CONTENTS

1
1.1
1.2

Introduction
Learning outcomes
Situational awareness

An Introduction to Hydrodynamics & Interaction

What are pressure waves?

4
4.1
4.2

The formation of hydrodynamic pressure fields

The Bernoulli effect
Ship squat

5
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5

Interaction
Bank rejection and bank suction
Ranging and surging
Passing head to head
Overtaking from astern
Boundary zones

Tell-Tale signs

Interaction at a distance

Summary

Case studies

10

Further information

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INTRODUCTION

To provide an opportunity to reflect, two special features have been incorporated in

the Reference to help you interact with the video and allow for further discussion and
review.
The first of these is the
Note which will provide more information about a specific
subject and may provide a link to further resources and links. The second is the more
directed
Observe that will ask you to apply your knowledge in practical ways,
since we believe that this is the most effective means of understanding what you have
learnt. Both features are designed to help increase your confidence and skills in real
life work situations.
1.1
Learning outcomes
This is of particular relevance if you are instructing others. Each section of this
Reference has a set of learning outcomes so that you have a clear idea which areas
are covered, and why.
Other suggestions about how to use this Reference are as follows:
The video follows a precise structure which should be followed carefully. That
doesnt mean you should watch the entire video without pausing. Indeed we
want to encourage you to use the pause function whenever you feel it
necessary. However, you will not get the most from this video if you miss out
sections, which are designed to follow on from each other.
As you watch the video, make notes of any areas you feel unsure about or
need further clarification.
Consult this Reference. Does it give you the information you need? If not, do
you know where to go to find it?
Throughout each section, questions are raised for discussion. Again, make
notes if necessary.
1.2
Situational awareness
We begin this Reference with a brief section on the principles of Situational
Awareness. This general approach underpins the whole subject, and will help you
greatly in your day to day work. If you are already familiar with Situational Awareness
then you can leave out this section.

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OBSERVE
Look at the graphic above. What do you think is the relationship
between the three different activities LOOK / THINK /
ANTICIPATE? You might like to write down your response and
compare it to the description below.
What is Situational Awareness?
It can be defined very simply recognising and responding to what is going on around
you.
For Situational Awareness to be successful it draws on three essential activities:
1. Gathering information
2. Interpreting information
3. Anticipating a future state

NOTE
Another way of understanding Situational Awareness is by asking three
simple questions:
WHAT?
Gathering information: use perception and observation to gain as
complete a picture of the situation as possible.
SO WHAT?
Interpreting information: think about and understand the meaning of
information gathered in step one.
NOW WHAT?
Anticipating future states: think about how the situation might develop
and how any action based on that development might affect your own
ship and others.

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OBSERVE
Now look at the graphic again.
What do you conclude from the relationship between the three
activities? It is what we call a virtuous circle, when one stage
leads naturally onto the other to become a natural flow.
One example from our daily life would be the skills we
demonstrate in driving safely and efficiently. Can you think of
another example in your own work?
Why do we need better situational awareness?
Our perception of reality can become distorted when we are stressed and overloaded
with sensory information. In order to cope the brain becomes selective, filtering out
information in order to concentrate on what seems most important. Thats where the
danger lies.

NOTE
In recent years, the amount of information available to the bridge
watchkeeping officer has multiplied, with electronic charts and
AIS.
Sometimes it seems the hardest part now is not evaluating the
information provided by the navigational instruments, but
predicting what the other ship is going to do. Remember just
looking up and out of the bridge window can give you an
immediate awareness. And do not forget to look abaft the beam.

How to improve your situational awareness

WHAT?
Gather information. Understand what you need to be aware of on the bridge.
Understand also the means by which you gather that information. Where can those
resources be found?

OBSERVE
Make a rough list of all the instrumentation available to you on
board a typical ship.
Exactly what is that instrumentation?
How might that instrumentation help you gather the
information you need?
How might it prevent you?
How much reliance can you place on the data it provides?

