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Assess the Gravity of the Situation

Flow systems without pumps demand particular attention.
Nov 09, 2009
Due to pumps we tend to get careless in considering flow systems. A few inches of fluid pressure drop arent very
important when we shed multiple psi across a control valve. In contrast, without a pump, small pressure drops count. As a
result, gravity-flow, free-surface and open-channel systems cause a disproportionately high number of flow problems at
plants.
Gravity-flow systems get their driving force from static head of liquid. Free-surface flow includes piping systems where
flow rate (usually generated by gravity) doesnt completely fill a pipe or duct. Open-channel systems are similar except
that the flow channel isnt fully closed.

Without a pump, small pressure drops count.

Lets examine two common cases that often go together: free draining from a vessel and free surface flow in a pipe.
Many vessels have had problems with free-draining connections. Once a nozzle unseals, vapor can enter with the liquid
flow. To prevent vapor locking the draw line, liquid velocity must be low enough to allow vapor to vent back into the
vessel. Free-surface flow into a nozzle can be very complex. Flow behavior depends upon density difference between
vapor and liquid, flow patterns entering the nozzle, velocity of incoming liquid and many other factors. The only sure
method to provide free-surface flow is to make the inlet nozzle big enough that some of the more unusual flow patterns
dont get established.
Achieving reliable free-surface flow requires evaluating the flowing liquids Froude number. In general this dimensionless
number is the ratio of gravity to inertial forces. Gravity (or applied) forces represent energy driving flow while inertial forces
(opposing forces) represent resistance to flow.
Fr = V/c (1) where Fr is the Froude number, V is the characteristic velocity of the system, and c is a characteristic wavepropagation velocity. Unfortunately, the exact form V and c take in a specific application depends upon circumstances.
Modifying the Froude number to a dimensionless superficial volumetric flux (J*) suitable for use with venting nozzles we
get:
J* = 4Q/[d2 (gd)0.5 ] (2) where Q is volumetric rate of flow, d is actual inside diameter, not nominal pipe diameter, and g is
the gravitational constant, all in consistent units.
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InSites | Assess the Gravity of the Situation | Chemical Processing

Simpson identified a maximum upper value of 0.3 for the Froude number for reliable self-venting flow through a nozzle
entering a vertical pipe [Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 8th ed., p. 6-29 (2008)]. This means the outlet nozzle will
run less than half full at the nozzle entrance and gives the design equations:
d = 4.27Q0.4 (3) for d in cm and Q in m3 /hr, and d = 0.928Q0.4 (4) for d in in. and Q in gpm.
These equations allow us to find the minimum required diameter to reliably get a specific flow rate if the nozzle isnt fully
flooded.
The second common situation involves a partially full near-horizontal pipe. Flow requires pressure drop. In gravity-flow
systems pressure drop comes from height of liquid. Partially full pipes must slope to provide height of liquid to drive fluid
flow. The question is, how much? Many mechanical and chemical engineers use arbitrary standards. Few of them have
heard of the Chezy formula for estimating fluid velocity in a sloped line:
v = (2g/f)0.5 (dh s/4)0.5 (5) where v is fluid velocity, f is Fanning friction factor, dh is hydraulic diameter, and s is sine of the
slope angle. (The first term is the Chezy coefficient, C.) At a constant slope, s equals the height difference divided by the
length of pipe.

For sizes smaller than 6 in., pipe should run no more than 50% full to allow for vapor backflow; for pipes larger than 6 in.,
most applications can tolerate up to 75%-full pipes. For the relatively short lengths at process plants a 40:1 slope is a
good starting point for evaluating piping systems with commercial pipe and low viscosity fluids (e.g., water and light
hydrocarbons). If available, steeper slopes allow for smaller diameter pipes.
Use flooded-nozzle sizing to set initial intake size, establish flow with a gradual slope, then increase the slope and
smoothly decrease pipe diameter to reduce investment. With large systems, long pipe runs and more complex layouts,
some research to decide on hydraulic design will reward your efforts.

Andrew Sloley is Chemical Processing's Contributing Editor. You can e-mail him at ASloley@putman.net

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