflower.Alwaysin
thewinterinthetenthmonthonthewuyindayatdawn,
gather the spirit essence These are the chrysanthe
mumsseeds In winter inthe eleventh ortwelfth month on
therenyindayatsunset,gatherlongevity.Longev
ityisthechrysanthemumsroots. (2.7a99a1;recipe12)7

In other words, tomaximize efficiency in attaining their goals, ad

eptsmustremain aware ofthemedicinal andqibasedpropertiesof the
ingredientstheyareingesting.Thisisdoneinpartbecausethesecharac
teristicscanchangedependinguponthetimestheplantsareharvested,
prepared,and ingested,but alsobecause thisrequires adeptstobecog
nizantoftheirownenergeticneedswhenchoosinganappropriatediet.

daomi ) thatarefermentedtoproducealcoholswiththeadditionofvegetal
active ingredients. Additionally, there are a few nonvegetal active ingredients
[mica(yunmu),deerantler(mijiao),mercury(shuiyin),andtin(xi
)],andmanynonvegetal,nonactiveingredientssuchaswater,honey,andthe
animalfatsusedforfryingin somerecipes.
7 See Arthur 2006, 605 and Raz 2004, 3612 for discussion of the Chinese
calendricalsystemanditsusageinthe Wufuxu.

36/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
Ideally, normal eatinghabitsalsoshouldbe abandoned in favor of
ingestingspecialelixirlikecompounds andcosmicqi,sincethesecontain
more specialized and rarified qi than normal foods. Accordingly, the
Wufuxu contains three basic types of selfcultivation dietary regimen,
eachrequiringadifferentlevelof commitment.
The first of these I label mildly ascetic because it involves eating
specialvegetalandherbal formulas as supplements to normalmeals or
slightly reduced food intake. Many of the Wufuxu diets proclaim that
practitionersshouldingestherbalmedicationsbefore(recipe16)orafter
(recipes 12, 14, 34) eating meals, or with any other foods they desire
(recipes 9, 21, 47, 66). For example, after harvesting and preparing the
orchid RedArrow(chijian ; Gastrodiaelata),thetextsays:
Asregardsthepropermethodofingestion,takea small spoon
ful after meals. This generally retards old age. After ten days
you will know its effectiveness. After thirty days your qi will
becomegreat.Onceyouhavetakenitforover100days,inad
ditiontotheabove,yourbodywillbecomelight,andyourears
and eyes will become astute and clear. After one year, teeth
andhairwillregrow. (2.9b22.10b3;recipe14)

Theleastdemandingofthetextsregimens,thisdiettypeseemsto
focusonimprovingoverallhealthandasanintroductiontomoresophis
ticated techniques. Similar to typical medical practices, the ingredients
used in these mildly ascetic recipes are expected to retain their efficacy
regardlessofany additionalfoods that areingested.
Second,many of theWufuxusrecipes advocate an ascetic diet in
volvingfoodreplacementtherapy.Thispracticeinvolvessmallamounts
ofspecial ingredients andherbalvegetalcompoundsbeingconsumed
intheformofpillsorcakesorherbinfusedalcohols withoutadditional
ordinary foodstuffs otherthan water.For example, ACommonRecipe
forIngestingandEatingNonGlutinousRice,followinga
string of similar recipes, implies that adepts should not eat additional
foodswhenitsays:
Take one dou(; a peck) of nonglutinous rice(gengmi),
three douofalcohol,andcombinethetwothings.Soak[therice]
until all the alcohol has dissipated; then stop and take it out.
Onlyeatalittleofit.Ifyouarethirsty,thendrinkwater.After

Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/37
thirty days this will be used up, and you can make more as
above.(2.35b46;recipe63)

Althoughonlytenrecipes8 statethatthemedicinalpreparationsare
tobe used in lieuofnormal foodconsumption during theregimen,the
tenorofthetextcombinedwiththefactthatmostrecipesadvocatethe
continuedingestionofamedicinalcompoundindicatesthatthisform
of asceticism is the expected dietary norm. Subsequently, this type of
asceticdiet functions onmultiple levels for Daoistadepts: as an impor
tant selfcultivation practice, as a basic fasting purification method for
ritual preparation, and as a useful survival technique when food was
scarceorwhentravellingaloneinthemountainsinsearchofspecialin
gredientsandspiritplants(excrescences, zhi ) forimmortalityelixirs.
For example, when discussing the benefits of ingesting Solomons
Seal (huangjing ; Polygonatum sibiricum), the Wufuxu claims, The
gods canbringaboutlongevityandcanextend[life],but[typical] people
donotsucceed.Eventhoughthegodsarebright,theyareeasiertoseeif
you eat this food (18b89; recipe 27a). Furthermore, people can ingest
smallspoonfulsofthespringharvestedrootoreggsizedportionsofthe
summerharvested root three times daily, and it will function as food
whenthereisnotenoughtoeat.Inunfortunateyears,thisherbcanhelp
theoldandyoungceaseeatinggrainsandcanfeedthem(22a45;recipe
28).
Whilethisregimenwouldbedemanding,thethirdandmostimpor
tant of the Wufuxus diets requires a strongly ascetic commitment to
extensivefastingpracticeswhichincludeavoidingdietarystaples,eat
ingnofoodatall,andingestingcosmicqithroughspecializedbreathing
andvisualizationpractices.TheWufuxucontainstenrecipesthatusethe
termbigu(lit.toavoidgrains)oritsequivalent.9 Theoriginalinten
tionofthetermbiguwaslikelyarigorousfastingregimenthatrequired
thepractitionertostopeatingthefivemaingraindietarystaplesofrice,
8 Recipes7,8,10,15,18a,

53, 59,60,61,64.

9 Severalothertermsexpressthesamebasicideaasbiguandareusedinter

changeablyintheliterature.Theyincludeduangu(tocutoffgrains),quegu
(to eliminate grains), xiuliang (to cease cereals), and jueli (to
abandonthestaples).SeeArthur2006,10511.Recipes7,8,9,15,20,27a,28,43,
65,66.