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SO WHAT?
Process the information you have now gathered and assess it. Remember, ships
operate in a highly dynamic environment and the situation changes all the time. So
might your assessment

NOTE
We all of us have ways of looking at the world.
Remember, as confidence in interpreting information increases,
so does the temptation to work from certain assumptions.
COLREG 7c Risk of Collision specifically addresses this issue,
warning that assumptions shall not be made on the basis of
scanty information, especially scanty radar information.
We have already considered how we use Situational Awareness
in driving. Which assumptions do we often make when driving?
How do those assumptions change according to traffic or
weather conditions?
NOW WHAT?
Based on your assessment, think about how the situation may develop in the future
and make a decision about any necessary action. Also, consider how that action might
affect your own ship and others.

OBSERVE
A lecturer recently wrote One of the toughest things about
learning navigation is the importance of projecting the future
position of the ship. Navigation is about more than just knowing
where you are; it is about knowing where the ship is going and,
more critically, are we heading into danger?
Do you agree?
Can you find three reasons that support, and three that argue
against this proposition?
Other factors in situational awareness
In an ideal world the practice of Situational Awareness would naturally become part of
best practice. Real life, however, has a tendency to dictate otherwise. Whatever the
context, there are other factors you need to be aware of. These include Culture,
Language and Leadership Styles.

OBSERVE
For more information about Situational Awareness and its
application, please look at Videotels Vessel Resource
Management Series on Leadership and Team Working Skills, and
the Vessel Resource Management Training Course.
Videotel 2012

AN INTRODUCTION TO HYDRODYNAMICS & INTERACTION

As ships have got bigger and cargoes more valuable, the financial and human costs of
marine accidents have soared.
Anything that helps to reduce such accidents has to be welcomed. A series of
incidents in recent years has turned the spotlight on interaction as a contributing
factor. This aspect of a ships behaviour is still poorly understood, even among
experienced mariners. Yet the effects described in this Reference may affect and be
relevant to the application of the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at
Sea and application of STCW and ISM conventions and codes.
In this section you will learn the following:
Definitions of hydrodynamics and interaction
Details of a case study the Royston Grange tragedy
Questions raised by the subsequent enquiry
First of all, we need some definitions. What exactly do we mean by hydrodynamics
and what is interaction?
HYDRODYNAMICS
The word hydrodynamic is derived from the Greek hydros, meaning water, and
dunamiko, meaning work or action.
This is the branch of science that deals with the dynamics of fluids in motion,
especially incompressible fluids. In this video we are interested in water, which for
most hydrodynamic purposes is considered virtually incompressible
INTERACTION
This is the reciprocal action or influence when hydrodynamic forces interact.
HYDRODYNAMICS & INTERACTION
The first thing to state is that hydrodynamics and interaction are two entirely separate
subjects in themselves, and can be studied individually.
However, in the video you have just watched, they are linked together. Because of
that link, we define hydrodynamics and interaction as the interplay of pressure fields
that occurs between a vessel moving through water and its immediate surroundings.

OBSERVE
In practice, mariners use a number of terms to describe
hydrodynamics and the effects of interaction some of which are
more accurate than others.
Do you know any of them?

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Let us now look at a case study in which this interplay had a significant effect.

The Royston Grange tragedy illustrates perfectly the effects that hydrodynamic
interaction can have on a ship, leading it into disaster.
On the 11th May 1972, the British cargo ship, the Royston Grange, carrying 61
crew, 12 passengers and a harbour pilot, left Buenos Aires with a cargo of frozen
beef and butter.
At 5:40 am and in dense fog it collided with the Liberian-registered tanker Tien
Chee, which was carrying a full load of crude oil. The Tien Chee burst into flames
and a series of explosions enveloped the Royston Grange.
All 74 people on board the Royston Grange died, and 8 of the 40 crew on board
the Tien Chee.

OBSERVE
What other accounts can you find on the net about the
disaster?
How do their accounts differ?

