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The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational

Strategies, Issues and Ideas
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Motivation in the Modern Classroom

a

Dr. Elmer J. Ireton & Xene McDonald

a

Department of Elementary and Secondary Education , Hardin-Simmons University , USA

Published online: 29 Jul 2010.

To cite this article: Dr. Elmer J. Ireton & Xene McDonald (1979) Motivation in the Modern Classroom, The Clearing House: A
Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 52:7, 317-321, DOI: 10.1080/00098655.1979.10113613
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00098655.1979.10113613

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MOTIVATION

1979, Vol. 52

Dossible and t o demonstrate the relations between

them. In so doing, they approximate the richness
of the literary experience.

NOTES

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1. Michael F. Shugue, English in a Decade of Change (New

York: Western Publishing Co., 1968), p. 19.

317

2. Jerome Bruner, The Process of Educatwn (New York:

Vintage Books, 1963), pp. 6-7.
3. William H. Evans and Jerry L. Walker, New Trends in the
Teaching of English in Secondary Schools (Chicago: Rand McNally
and Co., 1966), p. 33.
4. Northrop Frye, Criticism, Visible and Invisible, in The
Stubborn Structure: Essays on Criticism and Society (Ithaca:
Cornell University Press, 1970), p. 88.
5. Northrop Frye, Literary Criticism, l7ze Aims and Methods
of Scholarship in Modem Languages and Liteqature, ed. by James
Thorpe (New York: Modem Language Association, 1963), p. 63.
6. Ibid., p. 64.
7. Ibid., p. 66.

Motivation in
the Modern Classroom
ELMER J. IRETON and XENE McDONALD

hat ever happened t o the children who came

to school eager to learn without special motivation from the teacher? This question, which has
plagued many who are concerned about todays
education, can probably be answered by indicating that most of these children never really were,
except in the mind of the imperceptive observer.
Many of those who appeared to require very little
extrinsic encouragement were motivated from
within. Although it appeared that they sat quietly
and absorbed knowledge from the teacher and
textbook, they were motivated by the small
things-the teachers warn smile or pat on the
head, the familys loving concern and support, a
friends competitive spirit. Although there were

A n Associate Professor of Education, Dr. Ireton is

Chairperson of the Department of Elementary and
Secondary Education at Hardin-Simmons University. He has taught at every level of education and
served as superintendent of schools. Xene McDondld
is a candidate for a masters in Education and has
been an itinerate teacher in migrant education programs in West Texas.

those in yesterdays school who left before they

were sixteen and found a reasonable measure of
happiness and productivity, and those who were
ignored until they became discouraged and quit
( l o ) , their numbers were relatively few. There
were some who were never enrolled in school
also-the handicapped, the child of the migrant
laborer-but they were not many, either.
Factors Responsible for the Lack of Motivation
What factors, then, have been responsible for
this change in the degree of motivation, this
almost immediate disenchantment that the young
child frequently experiences upon arrival at school
today? Perhaps the most relevant factor is the
volume and magnitude of changes within the
society from which he is produced. These tremendous changes affect every age, social class,
and institution in some manner. For example,
societal changes in attitude are observable in
todays schools because of their resulting in the
precipitation of programs for special populations-bilingual, migrant, .disadvantaged, handicapped, learning disabled, vocational, etc.-and
in programs for those needing remediation in
specific areas such as reading, mathematics, and

Downloaded by [University College London] at 01:51 24 April 2015

318

THE CLEARING HOUSE

oral language. Another of the attitudinal changes

in society, an elevation in the status of the child,
is demonstrated by the removal of responsibility
from the child for his actions. If the child ignores
the teacher, distracts others, destroys property,
fights, or shows other inappropriate classroom
behavior, much of society seems to feel now that
his actions are not his fault, but the teachers.
After all, the,teachers job is to be all things to
all children (10).
Another societal change that has had inestimable impact upon schools is the change to an
automated, technological environment. This
change is reflected in the classroom by the frequent presentation of learning experiences through
the use of some type of teaching machine, multimedia kit, or calculator; furthermore, it is evident
in the responses of the students themselves who,
being accustomed to the high excitement provided in their everyday lives by technology, find
the calm quiet atmosphere of the traditional classroom unpleasant ( 10).
Implications for the Classroom Teacher
For the classroom teacher, who must strive
to motivate students with diverse behaviors, desires, and needs, the implications of the societal
change to technology are numerous. For example,
the different learning modes of children (oral,
visual, kinesthetic) can be capitalized on through
the use of machines. The novel experience provided by machines is stimulating to some students.
Besides these uses, machines are also helpful in
dispensing information and teaching facts. Although there are advantages to mechanized learning in the classroom if it is utilized discriminately,
it can never be assumed to provide knowledge or
understanding, nor to replace the need for human
contact that children, especially the very young,
have. Machines can neither sympathize with a
childs fatigue and need to change activities nor
provide him with a meaningful type of praise.
Therefore, the random memorization of information or isolated facts does not give all the answers
to the problem of student motivation. What
utility can the information or facts possibly possess if the student cannot apply them to life situations or if they are not even remotely near his
area of interest or potential (l)?Despite the many
positive uses for machines, the negative ones preponderate as applied t o many young children or
others who especially require human contact
(e.g., migrant, emotionally disturbed). Because
these children lack many real-life experiences
common to the normal middle-class child, the
vicarious experiences they have through machines