38/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
wheat,oats,millet,andbeans;however,notallusesofthetermindicate
strenuousortotalfasting.10
TheWufuxuusesthetermindifferentcontexts,typicallyinrecipes
whichprohibit ingesting any foods or whichclaimthat adepts will lose
their appetite naturally and will be able to live without normal food
stuffs.Forexample,APerfectedOnesRecipeforGrainAbstentionand
Eating Sesame claims that mixing steamed and
pounded sesame seeds with China Root fungus and honey will allow
adeptstoobtainstrengthandincreaseitveryquickly.Youwillbeable
toreplenish your vital essence(jing) andmarrow(sui ). Gradually
youwillnothunger.Ifyouthirst,thenjustdrinkwater(2.6a106b1,rec
ipe8).
The othermajorpractice associated with bigu isthemost asceticof
Daoistdietaryregimens:qiingestion(shiqi).Inthispractice,adepts
utilize variousbreathingandvisualization techniques toswallow theqi
ofthesun,moon,stars,andFivePhasesinordertonourishtheirbodies
and to enhance their connections to cosmic energies and deities. Qi
ingestionpractices, during whichthe adeptforgoes eatinganyphysical
food substances, are discussed throughout the Wufuxu as superior to
ingesting vegetal substances, which are thought merely to function as
healthrelated preparations which can acclimate the body to more seri
ous and subtle energy regimens. As such, shiqiregimens are necessary
forproperselfcultivation,ritualpurification,andformaltransmissionof
the Wufuxuanditstalismans.11
For example, in a recipe for the key selfcultivation practice of ex
pelling the Three Worms (sanchong ) with China Root Fungus and
poke root, an addendum states: Locust seeds are also good if you are
abletoingesttheirqi.Donotusethese[earlierstatedpreparation]tech
niquesifyoucanalsoingest theirqi.Theperfectedqiistheessenceofthe
Green Sprout(qingya)oftheFiveDirections.Daoistsingestthisfor

10 See Kohn

1993, 149; Arthur 2006, 94, 11417; Eskildsen 1998, 4344, 60;
Zhang2003,288.
11 Shiqi isonlymentionedinrecipes28,29,and44,butitplaysaprominent
role in other parts of the text (1.11b514b9; 1.18b826a8; 3.21a522a1). See also
Harper1998,3049; Huang1987;Jackowicz2006,6888;Raz2004,382397.

Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/39
twentyonedays and the Three Worms flee and leave (2.24b68;recipe
29).
Although not consistent throughout, the Wufuxu indicates that qi
ingestionisthemostefficaciouspracticeforachievingthehighestlevels
of immortality, such as when it states:Those who are able tocultivate
wuwei () and ingest qi and their own saliva will ascend (2.23a34,
recipe28).Asaresult,manyofthetextsselfcultivationorientedrecipes
promotetheadoptionofanasceticlifestylewhilereplacingnormalfood
intake with special vegetal and herbal preparations. The text indicates
thatitis throughthesustainedpracticeof theseregimensthatadeptscan
best attain their religious goals, such as health, physical and energetic
perfection,communicationwiththegods,andimmortality.

Perfecting Health
In spite of any hopes to the contrary, the Wufuxu clearly indicates that
achievingitsreligiousgoalsisnotasimpletask.Rather,thetextsrecipes
presentimmortalityastheculminationofagenerallylengthyandardu
ousprocessthatbuildingontheideaofacontinuumbetweenprevail
ingmedicaltheoriesandreligiousperspectivesbeginswithperfecting
oneshealththroughingestingthepropermedicinalsubstances.
Through a structuralist analysis (see LviStrauss 1966) involving
theconcurrentexaminationoftherecipesstructureandcontents,multi
ple patterns and details become evident within the texts presentation
and organization of information; and these discernable patterns, along
with frequent attributions to important figures in the texts lineaged
transmission, indicate the lengths to which the texts redactors went in
order to produce a cohesive, consistent, and unified text. Synthesizing
the texts myriad health and bodyrelated claims and analyzing their
implicitassumptions,theremainderofthisarticleillustratestheincorpo
rationofideasregardingwhatwasconsideredcrucialforahealthybody
andhowthisdirectlyrelatestotheperceivedstagesthatleadtoimmor
tality.
TheWufuxus recipes follow a uniform style andformatbeginning
with the recipes title and ingredient list, followed by discussion of
preparationandingestionmethods,andendingwithdeclarationsabout
expectedbenefitsthatwilloccurifanadeptproperlyadherestotherec

40/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
ipesdirections.Oneofthe mostconciseexamplesofthisformat,ARec
ipeforExtendingtheYearsandIncreasingLongevity ,states:
Placeripelocusttreeseedsinacowsintestine(niuchang ),
andputthisinadarkplacetodryforonehundreddays.After
that, swallow one piece with your meal in the morning and
evening. After ten days your body will lighten. After thirty
days your white hair will revert to black. After one hundred
daysyourfacewillbecomeradiant.After twohundreddays,a
gallopinghorsewillnotbeabletokeepupwithyou.(2.16a9
b2;recipe23)

Therecipesalsocontaindescriptionsofthevariouschangesthatare
expected to occur within the body from having ingested the recom
mended medicines. Also similar in style, organization, andcontent, the
recipesmanyproclamationsbeginwithhealingthebody asthefirstgoal
ofpractice;andthistypicallytakesplaceinthefirstfewyears.Afterthis,
thebodyitsthoughttogainextraordinaryabilities,andonlythencanit
becomeperfectedandspiritualizedastheadeptcomesintocontactwith
thecosmic andbody gods who give the adeptsbodyeven greater and
more miraculous powers. Finally, the adept is expected to become an
immortalandtoascendtotheheavenlyrealminasfewasfivehundred
days(recipe30),butitmaytakeasmanyasfiftythousanddays(recipe
17).Forexample,ThePerfectedOnesRecipeforFermentingAsparagus
Alcohol says:
Ifyouingestthismedicinefor threeyearsthehundreddiseases
will all healthemselves,andskindiseasesand worms willall
borethroughtheskinatthejointsandwillbeexpelled.Ingest
it for three [more] years and your balding head will regrow
hair.Ingestitfortenyearsandyouwillbeabletocontrolyour
destinyandthechaosofyourpreviouslife.Ingestitfortwenty
years and inthe winter you will not becold, and inthesum
mer you will not be hot. Ingest it for thirty years and an old
manofonehundredyearsofagewilllooklikeayoungmanof
fifteen.
Afteringestingitforfortyyears,youwillbeabletocom
municatewiththegods;andatthistime,therewillbeaspirit
maidentobringmedicineandtoencourageyou.Ifyouobtain

Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/41
it, ingest this spirit medicine. Three days later, you will shed
yourbodylikeacaterpillarshedsitsskinandattainimmortal
ity. Even if you have already obtained and ingested a spirit
elixir, obtaining this alcohol still will be beneficial and auspi
cious. (2.31a6b5; recipe49)

My analysis of the text indicates that purifying the body and per
fectingitshealthcanbedividedintofourmajorcategories,thefirstthree
ofwhicharecuringdisease,expellingtheThreeWorms,andeliminating
hunger all indicative of strengthening the physical bodys structure
andinternalfunctionalcomponents.Thefourthhealthcategoryinvolves
refining the external physical body and its components, especially
through attention to transforming the bodys abilities and outward ap
pearance.