The enquiry concluded that the course taken by the Tien Chee had probably pushed
the Royston Grange onto the bank, causing it to bounce off and hit the tanker, due to
a hydrodynamic effect called bank rejection. Refer to section 5 of this work book for
more details of bank rejection and the associated effect of bank suction.
A ship in motion is surrounded by pressure waves, or fields, which interact with similar
fields generated by other vessels, banks and shoals. These waves are more complex
when in confined waters such as canals and estuaries.
This Reference will explain the main types of Interaction arising from hydrodynamic
forces, and how to anticipate and deal effectively with them.
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WHAT ARE PRESSURE WAVES?

In this Section you will learn the following:

How pressure waves in air relate to pressure waves in water
The effects generated by high and low pressure zones around a truck in
motion through air
The effects generated by high and low pressure zones around a vessel in
motion through water
The best way of understanding pressure waves is by looking at something we are all
familiar with - the bicycle pump.

Look at the graphic. It shows the passage of air through the tube, forced by a piston.
As it does so, the air becomes compressed and enters the inner tube, which traps it,
causing the tyre to inflate.
1. The plunger action compresses the air in front of the piston leading to a
high pressure wave.
2. Behind the piston is an area of low pressure where the air density has
been reduced.
3. Air rushing in from outside at the far end of the pump creates rising
pressure, as the external atmosphere tries to fill the partial vacuum inside
the tube.
All of these pressure zones high pressure, low pressure and rising pressure are
generated by any vessel moving through water. They are especially noticeable in a
confined waterway such as a canal.

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Look at the vessel travelling along a canal. It performs the same function as the piston
in the bicycle pump.
1. In a confined channel, the movement of the water is pushed ahead and
heaps up, creating a high pressure zone ahead of the ship.
2. This draws water from the midships area resulting in a low pressure zone
the water has been pushed forward to form the bow high pressure field.
3. Water rushes in, from astern, to fill the hole created, and so creates a zone
of rising pressure, to form a stern pressure field.
Using the bicycle pump to describe pressure waves in air, we have a simple
understanding of the first principles of hydrodynamics.
But it is limited. In reality, pressure zones are stronger and much more complex, when
generated by large scale objects in motion through water or air.
For example, following a fast-moving truck on a motorway.

Imagine yourself driving along a motorway. Up ahead of you is a large truck. You
decide you are going to overtake it.
You accelerate, and pull out into the adjacent lane. You continue to accelerate as you
speed past the truck, passing close to its side.
What do you feel?
What pressures is your car put under?
How do those pressures change as you pass?
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While actually concentrating on driving safely, it is often difficult to assess, but you are
subject to a series of pressure waves generated by this heavy vehicle moving at
speed that works in the following ways.
1. As you start to pass, the high pressure wave at the rear of the truck can
push your vehicle away.
2. As you continue to pass, the low pressure wave behind the truck can suck
you in.
3. Drawing level with the front of the truck, an even stronger high pressure
wave again pushes your vehicle aside. It can even prevent you from
completing the overtaking manoeuvre, creating a wall of high pressure
which cannot be penetrated.

OBSERVE
Can you think of any other familiar day to day situations in which
you experience the same range of pressure waves?
Make a note of them and discuss them with your fellow students.

Now imagine yourself on the bridge of a vessel travelling through either open water or
a confined space. Water is eight hundred times denser than air at sea level, so the
pressure waves are going to be considerably greater.

NOTE
Trucks often travel in convoy because then they can take
advantage of the low pressure zones immediately behind each
other to help them reduce fuel consumption.
Likewise, a tug following closely behind a moving vessel can be
carried along on the boundary between the high pressure plume
created by the turning propeller and low pressure cells
generated astern. This is known as the Sweet Spot.
However, get it wrong and the smaller craft can be drawn into the low pressure cell
with disastrous results.
Now look at the video again and in particular look closely at the animation of the
pressure zones around a ship in motion.

