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MappingintheComplexPlane

MappingintheComplexPlane
Overview Mapping Stability Examples Bode BodeExamples NyquistGui Printable

Contents
Mappinginthecomplexplane
Mappingwithasinglezero
Mappingwithasinglepole
Mappingwithmultiplepolesand/orzeros
Thepathin"s"neednotbecircular
KeyConceptsaboutMapping
MovingForward

MappingintheComplexPlane
Themappingoffunctionsinthecomplexplaneisconceptuallysimple,butwillleadustoaverypowerfultechniquefordeterminingsystemstability.Inadditionit
willgiveusinsightintohowtoavoidinstability.Tointroducetheconceptwewillstartwithsomesimpleexamples.Thereareseveralvideosonthispagethey
merelysupportthewrittenmaterial,butarenotabsolutelyvital.

MappingofFunctionswithaSingleZero
Thesimplestfunctionstomaparethosewithasinglezero.Severalexamplesfollow.
Example:Mappingwithcirclein"s",zeroattheoriginin"L(s)"
ConsiderthetrivialfunctionL(s)=s(wewilldealwithmorecomplicatedfunctionslater,thissimplefunctionallowsustointroduceconcepts
associatedwithmapping).Weletthevariablestraverseacircularpathcenteredattheoriginwitharadiusof5movingintheclockwisedirection(the
leftsidegraph),Inotherwords

WethenplotL(s)ontherighthandgraph.Thisisshownintheimagebelow,followedsoonthereafterbyavideothatbetterdemonstratesthe
mapping.

http://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Nyquist/NyquistMapping.html

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Notesaboutimageabove
Thereareseveralaspectsabouttheimageabovethatareimportant(manyofthesecomeuplater):
Thepathinthe"s"planeisshownattheleft.Itisacircleofradius5,centeredattheoriginandmovinginaclockwisedirection,asindicatedby
thearrows.
Thearrowsshowthedirectionofmotion,butthespacingofthearrowsisarbitrary.
Thecolorsofthetwoplotsmatch,sothattheportionof"s"thatisyellowisalsoyellowon"L(s)".Thisisobvioushere,butbecomesauseful
distinctioninmorecomplexplotstocome.
Thereisapinkcirclecenteredonthezerointhe"s"plane.Thisshowstheanglesubtendedbetweenthezeroandthepathins.Youcansee
thegrowthofthiscircle(intheclockwisedirection)inthevideobelow.
Thereisalsoapinkcirclecenteredontheorigininthe"L(s)"plane.Thisshowstheanglesubtendedbetweentheoriginandthepathins.The
colorindicatesthedirectionpinkindicatestheclockwisedirection.Ifthedirectionhadbeencounterclockwiseitwouldbeblue.
Notethatasthepathin"s"encirclesthezeroonetimeinthecounterclockwisedirection,thepathin"L(s)"encirclestheoriginonceinthesame
direction.
http://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Nyquist/NyquistMapping.html

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Video:Mappingwithasinglezero
2minutevideocreatedwiththeMatlabscriptNyquistGui)

Example:Mappingwithcirclein"s",zeroats=4
Ifwenowplaceazeroats=4sothatL(s)=s+4,themappingisstillverystraightforward.Everylocationin"s"simplymapstoalocationthatis4units
totherightin"L(s)".Thepathinsremainsasbefore.(Note:thisexampleisalsoconsideredaspartofthevideoabove.)

http://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Nyquist/NyquistMapping.html

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Notesaboutimageabove
Thepathin"s"isstillacircle,asisthepathin"L(s)",butthepathissimplyoffsetby4(sinceL(s)=s+4.
Notethatasthepathin"s"encirclesthezeroonetimeintheclockwisedirection,thepathin"L(s)"encirclestheoriginonceinthesame
direction.
Asthepathin"s"getsnearthepolein"L(s)"(wherethepathhasalightbluecolor),thepathin"L(s)"becomesthesmallest(i.e.,theclosestto
theorigin).Thisisbecausetheterminthenumerator,inthiscase(s+4),isminimalwhen"s"isnearthepoleat4.Also,whenthedistancefrom
thezerotothepathin"s"ismaximal(red),soisthedistancefromL(s)totheorigin.