MARCH

have no reinforcement. Helen Beck indicates that

the use of machines, especially television, may be
partially responsible for numerous other problems in children such as hyperactivity, overstimulation, fragmented attention, lack of concentration, inability to grasp three-dimensional concepts, alienation, callousness against suffering,
cynicism, decay of values, and actual physical
maladies (obesity, heart disease). She cautions
that machines exploit young minds by draining
the individual, dulling his curiosity, channeling
his abilities in one direction, and neglecting his
special gifts; she further states that machines
produce hybrids, not well-rounded individuals
(1).Such negative effects, which one probably
validly concludes t o be resultant of misuse or
ovemse of machines, must be prevented.
Another indication of the societal change in
attitude, the elevation of the status of the child,
a change that many children are themselves
cognizant of, implies that many children will no
longer be content t o function in the traditional
classroom setting. They, and the society from
which they come, will demand that their classroom experiences be meaningful to them personally. Because what is meaningful for one
child is not necessarily relevant for another,
individualized instruction would seem to become
mandatory. After most students are working in
an individualized setting, the teachers attention
must be given to motivating these students to
continue to make significant progress while ascettaining something that is meaningful to the few
who are still floundering. In relation t o the
various levels of motivation present within the
classroom, some authors suggest that as many as
five are commonly found:
1. the unmotivated
2. those motivated to a degree, but not enough
to perform at a level equal to their ability
3. those motivated to perform, but for the
wrong reasons
4. those motivated to try something, but not
to complete their task, and
5. those motivated to do things if someone else
provides directions and support.
These authors also postulate that every child who
is alive is motivated; therefore, the crucial issue
is not to discover techniques for motivation, but
to direct the motivation and its impact or consequence (4). Whatever ones position on the
meaning of motivation, he must conclude that
the classroom teacher faces the constant but
delightful challenge of providing the incentives

1979, Vol. 52

MOTIVATION

319

The modern classroom teacher is prudent who draws from this psychology the idea that
children do need some time to design and solve their own problems, seek goals that are
meaningful only to them, and obtain insights that they alone desire.

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or directions to enable all the students he influences to attain their maximum potential. How
fortunate todays teacher is that the concept of
student motivation has attracted numerous
authors who have devoted whole books or portions of them to the topic.
Relevance of Motivation Theories
Despite the protest from teachers against
theorizing and toward practical application,
motivation theories retain much relevance to
contemporary education. Tasks such as arriving
at a satisfactory definition of motivation can be
assisted by utilization of theories. Russell, a
contemporary who does not advocate the use
of traditional theories of motivation, aptly summarizes the contentions of most writers by stating that motivation consists of three components: ( 1) It is a presumed internal force, (2)
that energizes for action, and (3) determines the
direction of that action. To clarify his position
further, he states, however, that the implementation of practices supported by traditional theories
in the modern classroom is not feasible because
of their concern with the underlying forces not
observable to the teacher and their emphasis on
the study of subhuman animals, which does not
add significantly to ones understanding of classroom behavior (10). In spite of the position of
Russell and others, however, this writer does not
believe that traditional theories are completely
inapplicable and proposes the following examples
of their usefulness in the twentieth-century
classroom.
Freuds discussion of motivation as being the
result of drives, both primary and secondary
possesses some relevance. The teacher of Migrant
students, for instance, frequently faces the realization that certain students can be easily motivated to perform for food, especially if they have
not eaten since they were in school the day before, which is often the case.
Related to Freud in that his experiments also
emphasized the physiological drives is Pavlov
and Classical Conditioning. Pavlovs advice against
the use of food as a reward if the animal had
recently eaten should have definite implications
for the teacher who tends to use only one type
of reward continuously.