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OBSERVE
Why not stop the video and draw a rough copy of the animation,
paying attention to the pressure zones? It does not have to be
perfect but it will help fix in your minds where each pressure
zone starts and finishes.
One important distinction which has to be made is between vessels in open water and
vessels in confined waters. In open water, the fields are relatively stable, unless
distorted by cross-currents. If the vessel is navigating ahead in a straight path, the
water flow around the hull is practically symmetrical. In confined waters the pressure
zones are often squashed together and further distorted by being reflected by the
sides and bottom.
Here are some other features of pressure zones around a moving vessel which are
important to remember.
1. They are rarely symmetrical. Pressure fields from other vessels, currents,
tides, banks or submerged terrain will blur them.
2. The high pressure field at the stern is so large it breaks up before its fully
formed.
3. All pressure zones strengthen and expand as the ship accelerates and
shrink as it slows.
4. A second low pressure field is contained behind the stern wave
5. In confined and shallow waters, sub-surface fields become critical as they
interact with the sides and bottom.
Sub-surface fields
All of the above have an impact in open water, but naturally these effects are
considerably greater in confined waters. All of the pressure zones become more
undefinable as they interfere with each other, creating unexpected forces which can
affect ship handling.
As a member of the bridge team you will need to make allowances for this, and
develop strategies which reduce the effects of interaction. Speed through the water is
the most important factor in generating hydrodynamic forces. When reduced
gradually, it can help resolve problems such as ship squat and loss of directional
control.

NOTE
Reducing speed quickly or suddenly is known to cause shiphandling and directional control problems and should, as far as
possible, be avoided.
No such issues exist with sudden speed increases.
Let us now take a step back and look at how these pressure fields are formed.
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THE FORMATION OF HYDRODYNAMIC PRESSURE FIELDS

4.1
The Bernoulli effect
In this Section you will learn the following:
A short history of hydrodynamic theory Bernoulli / Venturi
How to detect and avoid the Bernoulli effect
To understand how the theory of hydrodynamics evolved we have to go back to 18th
century Switzerland, and the Dutch born mathematician Daniel Bernoulli, who studied
and taught at the University of Basel. Bernoulli came from a family of prominent
mathematicians. His interest was in the application of mathematics to mechanics, and
especially fluid mechanics.

NOTE
Bernoullis interest in fluid mechanics was partly due to
observations he made on the nature of water when travelling by
boat to St Petersburg to take up the post of Professor of
Mathematics.
In 1738 he published his book, Hydrodynamica. In it he described a method of
calculating the hydrodynamic effect on flowing water of being confined.

NOTE
Bernoullis theory was so brilliant his father with whom he had
badly fallen out tried to claim it as his own in a book he
predated to 1732

NOTE
Bernoullis principle has some similarities with another
mathematicians work Giovanni Venturi (17461822). The
Venturi effect also describes the reduction in hydrodynamic
pressure that results when a fluid flows through a constricted
section of pipe.
The works of Bernoulli and Venturi are important milestones in
the development of hydrodynamics as a science.

The physical principle of Bernoullis effect is quite straightforward:

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1. Water forced to flow through a narrow channel between objects, for

example two ships, will accelerate as it enters, then slow down as it exits
the constriction.
2. At the point of greatest constriction the water flow is fastest and the
hydrodynamic pressure is reduced, so a low pressure zone is generated.
3. If they are not fixed, the two objects will be drawn closer together by this low
pressure zone.
In a nutshell, Bernoullis theorem says increased water speed = decreased
pressure.

OBSERVE
What are your own experiences of Bernoullis effect?
Where have you seen it at its most pronounced?
Think of several examples and discuss them with your fellow
students.
There is also a mathematical equation to be applied to Bernoullis effect, which
increases as the speed of the water flowing through the constriction increases.
It goes as follows:
1. If the speed DOUBLES, the effect increases by a factor of FOUR.
2. If the speed TRIPLES, the effect increases by a factor of NINE.
3. And so on.
This is what is known as a logarithmic progression.