Example:Mappingwithcirclein"s",zeroats=6
Ifwenowplaceazeroats=6sothatL(s)=s+6,themappingisstillverystraightforward.Everylocationin"s"simplymapstoalocationthatis4units
totherightin"L(s)."Thepathinsremainsasbefore.(Note:thisexampleisalsoconsideredaspartofthevideoabove.)

http://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Nyquist/NyquistMapping.html

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Notesaboutimageabove
Thepathin"s"isstillacircle,asisthepathin"L(s)",butthepathissimplyoffsetby4(sinceL(s)=s+4.
Notethatasthepathin"s"nolongerencirclesthezero,andthepathin"L(s)"nolongerencirclestheorigin.

Commentsaboutmappingwithapolein"L(s)"
Therearethreeimportant,andgeneral,statementswecannowmakeaboutmappingfrom"s"to"L(s)"whenthereisazeroin"L(s)":
1. Ifthepathin"s"isintheclockwisedirection,thenthepathin"L(s)"isintheclockwisedirection.
2. Asthepathin"s"getsclosetothezeroin"L(s)"thepathin"L(s)"goestoitssmallestvalue.
3. Ifthepathin"s"encirclesthepoleof"L(s),"thenthepathin"L(s)"encirclestheoriginonceinthesamedirection.

Mappingwithasinglepole
http://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Nyquist/NyquistMapping.html

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Mappingoffunctionswithasinglepoleisnotmuchmoredifficultthanmappingwithasinglezero.Therearetwoimportantfactsaboutencirclementsofpoles
thatcanbeshownbyconsideringL(s)withasinglepoleattheorigin,andthepathin"s"beingaclockwisecircleofradius'r'aroundtheorigin:
1. Thefirstcharacteristictoberealizedisthatasthepathin"s"comesclosetoapole,thepathin"L(s)"getslarge

Clearlyastheradiusoftheencirclement,r,becomessmall,themagnitudeofL(s)becomeslarge.
2. Thesecondcharacteristicisthatthepathin"L(s)"isintheoppositedirectionofthepathin"s."Inthisexample,thepathin"s"isclockwise,sothepathin"L(s)"
iscounterclockwise.

Themappingaroundvariousfunctions,L(s),withasinglepolesareshowninthediagramsintheexamplesbelow,followedbyavideothatshowsseveralfunctions.
Eachexampleinthevideoisalsoincludedintheexamplesthatfollow.Itisusefultoreadtheexamplesbeforeviewingthevideo.
Example:Mappingwithcirclein"s",poleatorigin
IfwechooseL(s)suchthatithasapoleattheorigin,

(note:theconstantmultipliermakestheplotslooksnicer,butisn'tnecessaryforthemathematicstowork)

andweletsfollowthesamepathasbefore

Weget

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Becausethee jwasoriginallyinthedenominator,itssignischangedwhenitmovestothenumerator.Inotherwords,thepathin"L(s)"isacircleof
radius2thatencirclestheoriginonceintheclockwisedirection.

Notesaboutimageabove
Thepathinthe"s"planeisshownattheleft.Itisacircleofradius5,centeredattheoriginandmovinginaclockwisedirection.
Thereisabluecirclecenteredonthepoleinthe"s"plane(apinkcirclewillbeusedforzeros,asinthepreviousangles).Thisshowstheangle
subtendedbetweenthepoleandthepathins.Youcanseethegrowthofthiscircleinthevideobelow.
Thereisagreycirclecenteredontheorigininthe"L(s)"plane.Thisshowstheanglesubtendedbetweentheoriginandthepathins.
Notethatasthepathin"s"encirclesthepoleonetimeintheclockwisedirection,thepathin"L(s)"encirclestheoriginonceintheopposite
(counterclockwise)direction.

Example:Mappingwithcirclein"s",poleats=4
Ifwenowplaceapoleats=4sothat
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Note:thisexampleisalsoconsideredaspartofthevideoabove.)