Curing Disease
Tobegin thepath towardperfectionand immortality, adeptsmust first
attainhealthandridthebodyofdisease,whichhasphysiological,ener
getic,andparanormalorigins.Inall,morethanhalfoftheWufuxusreci
pesdirectlyrefertocuring illness inthebody including the twentyone
recipesmakingthegeneralclaimthattheyareabletocurethehundred
illnesses (baibing ; i.e., all illness) and the eight recipes claiming to
makethebodyhealthybynaturallybenefitingit(yi )andnourish
ing it (yang).12 In fact,health issuescomprise a largerproportion of
Wufuxusrecipesthan any otherconcern. This indicatesthat thehealth
ofthebodyisofparamountimportancetoattaininganymajorreligious
goals;andsubsequentlytherearetwobasicclassesofillnessthatneedto
becured:energeticissuesandailmentsofdailylife.
Clearlyindicatingthatthetextsredactorshadatleastbasicknowl
edgeofChinesemedicalideasanddiagnosticterminology,theidealpat
tern of qiflow is presented as balanced, strong, and smoothflowing
throughout the body. One central form of illness that is essential to
eliminateis waywardandpathogenic(xie)qiflow,which involvesqi

12 Recipes1,7,8,12,16,21,25,28,35,37,40,44,45,46,47,49,50,51,52,53,
57 for curing illness; and recipes 1, 2, 10, 17, 26, 27a, 35, 52 for benefiting and
nourishingthebody.

42/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
blockagesandexcessiveflow,especiallyduetotheeffectsoftheSixPer
niciousInfluences:excesscold,dampness,heat,wind,dryness,summer
heat(see Kaptchuck1983,14657;Despeux2001,126).Forexample,refer
ring to cakes made of a mixture of pine sap, China Root fungus, and
honey,thetextclaims:
Aftera hundred daysyour body will become light.Aftertwo
hundreddaysyouwillhavenomorecoldorheat.Afterthree
hundred days you will have no more windy head and blurry
eyes. After four hundred days you will have no more of the
fivetroubles(lao)ortheseveninjuries(shang).Afterfive
hundreddaysyouwillhavenomorecoldbelly,indigestion,or
concealedobstructionsof qi. (2.12b810;recipe17)

Supposing that previous exercises had rid the body of heteropathic qi

and had balanced and strengthened the internal body, another facet of
health in the Wufuxu involves refining the bodys other crucial internal
energy:jing .Oftentranslatedasvitalessence,jingisthesexualenergy
associated with the kidney and reproductivesystem, and seven recipes
focus on protecting and increasingjingbecause oncejing is exhausted,
deathoccurs.13
Thesecondtypeofdiseaseemergesfromtheproblemsofdailylife.
ThirteenWufuxurecipespurporttoalleviatejointpainsandrheumatism,
to counteract the five troubles and seven injuries associated with life
and work, and to deal with womens gynecological and birthrelated
problems.14 Infact,onerecipestitleexplicitlystatesthatthemedicineis
thoughttobeparticularlyusefulforlabororientedandwomenshealth
issues: The Recipe for Expelling the Three Worms; Killing the Con
cealed Corpses; Healing Black Facial [Disease]; Benefiting Wisdom and
Remembering;andCuringAlloftheFiveTroublesandSevenInjuriesof
MenandWomen,WivesBreastMilk,BearingOffspring,ExcessBelow
the Belt Illnesses,and Red and White Secretions

13 Recipes1,2,8,14a,17,27a,36.SeeUnschuld1985,1267.
14 Foralleviatingjointpains,seerecipes25,52,54.Forhealingthefivetrou

blesandseveninjuries,seerecipes15,17,40,43,54.Forgynecologicalissues,see
recipes:4,14,15,43,45.

Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/43
(2.10b102.11a7;
recipe15).15
The focus of curing common ailments and pregnant women indi
catesthatsomeoftheserecipeslikelyoriginatedamongsourcesoutside
the Lingbao Daoist school. The lineage associated with the compilation
of the Wufuxu was predominately comprised of male members of the
literaticlass meaning welleducated and welltodopatrons with time
andmoney topracticethe oftenasceticregiments found inthe Lingbao
corpus(Yamada2000).
Originally,theWufuxusrecipeswerepropagatedbyfangshi,whose
social roles included acting as wandering doctors and magic workers
throughout eastern and southern China. These fangshi are thought to
havesoldtheirrecipestoaristocrats,merchants,andfarmers,andpossi
blyusedrecipessuchasthoseinthe Wufuxu tocurethegeneralpopulace
(seeRaz2004,3849;Campany2002,6).Recipesfocusedoncuringissues
common to laborers and women indicate that they were culled and
adapted from extant recipes and medical treatment techniques being
propagatedby fangshi ratherthanoriginatingwithliteratiDaoists.

Expelling the Three Worms

The othermaincomponents of strengthening thephysicalbodysstruc
tureandfunctionalcomponentsinvolveintestinalissues.Previousstud
ies of the Wufuxu (such as Yamada 1989) have focused on the Three
Worms(sanchong)ascentraltothetext;however,onlyelevenreci
pesmention expelling the Three Worms and ConcealedCorpses (fushi
)fromthebody.16
Thesemalevolentcreaturesareunderstoodtobebothparasitesand
spiritual agents that live inpeoplesbodies,feedon decaying matter in
the intestines, and hastentheir deathby causingdiseases such asthose
emphasized throughout the text, by rendering food and medicine inef
fective, and by causing peoples destined lives (ming ) to be short

15 The names of these womens problems Excess Below the Belt Ill
nesses;andRedandWhiteSecretionsrefertovenerealdiseases,genitalinfec
tions,menstrualproblems,andotherissues.
16 Recipes15,16,17,18,22,27a,28,29,34,43,49.

44/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
ened.17 ThelaterhappenswhentheThreeWorms,actingasmoralagents,
emergefromtheirsleepinghostonthegengshendayjustbeforethe
newmoon(thefiftyseventhoftheChinesesexagesimalcalendricalcycle)
andreportthepersonstransgressionstotheheavenlyDirectorofDesti
nies(Siming)whothendecreasesthelengthofthepersonslifeby
theproperamountaccordingtotheinfraction.
One method for expelling the Three Worms involves fermenting
ChinaRootfungus,pokeroot,alcohol,wheatflour,andyeast,andthen
making largepills(dan) which are ingested thricedaily foronehun
dreddays.Therecipeexplains:
These three Corpses are born together with the person, and
theyoftendesiretocausethepersontodie.Whenthelastday
of the dark moon and the first day of the new moon arrives,
they will want to ascend to Heaven [in order to report] the
transgressions of commoners.When the lastday of the moon
arrives, you must grasp your heavenly soul (hun) and re
strain your earthlysoul (po) and then guard them through
the nights gengshen hour. Through this action, the Three
CorpseswillbeunabletorousetoactionTheThreeCorpses
generally desire the person to die;therefore,they want to at
tackandsnatchawaythatwhichisbeingdiscussed [i.e.,souls].
Generally,Daoists(Daoshi )arealsodoctors;howeverthey
knowhowtocultivatethebodywithrecipesbutdonotknow
that the Concealed Corpses that live in peoples abdomens
limitthe drugs powers andcausethe medicine to be ineffec
tive.18 This is all caused bythe Three WormsIf you are un
abletoexpungethem;however,youjustcheatyourself.Once
you expel them, then you will not again have hunger. Your

17 See

Wufuxu2.24a; Arthur2006,1024; Campany2002,4952,166;2005,43

4;Yamada1989,10710; Kohn1993,149;Eskildsen1998;andForke190711,2.363.
Aninthcenturytext,theChusanshijiuchongbaoshengjing(The
Scripture on Expelling the Three Corpses and Nine Worms to Protect Life; DZ
871), provides one of the most comprehensive and detailed discussions of this
phenomenon.
18 ThiscriticalreferencetoDaoistsalsoindicatesthatDaoistsdidnotcreate
therecipe.

Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/45
heart/mind(xin)willbepeacefulandwithoutthoughts,and
youwillbeabletoobtainandfollowthelifeofaPerfectedPer
son(zhenren ). (2.24a3b3;recipe29)

According to the Wufuxu, progressing towards a healthy state re

quires that the Three Worms must be eliminated. Ridding the body of
these parasites, and keeping them from returning through ingesting
anthelmintic,parasiteremoving, medicineorperformingbigufastingis
also equated with the adept being able to retain a high level of moral
thought and action, thus introducing an important moral dimension to
Daoist selfcultivation. In addition to allowing the adept to live out
his/heroriginallifespan,killingtheThreeWormsisalsoacrucialstepto
calm ones heart/mind, to attempt advanced selfcultivation, and to get
ridofhungeralsoaweaknessofthebodythatcanbecuredbyfollow
ingthe Wufuxusregimens.

Physical Improvements
Inadditiontocuringdisease,refiningthebodysenergies,andexpelling
the Three Worms, the Wufuxus redactors included fortyfive different
claims that explain ways to improve the physical body and its psycho
logical attributes through further development of the bodys integrated
physical and energetic components. Interestingly, the aspects of the
physicalbodythataresubjecttoproposedimprovementscanbedirectly
correlatedtothemostapparentcharacteristicsofayoungperson,suchas
clear eyesight, acute hearing, strong bones and muscles, supple flesh,
blackhair,beinglight,beinginvigorated,andhavingallofonesteeth.In
other words, these Daoists were explicitly concerned with overcoming
themanifestationsofanagingbody.
The most common enhancements are to the adepts eyesight and
hearing with eleven and ten recipes respectively.19 Besides health
related benefits, eyesight and hearing also are important to Daoist reli
giouspracticessuchasbeingabletoreadatextduringanighttimeritual,
honing ones ability to see various spirit beings and excrescences, and

19 Recipes2,5,12,14,15,17,25,27,28,43,45foreyesightimprovement,and
recipes1,2,5,12,14,15,25,27,43,45forhearingimprovement.

46/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
beingabletolistentocommunicationfromspiritbeingsandgods.20 Ad
ditionally,wecaninterpretclaimsabouttheeyesandearsintermsofthe
FivePhasescorrelativetheoryusedthroughoutthetextinordertohigh
light another level of possible meaning for basic health improvements.
Accordingly, eyesight improvement is related to lessening anger and
increasing courage; while curing hearing loss can be related to kidney
issuessuchasincreasingjing,perfectingwisdom,andlesseninganxiety
(see Kohn 2006, 57). Thus, health of the physical body corresponds to
mentalhealthaswell.
The other major aspect of perfecting the physical body relates to
improving thebodys appearance. Analyzing the text indicates that ap
pearanceisoneofthemostimportantsignsofbeinghealthyandhaving
strong qi. In fact, of all of the Wufuxus specific healthrelated claims,
morearerelatedtorejuvenatingthecomplexion;makingtheskinlook
glossy, smooth, shiny, and youthful; and making the white hair of old
ageregrowandreturntoblack thantoanyotherissue.21
For example, one recipe which advocates eating small cakes made
of pine tree sap, China root fungus, alcohol, and honey addresses im
provements to the body and its appearance; and readers can easily de
ducethathealthandyouthfulnessarebutinitialstepsalongthelengthy
pathtowardsimmortality.The recipesays:
After six hundred days your facial complexion will be stabi
lized.Aftersevenhundreddays,youwillhavenomoreblack
facialskin.Aftereighthundreddaysnewblackhairwillgrow.
After nine hundred days burns and scars will be eradicated.
After athousand days both eyes will become clear.Aftertwo
thousand days the complexion will change. After three thou
sanddaysyouwillbeabletowalkwithoutleavingatrace.Af
terfourthousanddayseverymark[onthebody]willbeelimi
nated.After five thousand days nighttime will appear illumi
nated.

20 See

Baopuzi 11.3a18a2;trl.Ware1966,p.1796.

21 Recipes 1, 2, 4, 12, 13, 15, 17, 20, 20a, 28, 36, 43, 45 for rejuvenating the

complexion;recipes2,4,5,12,14,17,23,27,28,35,45,48,49forregrowingblack
hair;andrecipes4,12,15,17,28,39,43,45,48,49,50forskinimprovements.

Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/47
Aftersixthousanddaysthemusclesandskinwillchange.
Afterseventhousanddaystheskinandpulseswillbeableto
beconcealed.Aftereightthousanddaysthejingandshenwill
bestrong.Afterninethousanddaystheyouthfulnessofachild
willbereached.Aftertenthousanddays[27+years]thebody
willbenaturallyhealthy.(2.12b10 13a6;recipe17)

Here,intheoverallprogresstowardsimmortality,thereisevidence
of some concepts of reversal but only to a rightfully healthy state. In
otherwords,toothloss,hairloss,wrinkles,andwhitehairareallsignsof
unnecessaryagingandbodilydecaywhichwilldisappearonceahealthy
state is regained. This seems to signify that the intended audience for
these recipes would have been the older generations, especially of the
aristocracy among which the text circulated, who would have the time
andabilitytoadoptasceticpractices.Agereversal,itwashoped,would
also give interested people additional time and an increased chance of
achievingtheirreligiousgoals.
Overall,theWufuxusproposedhealthimprovementscorrespondto
common ailments and limitations of the body as it grows older. Thus,
Daoisthealthdoesnotmerelyindicatealackofdisease.Thetextsredac
tors included many examples of aggressively seeking to combat prob
lems associated with old age and death on all fronts: from its outward
manifestations inbodily weakness anddegradation to internalstatesof
disease and energy imbalance. Indicating that the adept is progressing
towardimmortality,thisstateofperfectedhealthmustbesuccessfulfor
furthercultivationandrefinementtooccur.