Another useful theory for the teacher of today

is that of Abraham H. Maslow. Although Maslow
does not ascribe t o the idea that all behavior is
motivated by basic needs, or even motivated at
all, his comment that most behavior is motivated
by several basic needs simultaneously is due attention in an individualized learning setting. Certainly
his hierarchy of basic needs-physiological, safety
and security, belongingness and love, esteem,
self-actualization, desire to know and understand,
and aesthetic (8)-can be corroborated by the
teacher of extremely deprived students. For example, the student who feels insecure either from
frequent relocation to harvest crops or from abuse
is not greatly motivated to know and understand
many concepts.
Thorndike and Skinner, his student, who were
considered Association psychologists as was
Pavlov, conclude that motivation is the result of
reward, and that a response followed by a satisfactory state of affairs motivates the student to
perform the desired behavior again; ironically,
if a response is followed by a punishment, the
punishment does not motivate him not t o perform the response again. (5).If one accepts this
theory, he must believe that punishment has no
place in the classroom as a behavior modification technique except in rare instances.
An alternative t o the Association approach t o
psychology, Gestalt psychology, ascribes motivation to the seeking of goals or insights or the
drive to solve problems (5).The modern classroom teacher is prudent who draws from this
psychology the idea that children do need some
time to design and solve their own problems,
seek goals that are meaningful only to them, and
obtain insi&ts that they alone desire.
Among the more recent theories of motivation
are the Homeostatic ones, which maintain that
the behavior of humans tends to remain in a
homeostatic or balanced state in which the
environment is consistent and familiar levels of
variety exist. D. 0. Hebbs theory asserts a level
of activation and variation at which optimal
motivation is possible (11).Implicit in these
theories is the idea that through the use of a
variety of activities, learning environments and
methods, the teacher can maximally motivate
students.

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THE CLEARING HOUSE

Within the heading of Discrepancy theories

are the Homeostatic theories as well as the
Cognitive Dissonance theory, which describes
human motivation as the result of the differences between ones behavior and his own evaluation of it or the difference between what one
expects and what actually exists; and the Competence theory, which emphasizes ones effective
dealing with the environment (10). The Cognitive Dissonance theory indicates that the amount
of discrepancy is crucial in that too much or
unrealistic discrepancy in the environment discourages the learner. The Competence theory
implies that the learner will behave in a certain
manner merely because he feels the need to know
about things in the environment ( 1l),an idea
related to Gestalt psychologys insightful behavior.
The Genetic Pattern theories and the Early
Environment views of motivation discussed by
Smith (11)have little relationship to the classroom setting because of their belief that motivation is attributable to factors acquired prior to
the students entrance into the classroom. According to the Genetic Pattern theories, for example,
motivation is inherited through genes and chromosomes; if the child failed to get motivation thusly,
there is nothing that environment or training can
do to provide them. Early Environmentalists
ascribe high motivation to the amount of handling and the number of challenges provided for
the infant; therefore, not much hope is offered
that the classroom teacher can change the child
with a low degree of motivation to a highly
motivated one.
Despite the view of some theorists and educators that specific motivation must be a prerequisite to learning, many educators have now
adopted the position that motivation can be
created by the teaching process and built upon
successful experiences. That is, even if motivation is not present initially and the instructor
does not know all about the child, he can still
teach effectively (10). Nonetheless, there are
myriad difficulties involved in the motivation of
students in the modern classroom, especially
those utilizing individualized instruction which
allows for some self-direction on the part of students. Because all students will not have the same
interests, goals, or abilities, they may need very
different types of motivation. The motivation
may, in addition, manifest itself in very different
types of behaviors, all of which must be channeled in a way that is mutually beneficial to a l l
students. If motivation is viewed entirely as a
vehicle for changing student behavior by presentation of information or a pattern of stimuli,