Thepathinsremainsasbefore,butthepathin"L(s)"haschanged.Thecenterandextentofthepathin"L(s)"havebothchanged.
(note:ifyoucanshowthatthepathin"L(s)"isalsoacircleandderiveequationsfortheradiusandcenter,I'llincludeithere,withanacknowledgementforthefirstpersonwhosentittome)

Notesaboutimageabove
Thepathin"s"stillencirclesthepoleinaclockwisedirection,andthepathin"L(s)"stillencirclestheorigininacounterclockwise(opposite)
direction.
Asthepathin"s"getsnearthepolein"L(s)"(wherethepathhasalightbluecolor),thepathin"L(s)"becomesthelargest(i.e.,thefarthestfrom
theorigin).Thisisbecausetheterminthedenominator,inthiscase(s+4),isminimalwhen"s"isnearthepoleat4.Also,whenthedistance
fromthepoletothepathin"s"ismaximal(red),thedistancefromL(s)totheoriginisminimal

Example:Mappingwithcirclein"s",poleats=6
http://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Nyquist/NyquistMapping.html

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Ifwenowplaceapoleats=6sothat

Note:thisexampleisalsoconsideredaspartofthevideoabove.)

Thepathinsremainsasbefore,butthepathin"L(s)"haschanged.Thecenterandextentofthepathin"L(s)"havebothchanged.

Notesaboutimageabove
Notethatasthepathin"s"nolongerencirclesthepoleinaclockwisedirection,andthepathin"L(s)"nolongerencirclestheorigin.

Example:Mappingwithcirclein"s",poleats=4.8
Ifwenowplaceapoleats=4.8sothat

http://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Nyquist/NyquistMapping.html

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Note:thisexampleisalsoconsideredaspartofthevideoabove.)

Thepathinsremainsasbefore,butthepathin"L(s)"haschanged.Thecenterandextentofthepathin"L(s)"havebothchanged.Theshape
(note:ifyoucanshowthatthepathin"L(s)"isalsoacircleandderiveequationsfortheradiusandcenter,I'llincludeithere,withanacknowledgementforthefirstonetosendittome)

Notesaboutimageabove
Notethatasthepathin"s"encirclesthepoleinaclockwisedirection,andthepathin"L(s)"stillencirclestheorigininacounterclockwise
direction.
Asthepathin"s"comesveryclosetothepolein"L(s)"(wherethepathsarelightblue),thepathin"L(s)"becomesverylarge.Inthesediagrams
thisisshownasgoingtowardsinfinity.Intheseplots,anythingwitharadiusofmorethantwelveistruncatedandshownatinfinity.

Video:Mappingwithasinglepole
(2minutevideocreatedwiththeMatlabscriptNyquistGui)
http://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Nyquist/NyquistMapping.html

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Commentsaboutmappingwithapolein"L(s)"
Therearetheeimportant,andgeneral,statementswecannowmakeaboutmappingfrom"s"to"L(s)"whenthereisapolein"L(s)":
1. Ifthepathin"s"isintheclockwisedirection,thenthepathin"L(s)"isinthecounterclockwisedirection.
2. Asthepathin"s"getsclosetothepolein"L(s)"thepathin"L(s)"goestoitslargestvalue.
3. Ifthepathin"s"encirclesthepoleof"L(s),"thenthepathin"L(s)"encirclestheoriginonceintheoppositedirection.

Mappingwithmultiplepolesand/orzeros
Ifyouunderstandtheconceptofmappingoffunctionswithindividualpolesandzeros,itisnotmuchhardertounderstandmappingoffunctionswithmultiplepoles
andzeros.Afewexampleswillillustratethis.Youshouldreadthroughthefirstexamplecarefully,ithasalotofimportantinformation.
Example:L(s)hastwopoles,onezeroallareencircled
Considermappingofthetransferfunction
http://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Nyquist/NyquistMapping.html

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wheresfollowsaclockwisecircularpathofradius5aroundtheorigin,asbefore.
Togetanideaofwhatthemappingwilllooklike,let'sexpressthefunctioninpolarnotation.

AtthispointwearemostlyinterestedintheangleofL(s),soletsexamineitmoreclosely.