48/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

Extraordinary Attainments
TheWufuxupresentstheadeptsnextstageofdevelopmentasanatural
extension of the continuum of medicallyoriented theories about the
body:ifthephysicalbodycanachieveahealthystateandretardtheag
ing process, then with sustained religious ascetic selfcultivation prac
tices, it should be able to completely transcend normal capabilities.
Theseadvancedattainmentsareexpectedtoincludeextremehealth,pro
tective characteristics, and extraordinary abilities.22 Based on the extent
to which Chinese medical and correlative theories can be applied, ex
traordinary abilities are presentedasthe likely, reasonable, andnatural
products of religious selfcultivation regimens as presented in the
Wufuxu. Forexample,thetextclaims:Thosewithacleannature(xing)
receive perfected qi. For those who are clean, longevity is their natural
(ziran )destiny(2.23b45).
Byextremehealth,Irefertotheextensionofearliermedicallybased
health attainments to levels beyond the scope of traditional medical
ideas.ItisherethatIargueidealreligiousexpectationsreplacemorelim
ited medical possibilities. For example, five recipes claim to be able to
radicallyimprovesightandhearing somuchsothatadeptswillbeable
to see things a thousand miles away, to see in the dark, to hear voices
that are ten thousand miles away, and to have clairvoyance (yuanzhi
sifang ;lit.farreachingknowledgeofthefourdirections; 2.3b6;
recipe2;seealsorecipes12,16,17,27a).Thisseemstorepresentameta
phoricalclaimtoanabilitytoseetheearthlyspiritsandcosmicgodsin
theirabodesandtoheartheircommunication.
Additionally, the text contends that strengthening ones qi should
continue until it is so concentrated that the body obtains one hundred
times normal strength, the storehouse organs never become exhausted,
andvariousbodilyparts(suchastheeyes,hands,andgallbladder)be
gin to radiate qi as light. Furthermore, continued selfcultivation is ex
pectedtoleadtothebodysprotectionfromallmannerofpossibleprob
lemssuchasdrowningwhileunderwaterandbeingphysicallyorspiri
22 I usetheterm extraordinary rather than supernatural becausethe an

cientChinesethoughtthatthegods,spirits,souls,andghostswereanaturalpart
ofthecosmos,notseparatefromorbeyondtherealworld.

Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/49
tually injured,poisoned, andattacked.Thebasic warding off ofthe Six
PerniciousInfluencesisextendedsothattheadeptbecomesimpervious
toanyextremeexternalconditionsuchasfire,extremecold,heteropathic
energies, and malevolent spirit beings. Other extraordinary abilities in
cludetravelingbyunconventionalmeanssuchasflyingorrunningfaster
thanahorse,consciouslyroamingaboutwithyourspiritwhiledream
ing, becoming invisible, communicating with the gods of the body and
cosmos,controlling spiritbeings,andbeingabletocontrolonesdestiny.
A Recipe for Lengthening Your Years and Extending Your Life
Expectancy offers a useful example of the texts range of
extraordinary benefits, which are expected to occur after the adept
achievesahealthystate.Thischrysanthemumbasedrecipestates:
Ifyouingestitforanentireyear,thehundredillnesseswillall
leave, your ears will become more astute, your eyes will see
clearly, your body will become lighter, and your qi will in
crease.Also,youwilladdtwoyearstoyourlife. Ifyouingestit
for two years, your face and complexion will be joyous and
smooth, your qi and strength will increase one hundredfold.
Any white hairs will return to black, and any lost teeth will
growagain.Also,youwilladdthreeyearstoyourlife.
If you ingest it for three years, when you walk in the
mountainsyouwillnotneedtoavoidsnakes,dragons,ghosts
and spirits. You will never encounter warriors or weapons.
Unlesstheyareflyingbirds,noonewilldaretoovertakeyou.
Also, you will add thirteen years to your life.If you ingest it
for four years, your name will be reported to the gods (shen
ming)aswellastheFivePhases.Also,youwilladdforty
yearstoyourlife.
Ifyouingestitforfiveyears,yourbodywillbringfortha
radiant light(guangming), your eyes will illuminate both
dayandnight,andtherewillberadianceinyourinnerparts,
bridges, intersections, and joints. Your body will be so light
that eventhough you do not havefeathers or wings, by mere
intention you will be able to travel by flying. Ingest it for six
years in order to increase your longevity by three hundred
years.
If you ingest itforseven years, the Dao in your shenwill
desireperfectionandyourlongevitywillincreasebyonethou
sand years. If you ingest it for eight years, your eyes will be

50/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
abletoseeforonethousandmiles(li ),yourearswillbeable
tohearfortenthousandli,andyourlongevitywillincreaseby
twothousandyears.
Ifyouingestitfornineyears,yourshenwillbeperfected
andwillbecomelikegoldenstone.Atdeathyouwillbeableto
come backto life. Your longevity will increase bythreethou
sand years. On your left will be the green dragon, on your
rightwillbethewhitetiger,andgoldwillbecomeyourchariot.
(2.8abrecipe12)

These abilities are presented as the culmination of extensive self

cultivationworkonthepartoftheadept,andarebasedontheearlyme
dieval worldview that humans could transcend normal limitations
through selfcultivation and magicoreligious practices, and that valor
izedpersonswhoattemptedthiswork.23 However,thesepowersarenot
meant to be a goal for the adept; they are merely indications that the
adepts inner spiritual cultivation is progressing and that the bodys
physical, mental, and spiritual components are being thoroughly trans
formed.However,theextraordinaryabilitiesandgreatlyincreasedqi are
integral to the adepts journey toward immortality because it is these
characteristicsthatseemtobenoticedbythecosmicdeities,whoeventu
allywillcontacttheadeptandleadtheadeptintothenextstageofculti
vation:spiritualizationorselfdivination.

Spiritualizing the Body

The Wufuxus penultimate stage of selfcultivation signifies that the
adepthasbeencleansedandpurified,hasadoptedalifeofquietude,and
has developed a tangible connection to the spirit realm that propels
him/hertowardevenmoreadvancedtransformationofthephysicaland
spiritualbodies.Shen,spiritenergy,ispartofthebodysinherenten
ergetic cosmic connection from birth, and six recipes claim to increase
and nourish the shen.24 It seems that adepts strive to store and purify
theirqi inordertoallowtheirshen tobecomemoreprominentandactive.

23 SeeRaz2005,117;theargumentthroughouttheBaopuzi;
24 Recipes1,17,25,27a,37,46.

see Ware1966.

Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/51
Shen,a moresubtle manifestationofqi,isthenamplifiedandfurther
refined to takeon numinouscharacteristics indicating thatadepts are
attempting to spiritualize or divinize the physical body.25 One lotus
basedrecipe,forexample,integratescosmologicalcorrelationsandplant
partstoprepareamedicinalcompoundmeanttoenhancethe shen.
Everythingisfromthesameplant.Onthe7th dayofthe7th lu
nar month collect seven parts lotus flowers (ouhua ). On
the8th dayofthe8th lunarmonthcollecteightpartslotusroot
(ougen).Onthe9th dayofthe9th lunarmonthgathernine
parts lotusseeds(oushi).Mixthe plantstuffstogetherto
prepare them. When complete, ingest an inchsquare spatula
full.(2.16b79)
Ingest for one hundred days then stop. Your inner lord
(zhu ) will arrive and your inner being will be enhanced.
Yourqiwillgetstrongandwillnourishyourshen.Youwillnot
hunger and will expelthe one hundred illnesses. After along
timeofingesting,yourbodywillbecomelight.Youwillextend
youryears,notgrowold,andthenturnintoaspiritimmortal
(shenxian ). (2.17a89;recipe25)

The result of the completion of this final stage of preparation, then, is

consideredaperfectedbody,whichisphysicallysimilartoearlierstages
butisrepletewithasignificantlymoresubtlequalityofessentialenergy.
Atthispoint,Daoistsadeptsexpecttohaveanintimateconnection
with cosmic energies and direct knowledge of how to wholly embody
andsynchronizeearthlyandcosmicprinciples;thustheybegintomani
festcharacteristicsofspiritbeings.Thisadvancedlevelofspiritualization,
in turn, is expected to attract the attention of spirits guardians. For ex
ample,fiverecipesclaimthatingestingmedicinesofsesame,Solomons
seal,orasparagusroottincturewillattractSpiritMaidens(shenn),

25 There is no discussion of transmuting qi into jing and then into shen as

with later internal alchemy; however, the organization of the texts myriad
claimsindicatesthatpurifying,harmonizing,andstrengtheningonesqiandjing
isnecessarybeforetheadeptisabletomoreactivelycultivatetheir shen andalign
itwiththatofthegods.

52/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
JadeMaidens(yun),andthesixArmoredSpirits(jiashen )who
willserveandprotectthepurifiedadeptfromharm.26
Withthisdefensivespiritretinueinplace,itisanticipatedthatvari
ouscosmic deities such asTaiyi (; GreatUnity) will visit andcom
municatewiththeadept.27 Buildingontheimportanceofcommunicating
with various gods discussed throughout the full text, and its focus on
detailed and lengthy selfcultivation, the Wufuxu implies that the path
beyond health and longer life eventually requires some form of divine
interventiononbehalfofadepts.
Thefirststepinthisprocessistoattracttheattentionofthecosmic
deities, who are expected to recognize when an adept has sufficiently
purified him/herself. After contact has been established to verify the
adeptspreparationiscomplete,threerecipescontendthataspectsofthe
cosmic deities will descend from their celestial abodes to take up resi
dence in the adepts internal palaces the energy centers in the body
whichincludethevariousorgansaswellasthelowerdantian (;lit.
cinnabar/elixir field) just below the navel, the middle dantian at the
heartlevel,andthenineroomNiwanPalace()intheupperdantian
inthehead.28 Eventually,itishoped,thatthesegodswillinvitetheadept
to live in the heavenly realm as an immortal. For example a Solomons
Sealrecipeclaims:
Ingestandeatthisherboverthefourseasons,anddonotstop.
Itcanbringaboutanextensionofyouryearsifyouareableto
cast aside society and its customs and live a hermit life on a
famousmountain.Ifyouingestandeatthisherb,youcanlive
aslongasHeavenandEarth.Themultitudeofgodswillcon
vene together, and Taiyi will be expecting and will welcome
you.Youwillascendandbepromotedto[therankof]Officer
ofHeaven. (2.19a35;recipe27a)
26 Thejiashenareassociatedwiththesixcalendricaljiadates,whicharethe

first ofthe tenHeavenly Stems(tiangan),that occur during each sixtyday

cycle(seeArthur2009,forthcoming). Recipes2,8,27a,30,49.
27 Recipes10,15,17,27,27a,28,49.
28 Recipes 2, 25, 27a. According to the Wufuxus first chapter, the three
dantian are the corporeal offices of the Three Ones Heaven, Earth, and the
CrimsonChildwithinthebody(1.22b2b7;seeRaz2005,3523).

Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/53
Daoiststhoughtthatthecorporealdeitiesoriginallywerepresentin
peoples bodies but normal lifes stressors and extreme emotions had
sulliedthebodytosuchadegreethatthegodsweredrivenaway.Thus,
it takes a great deal of cultivation and purification to coax the various
body gods toreturntotheir rightfulplaces within thecomplex internal
landscape of the adepts body. For example, tasting the strong flavors,
smellingputridodors,hearingloudsounds,andseeingsexordefecation
all can negatively impact the adepts sensitive constitution and its rari
fiedsubtleenergies,andcanthusupsetthebodygods,causingthemto
flee from the adept. The Wufuxu says: As you practice consistently,
avoid foods like fresh fish,pork,scallions, and strong vegetables [as all
have strong smells and tastes]. Also avoid gazing upon mourners and
corpses,aswellasdogsandpigsintheprocessofgivingbirthor defecat
ing.Beverycareful!(2.2b103a1;recipe2).
The various manifestations of the cosmic deities that take up resi
dence in the adepts body signify the adepts complete transformation
frombasehumantothefullembodimentofthesacredmacrocosmicreal
ity.29 Oncethecorporealdeitieshavetakenupresidence,theadeptsmi
crocosmicbodyhasbecomeadirectcorrelatetothemacrocosmos.With
thisattainment,anotherabstractmysticalexperienceisthoughttooccur:
the capacity to leave the obscure and enter the profound (chuyao
ruming ;2.1a5;recipe1) toachieveunionwiththeDao.

Immortality
At this point in the adepts development, the final major goal of the
Wufuxusdietaryregimesismet:theadeptattainsextendedlifeandim
mortality.Justbehindcuringillness,extremelongevityisthemostcom
mon benefit promoted by the text. Nearly half of the texts recipes de
clarethatpractitionerscanattainvaryingdegreesoflongevityandeven
tually become an immortal being (xian ). Although numerous, the
claimsabout extremelongevity lackspecificity; thereareno fewerthan
thirtysix differentphrases employed in the textto denote life extended
beyondnormalexpectationsforexample,toobtainlonglife(),

29 ThisideaisnotuniquetotheearlymedievalDaoism;itoriginatedinthe
preQineraandbecomeprominentduringtheHandynasty(Raz2005,34041).