MARCH

then the principal issue in motivation of students

is that of providing appropriate systems of reinforcements (9).
Current Trends in Motivation
In reference to the preceding discussion, then,
what are the current trends in classroom motivation? First of all, the role of the teacher is altered
somewhat from that of strictly a teacher, one
who imparts knowledge, to that of a facilitator
of learning who is concerned for each student and
who helps make it easier for each to pursue his
intrinsically motivated goals. When extrinsic
motivation is appropriate, todays teacher is sufficiently cognizant of the psychology of student
behavior to provide it. Most of all, the teacher
who has highly motivated students is not the one
who causes them to perform out of fear of punishment, although some of its milder forms may
augment learning. Instead, this teacher is the one
who is able to assist the child in selecting experiences that result in his successfully learning a
desired concept, a learning which increases motivation for learnings t o come. Through encouraging a child in a way that demonstrates a confidence in his ability, that values him as he is, and
appreciates his unique contributions and his need
for self-expression, the teacher enhances the development of the child and avoids the use of
threats, corporal punishment, tranquilizing drugs
or expulsion from the classroom (7). In addition,
this approach discourages many forms of unacceptable classroom behavior by the student, which
Rudolph Dreikurs believes have four primary purposes: (1)to get attention or put others in his
service, (2) to prove his power and defy adult
pressure, (3) to seek revenge, and (4) to be left
alone by displaying actual or imagined deficiencies (3). Dreikurs, as well as Don Dinkmeyer
and Clint Reimer (quoted in Dreikurs), all suggest excellent ways to approach a child in the
classroom that can encourage him to reach toward his highest potential.
The second trend in classrooms that emphasizes motivation pertains to the atmosphere of
learning that exists in them, This trend decreases
the importance of the teachers goals and stresses
the individual students goals; it is partially a
result of the indications of modem psychology
that learning may not necessarily always be
correct (e.g., both good and bad habits can be
learned), deliberate (e.g., mistakes are unconsciously learned), or overtly demonstrated (e.g.,
attitudes and emotions can be learned) (6).The
atmosphere of a motivational classroom is
described by one author as one that provides the

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1979, Vol. 52

MOTIVATION

student with opportunities for exploration,

which this author divides into these four categories: specific exploration (i.e., behavior in pursuit of a specific goal), diverse exploration (i.e.,
aimless wandering), inspective exploration (i.e.,
behavior for only taking in information), and
inquisitive exploration (i.e., behavior emerging
from preconceived ideas about the relationship
between two or more objects). In addition, he
believes that students-and mankind in generalpursue other activities which are unrelated to
survival, such as investigation and seeking of
novel stimuli that initially arouse ones curiosity,
but diminish in their effectiveness after the student has been repeatedly exposed to them (10).
Credibility can certainly be given to the foregoing ideas by experienced instructors.

32 1

2. Dinkmeyer, Don, and Dreikurs, Rudolf. Encouraging Children

to Learn: The Encouragement Process. Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey: Prentice-Hall,Inc., 1963.
3. Dreikurs, Rudolf, Grunwald, Bernice Bronia, and Pepper, Floy
C. Mmntaining Sanity in the Clossroom. New York: Harper
and Row, Publishers, 1971.
4. Drew, Walter F., Olds, Anita R., and Olds, Henry F., Jr.
Motivating Todays Students. Palo Alto, California: Learning
Handbooks, 1974.
5. Hilgard, Ernest R., and Bowers, Gordon H. Theories of
Learning. 3rd Ed. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts,1966.
6. Hill, Winifred F. A Survey of Psychological Interpretutions.
San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Company, 1963.
7. Martin, Reed, and Lauridsen, David Developing Student
Discipline and Motivation Champaign, Illinois: Research
Press, 1974.
a. Maslow, A. H. Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper
and Row, Publishers, 1954.
9. Page, Ellis Batten (ed.). Readings for Educational Psychology.
New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 1964.
10. Russell, Ivan L. Motivation. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown
Co., Publisher, 1971.
11. Smith, M. Daniel. Educational Psychology and Its Classroom
Applicutions. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1975.

Conclusions
Although determination of the most efficacious
techniques for motivation of todays students is
a multi-faceted and continuous task, the conscientious teacher can hardly question its necessity
nor despair of finding a multitude of helpful
resources since whole books and kits of materials
are now available on this subject (4,10, 7). Not
only does effective motivation assist in the optimal development of the child, but it also helps
to satisfy the demands for accountability placed
on education by providing for individual differences. The importance assigned motivation by
modern society is illustrated in all classes of
people-from the advertiser who motivates the
public to purchase his product, to the parent
who motivates his child away from the advertisers product; from the politician who motivates
the citizenry to support him by his exhortations,
to the policeman, whose mere presence frequently motivates heightened consciousness of
the mandates of the law. Because the nature of
society dictates the nature of the student, and
the nature of the student, at least in theory,
determines the nature of the classroom, it is
unlikely that many twentieth-century students
will arrive on the educational scene eager to learn
without specific individualized motivation from
the teacher. Therefore, motivation of students
to perform commensurate with their abilities may
no longer be considered simply desirable; it must
now be understood to be a necessity that is well
within the contemporary teachers grasp.

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REFERENCES
1. Beck, Helen L. Dont Push Me, Im No Computer. New York:
McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1973.