Recallthat,ingeneral,theangle

isdeterminedbydrawingalinefroms0tos,andfindingtheanglebetweenthatlineandthehorizontal(describedhere).Soifwelets0=2,thenthe
angle

wouldbedeterminedbydrawingalinefroms=2tosandfindingtheangletothehorizontal.Thisisshowninthediagrambelowontheleftforangles
betweenthelocations=5jtothezeroat2,andthepolesat1and3.

http://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Nyquist/NyquistMapping.html

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SincetheangleofL(s)isgivenby

thenthisistheangleshownintheimageaboveontheright.SinceweknowthefirsttermintheangleofL(s)goesfrom02*,andwesubtractthe
othertwoterms,thentheangleofL(s)mustgofrom02*,thatisitencirclestheoriginonceinthecounterclockwisedirection.Thiscanbeseenin
theimagebelow,andinthevideothatfollows.

http://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Nyquist/NyquistMapping.html

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Notesaboutimageabove
Thepathin"s"encirclesthepolesandzerointheclockwisedirection.
Theanglebetweenthepathandthezeroisshowninred,andtheanglebetweenthepathandthepoleisshowninblue.Thepathin"L(s)",
whichisshowningray,isthesumoftheanglesfromthezeros(red)minustheanglesfromthepoles(blue).Thisismoreobviousinthevideo.
Ifapathin"s"encirclesZzerosandPpolesofL(s)intheclockwisedirection,thenthepathin"L(s)"encirclestheoriginN=ZPtimesinthe
clockwisedirection.InthiscaseZ=1,P=2soN=1,andwehaveoneencirclementoftheoriginin"L(s)"inthecounterclockwisedirection.
Aside:MagnitudeofL(s)
ThemagnitudeofL(s)isgivenby

Thismeansthatifsisveryclosetoazero(i.e.,nears=2)thatthemagnitudeofL(s)becomesverysmall,andifsisveryclosetoapole(i.e.,
nears=1ors=3)thatthemagnitudeofL(s)becomesverylarge.

http://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Nyquist/NyquistMapping.html

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KeyConcept:MagnitudeandphaseofL(s)
ThephaseofL(s)issimplythesumoftheanglesfromthezerosofL(s)tos,minustheanglesfromthepolesofL(s)tos.
ThemagnitudeofL(s)issmallnearzerosofL(s)andlargenearpolesofL(s).

Example:L(s)hastwopoles,onezero,onepoleonezeroisencircled
Nowifwechangethetransferfunctionto

thenthepathinsencirclesthezero,butonlyoneofthepoles.

http://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Nyquist/NyquistMapping.html

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Notesaboutimageabove
Ifapathin"s"encirclesZzerosandPpolesofL(s)intheclockwisedirection,thenthepathin"L(s)"encirclestheoriginN=ZPtimesinthe
clockwisedirection.InthiscaseZ=1,P=1soN=0,andwehavenoencirclementsoftheoriginin"L(s)".

Example:L(s)hastwopoles,onezeroonezeroisencircled
Nowif

thenthepathin"s"encirclesonlythezero

Notesaboutimageabove
Ifapathin"s"encirclesZzerosandPpolesofL(s)intheclockwisedirection,thenthepathin"L(s)"encirclestheoriginN=ZPtimesinthe
clockwisedirection.InthiscaseZ=1,P=0soN=1,andwehaveoneencirclementoftheoriginin"L(s)"intheclockwisedirection.
http://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Nyquist/NyquistMapping.html

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Example:L(s)hastwopoles,onezerotwopolesareencircled
Nowif

thenthepathin"s"encirclesonlythezero

Notesaboutimageabove
Ifapathin"s"encirclesZzerosandPpolesofL(s)intheclockwisedirection,thenthepathin"L(s)"encirclestheoriginN=ZPtimesinthe
clockwisedirection.InthiscaseZ=0,P=2soN=2,andwehavetwoencirclementsoftheoriginin"L(s)"intheclockwisedirection.
Youcantelltherearetwoencirclementsbecausethecirclein"L(s)"istwiceasdark.Thisismoreclearinthevideo.