54/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
to livemany thousandsof years (), tohalt theprogressionof
years(),andtolengthenexistence()(2.1a22a10;recipe1).
For claritys sake, I have divided the texts ideas about this phe
nomenon into three categories: minor longevity, major longevity, and
immortality. Seven recipes purport to lead to minor longevity i.e., to
extend the adepts life by a few years, but less than an additional full
lifespan,ortoretardoldage().30 Forexample,AnotherRecipefor
RepellingOldAgedoesnotexplainwhatismeantbyitstitle
whenitsays:Beginningonthefirstsi dayofthetenthlunarmonth,
ingestlocustseedsoncedaily.Increasethedosebyone[eachday]until
youreachtendays.Again,returnandrepeatfromthebeginning.Todo
correctlyyoumustbegineatingthemonthefirstsi day(2.16b316b5;
recipe24).
Iclassifyexplicitclaimsofincreasinglifetoatleastdoubleanormal
personslifeexpectancyasmajorlongevity.Here,thebodysnaturallife
and death processes allegedly are transcended. For example, a recipe
that combines mica, curly cypress (juanbo ; Selaginella tamariscina),
waterplantain(zexie;Alismaorientalis),EdibleGreensFruit(xianshi
; Aramanthus),andpinetreesapclaimsthatingestingthiscompound
forsevenyears:Yourbodywilllivefortythreethousandyearsandwill
not die (2.14b515a2; recipe 19). Similarly, avoiding death (),
endlesslongevity(),andlivingaslongasHeavenandEarth
()areusedas synonymsfortheideaofimmortality.
It seems that the textsmanyclaims of extreme longevity are ideo
logically similar to those of immortality where the adept continues to
resideonearthorintheheavensforanextensiveperiodoftimeinapu
rified form of their original physical body. Whether or not these state
ments signify an absolute permanent existence (see Raz 2005, 110n176),
they certainly indicate a life that is far longer than the norm, and there
are thirteen recipes that couple the term immortality with claims of
dramatically increasingthe length ofthepractitioners life hence I ar
gue thatthey shouldbeconsidereda form of immortality.31 Inaddition
toachievinganelongatedlifespan,thetextalsomentionsfourexamples

30 Recipes1,12,14,16,24,25,27a.
31 Recipes1,2,5,12,13,17,19,25,26,27,27a,28,32,44,46,47,48.

Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/55
ofadeptstranscending(dushi)thephysicalworldandascendingto
reside intheHeaven of Great Clarity (Taiqing) where theymaybe
receivedby the godTaiyi andbe giventhe rank of Immortal Person or
OfficerofHeaven(tianfu ).32
TheWufuxu doesnotprovide aconcise explanation of what itsre
dactorsmeantbythetermimmortality,andanalystsarelimitedtoinfer
ring ideas from passages which contain the term, from the texts short
hagiographical accounts of immortals,33 and from the presentation of
immortality as theculminationof attaining sufficientpurity andrefine
ment through extensive selfcultivation and longterm maintenance of
asceticdietaryregimens.Thetextdoesnotincludeahierarchyofimmor
tal achievements as found in Ge Hongs Baopuzi, which differentiates
between celestial immortals, earthly immortals, and corpseliberated
immortals(2:9a;Ware1966,478).Yet,otherexamplesintheBaopuzido
not discuss this hierarchy because all immortals supposedly have at
tained the crucial benefit of longevity.34 These instances support the
Wufuxus implication that there is little significant difference between
forms of major longevity and immortality other than the adepts final
placeofresidence.

32 Recipes1,2,17,27a.TheideasoftheHeavenofGreatClarityandthegod

Taiyi first featured in the Shangqing school of the 4th century (Hu 1995, 1457;
Robinet2000,215).FordiscussionontheascenttoTaiyi,seeBokenkamp1990.
33 Recipes2,6,7,13,16,17,19,25,26,27,27a,28,30,32,36,49.Theseshort
accounts, of figures such as Master Red Pine in recipe 17, are similar to those
found in other narratives and major hagiographic collections: the Liexianzhuan
(;BiographiesofImmortals;Kaltenmark1953);theShenxianzhuan (;
Biographies of Spirit Immortals; Campany 2002); and chapter 82 of the Houhan
shu(;HistoryoftheLaterHan;Fangshuliezhuan;Traditionsof
theEsotericArts;Ngo1976andDeWoskin1983);also Raz2005,43n14).
34 SeeBaopuzi3.52;Ware1966,65;Campany2002,77,181,29294;Raz2005,
11012.

56/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

Conclusion
Althoughmissingmanynecessarydetailsforanallinclusive,contextual
understanding, the Wufuxu does provide a great deal of information
aboutthepathofearlymedievalDaoistselfcultivationandthemechan
icsofitsdietaryprocedures.Amalgamatingthetextsvariousclaimsand
analyzing their implicit and explicit suppositions, I have developed a
relativelycomprehensivetypology regarding theWufuxus expectations
forahealthybody,forlongevity,andforachievingitsspecificreligious
goals. This analysis leads to questions of how the idea of perfection
especially of ones health and ones energies functions within the
worldviewandritualpracticesofearlyDaoists.
The structure and organization of the majority of the texts entries
illustrateatimeconsumingstepbysteptransformationofallaspectsof
the adepts body. This process first requires balancing, purifying, and
refining the mundane aspects of the body. Demonstrating the holistic
nature of Daoist claims of perfection throughout the text, the bodys
physical, energetic, and spiritual components are interconnected and
related to prevalent medical and cosmological correlative theories. In
otherwords,adeptsbeginbybalancingandtransformingthebodysmi
crocosmbasedonperceivedpatterns,correlations,andideasabout qi.
Eventually, the text indicates that integrating characteristics of the
macrocosm,especiallyintheformoftheFivePhasesenergieswhichare
internalizedduringqiingestingpractices,willcosmicizeandspiritualize
thebodytosuchadegreethatlongevityandimmortalityaretheresult.
In fact, the texts extraordinary abilities and achievements, which indi
cateabeliefthatnormalhumanlimitationscanbetranscendedthrough
ascetic dietary and religious practices, are predicated on perfecting the
health,and inmanycasesthey alsocanbe directlycorrelated to funda
mentalconceptsofhealthaspresentedinthetext.
Interestingly,allofthetransformativeprocessesmentionedinthese
recipesareorientedtowardadeptsstrengtheningandharmonizingtheir
own internal physical, mental, and energetic processes and characteris
tics.Thetextonlydiscussesonecrucialexternalagentialinfluencethe
cosmicgods,whoareattractedtotheadeptbecauseofhis/hercontinued
internalselfcultivation.

Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/57
Onamorepracticallevel,theimprovementofhealthisparamount
intheWufuxus secondchapterbecause it allows theDaoists whoprac
tice itsdietary regimenstomore fully embodycentralreligious ideals
such as communication with the gods as they take part in the formal
talismantransmissionritualinthetextsthirdchapter.Furthermore,the
longlistsofbenefitsfoundinthetextsrecipesseemtobeintendedtobe
amapofkeyindicatorsthatadeptscouldfollowastheyprogressedfrom
anormallifetowardtheiridealstate.
Although the Wufuxu was compiled as a synthesis of longevity
ideas and practices from disparate groups (see Yamada 1989, 114; Raz
2004, 912), the coherence of themes and patterns within the text is a
strongindicationthatitsredactorsdiligentlyworkedtodevelopa coher
entandunifiedsetofpracticesofwhichingestingherbalconcoctionsfor
facilitating health, perfecting the body and its essential energies, devel
oping a connection with the divine realm, and achieving immortality
wasanintegralpart.