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Example:L(s)hastwocomplexconjugatepolesencircledbys
Consider

Polesat24jwhichareinsideacirclewithradius5.

Notesaboutimageabove
Ifapathin"s"encirclesZzerosandPpolesofL(s)intheclockwisedirection,thenthepathin"L(s)"encirclestheoriginN=ZPtimesinthe
clockwisedirection.InthiscaseZ=0,P=2soN=2,andwehavetwoencirclementsoftheoriginin"L(s)"intheclockwisedirection.

Example:L(s)hastwocomplexconjugatepolesnotencircledbys
http://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Nyquist/NyquistMapping.html

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Consider

Polesat44j,whichareoutsideacircleofradius5.

Notesaboutimageabove
Ifapathin"s"encirclesZzerosandPpolesofL(s)intheclockwisedirection,thenthepathin"L(s)"encirclestheoriginN=ZPtimesinthe
clockwisedirection.InthiscaseZ=0,P=0soN=0andwehavenoencirclementsoftheoriginin"L(s)".

Video:Mappingwithamultiplepolesandzeros
(3minutevideocreatedwiththeMatlabscriptNyquistGui)

http://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Nyquist/NyquistMapping.html

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Thepathin"s"neednotbecircular
Nothingthatwehavedonesofardependsonthefactthatthepathin"s"becircular,whichisimportanttothedevelopmentoftheNyquiststabilitycriteriononthe
nextwebpage.Twoexamplesbelow(andavideo)demonstratethis.Inthefirstexample,immediatelybelow,thepathin"s"encirclesazerointheclockwise
direction,andthepathin"L(s)"encirclestheorigininthesamedirection.InthisfirstexampleL(s)=s,i.e.,thereisazeroattheorigin.

http://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Nyquist/NyquistMapping.html

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Inthesecondexample,below,thepathin"s"encirclesapoleintheclockwisedirection,andthepathin"L(s)"encirclestheoriginintheoppositedirection,Though
thepathisaverydifferentshape.Notealsothatwherethedistancefromthepathin"s"tothepoleisminimal(i.e.,wherethepathislightblue),thenthedistance
ofpathin"L(s)"totheoriginismaximal(andwherethedistancein"s"ismaximal(wherethepathisred),thedistancein"L(s)"isminimal).Inthisexample
L(s)=10/(s+6),i.e.,thereisapoleats=6.

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Video:Mappingwithamultiplepolesandzeros
(2minutevideocreatedwiththeMatlabscriptNyquistGui))

http://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Nyquist/NyquistMapping.html

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KeyConcept:Mappingfrom"s"to"L(s)"
Thekeypointstokeepinmindasyoumovetothenextpage:
Ifapathin"s"encirclesazeroofL(s)intheclockwisedirection,thenthiscontributes360intheclockwisedirectiontothepathin"L(s)"asitmoves
aroundtheorigin.
Ifapathin"s"encirclesapoleofL(s)intheclockwisedirection,thenthiscontributes360inthecounterclockwisedirectiontothepathin"L(s)"asit
movesaroundtheorigin.
Ifapathin"s"encirclesZzerosandPpolesofL(s)intheclockwisedirection,thenthepathin"L(s)"encirclestheoriginN=ZPtimesinthe
clockwisedirection.IfNisnegative,thiscorrespondstoencirclementsinthecounterclockwisedirection.
Thepathin"s"neednotbecircular.

MovingForward
Afterreadingthroughthematerialabove,thequestionarises"Sowhat?".Whatwehavedonehereisintroduceatechniquethatgivesuseinformationaboutthe
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numberofpolesandzerosinaclosedcontour.Todeterminethestabilityofasystem,wewanttodetermineifasystem'stransferfunctionhasanyofpolesinthe
righthalfplane.Withjustalittlemorework,wecandefineourcontourin"s"astheentirerighthalfplanethenwecanusethistodetermineifthereareanypolesin
therighthalfplane.

References

Copyright2005to2015ErikCheeverThispagemaybefreelyusedforeducationalpurposes.
Comments?Questions?Suggestions?Corrections?
ErikCheeverDepartmentofEngineeringSwarthmoreCollege

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