Appendix The Wufuxus Recipes

1.TheNuminousTreasureIngestionoftheEssenceoftheFiveWonderPlants.

2.1a22a10
2.TheRecipeoftheThreeHeavensoftheNuminousTreasure.

2.2b14a7
3.VariousLingbaoRecipesInvolvingSesame.

2.4a84b2
4.DivineMethodsofExtendingtheLifeExpectancyandIncreasingLongevity.

2.4b35a1
5.RecipeforSesameCakes.

2.5a25a10
6.SesamePaste.

2.5b15b5
7.APerfectedOnesAbstentionfromGrainRecipe.

2.5b66a2
8.APerfectedOnes MethodforGrainAbstentionandEatingSesame.

2.6a36b1
9.APerfectedOnesRecipeforLighteningOnesFoodIntakeandAvoiding
GrainsWithoutHunger.

2.6b26b5
10. ARecipeofIngestingFoodtoProvideExtraordinaryBenefittotheBody.

2.6b67a2

58/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
11.ARecipe toDifferentiatethe Ju (Chrysanthemum)andYi (100,000Petalled
Flower).

2.7a37a8
12.ARecipeforLengtheningYearsandImprovingLifeExpectancy.

2.7a99a1
13.ARecipeforApricotSeedCakes.

2.9a29b1
14.TheRecipeofaPerfectedPersonasReceivedbyYuoftheXia.

2.9b210b3
14a.NoTitle.
2.10b410b9
15. TheRecipeforExpellingtheThreeWorms,etc.

2.10b1011a7
16. TheRecipeforCausingPeopletoNotGrowOld,HaveaLongLife, etc.

2.11a811b9
17.APerfectedPersonsRecipeforLengtheningOnesLife,ExpellingtheThree
Corpses,ProlongingOnesYears,andTurningBackWhiteness.

2.11b1014a7
18.ARecipeofMasterRedPine.

2.14a814a9
18a. A RecipeforEnteringtheMountainsandNeverEatingAgainUntiltheEnd
ofOnesLife.

2.14a1014b4
19.TheFourSubstancesforImmortalityRecipeAsReceivedBytheYellowEm
perorfromHuangQing.

2.14b515a2
20.APerfectedPersonsFourIngredientMedicinalPowdertoEliminateGrains.

2.15a315a8
20a.NoTitle
2.15a915b7
21.AnotherRecipetoIngestFoodandtoHealIllness.

2.15b816a4
22. AnotherMethodtoExpeltheThreeWorms.

2.16a516a8
23.ARecipeforExtendingtheYearsandIncreasingLongevity.

2.16a916b2
24.AnotherRecipeforRepellingOldAge.

2.16b316b5
25. APerfectedOnesAdditionalLotusPowderstoRetardAging.

2.16b617b2

Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/59
26.ARecipetoArrestAging.

2.17b317b8
27.TheRecipeforIngestingandEatingMuskDeerAntler toGreatlyExtendthe
Years;andIfYouTakeMore,toMaketheEarsandEyesAstuteand
ClearandtheHairBlack.

2.17b918a4
27a.NoTitle.
2.18a520b3
(Thisportionseemstobethefirsthalfofthefollowingrecipe.)
28.ALingbaoRecipeforSolomonsSeal.

2.20b423b5
29.AnImmortalsMethodforExpellingtheThreeWormsandConcealed
Corpses.

2.23b624b8
30.LezichangsMethodforRefiningSesamePaste.

2.24b925a3
31.LezichangsMethodforIngestingSesame.

2.25a425a7
32. TheTalismanfor HidingtheLivingin theGreatMysteryoftheNuminous
Treasure.

2.25a825b8
33.MedicineforCorpseLiberation.

2.25b926a7
34.ARecipeforExpellingtheConcealedCorpsesandThreeWorms.

2.26a826a10
35.ASpiritImmortalsRecipefor CultivationandNourishing[Oneself].

2.26b126b6
36.ASpiritImmortalsMethodofFermentingAlcohol.

2.26b727a4
37.ARecipeforShu (Atractylodesmacrocephala)Alcohol.

2.27a527a9
38.ARecipeforSpiritAlcohol.

2.27a1027b3
39.ARecipeforSesameAlcohol.

2.27b427b7
40.ARecipefortheSpiritAlcoholofRehmannia.

2.27b828a4
41.ARecipeforPineSapAlcohol.

2.28a528a9
42.AnotherRecipe.

2.28a1028b2
43. ARecipeforPokeAlcohol.

60/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

2.28b328b10
44.ARecipefor WolfberryAlcohol.

2.29a129b2
45.ARecipeforFiveEggplant(Acanthopanax)Alcohol.

2.29b329b9
46.ARecipeforAsparagusRootLiquor.

2.29b1030a8
47.ARecipeforFriedAsparagusRoot.

2.30a930b7
48.ARecipeforIngestingandEatingtheNuminous.

2.30b831a5
49.APerfectedOnesRecipeforFermentingAsparagusRootAlcohol.

2.31a631b5
50.ARecipeforImmortalityAlcoholtoStrengthentheBody.

2.31b632a2
51.ARecipeforCuringtheHundredDiseaseswithSpiritAlcohol.

2.32a332a8
52.ALingbaoRecipeforIngestingandEatingRehmanniaandWolfberry.

2.32a932b10
53.ARecipeforAsparagusRoot.

2.33a133a7
54.ARecipefor Wolfberry Alcohol.

2.33a833b2
55.AFermentingMethod.

2.33b333b8
56.ARecipeforProducingSpiritAlcohol.

2.33b934a4
57.ARecipeforSpiritAlcohol.

2.34a534a8
58.ASpiritImmortalsMethodforDryingAlcohol.

2.34a934b3
59.ASpiritImmortalsRecipeforIngestingandEatingGreenMillet.

2.34b434b10
60.AnotherRecipe.

2.35a135a5
61.YetAnotherRecipe.

2.35a635a8
62.AMethodforDryingAlcohol.

2.35a935b3
63.ACommonRecipeforIngestingandEatingNonGlutinousRice.

Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/61

2.35b435b6
64.ARecipeforIngestingandEatingRicefromthePaddy.

2.35b735b10
65.ARecipeforCeasingGrains.

2.36a136a5
66.LezichangsRecipeforHoldingaJujubeNutinOnesMouth.

2.36a636b3

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