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OBSERVE
What other factors do you imagine would affect the water speed
in constricted waters?
Make a list of them and compare it with your fellow students.
There are a number of other factors that can significantly alter the strength of
Bernoullis effect. They include the following:
1. The presence of tidal flow or currents, especially in shallow or confined
waters
2. Interference from hydrodynamic pressure cells generated by tugs or other
nearby vessels
3. Increased water flow round the hull that results from the wash of a tug
All of these must be taken in consideration.

OBSERVE
Remember, it is the speed of the water (STW) that is critical
determining the forces, not the physical speed of the vessel over
the ground (SOG).
What effect do you think a following tide or current will have on
the hydrodynamic pressure fields your ship generates?

Now we have established the principles of Bernoullis effect, we can look in more
detail at some of the interaction it gives rise to, and which you are likely to encounter
in your work.
These tend to fall into the following two categories:
1. Vessels which are attempting to pass one another at close range. This is
most noticeable in confined waters but applies also to ships passing in open
seaways.
2. Vessels under way in confined waters which stray too close to a bank, shoal
or quayside.
What follows is a series of practical situations that you may encounter.
4.2
Ship squat
As we have already seen, pressure fields in water are less defined and more complex
than is possible to show in an animation. In fact they are often difficult to see and
should not be confused with the normal wash generated by a ship.
However, they share some common factors. They are as follows:
1. Pressure fields are rarely symmetrical
2. Pressure fields interact with other vessels, submerged terrain including a
sloping seabed and underwater objects, and tend to blur the boundaries.
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3. All pressure fields strengthen and expand as the ship accelerates, and
shrink as it slows.
4. The stern high pressure field is so large is breaks down long before it is fully
formed.
5. Water moving forward, creating the following high pressure field, draws
water from further astern creating a second low pressure field, and so on,
forming the characteristic diminishing wave patterns that follows a moving
ship.
6. A separate deep low pressure cell (hole) is created by moving ships
similar to the slip stream created by a moving truck and is located
immediately astern, inside the following high pressure area.

NOTE
Do not forget, pressure fields also project below the vessel for a
considerable distance.
It is the interaction of the factors described above along with the speed of the vessel
(or the speed of the water flowing past a stationary vessel) that will affect how the
vessel sits in the water. This can result in bodily sinkage compared with the static
condition and a change of the trim ratio.
Speed (STW) + change of trim + vessel sitting lower = ship squat
Even then the relationship is not a straightforward one. Ship squat is usually felt more
when the depth to draft ratio is less than four. The strength of the effect is proportional
to the square of the speed of the ship. By reducing speed by half, the squat effect is
reduced by a factor of four.

OBSERVE
What happens if the vessel goes faster?
Or the vessel is in shallow waters?
How does the speed of the vessel affect the squat?
What other factors do you need to take into allowance in
forecasting the squat?
Can you find out some examples of accidents caused by
squat or successful uses of squat to aid ship manoeuvring?
OBSERVE
Do you think a vessel moored, or anchored, in a current or
tideway will generate the hydrodynamic pressure fields
described?
If you think this is a possibility, what will be the effect on small
craft or vessels operating nearby?
OBSERVE
Do you think a moored vessel might experience squat?
If so, in what circumstances might this occur?
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Now we can apply the theory you have learnt to some practical examples of
hydrodynamics and interaction. All of the following have been simplified in order to
show the effects more clearly.

INTERACTION

5.1
Bank rejection and bank suction
Factors
1. The ship is travelling along a canal.
2. The rudder is set amidships.
Q:
A:

What happens when the vessel is taken too close to the bank?
The high pressure zone at the bow takes effect first.

Q:
A:

What impact does that high pressure zone at the bow of the ship have?
It causes the ship to be turned back towards mid-channel.

This is bank rejection.

Q:
A:

Q:
A:

With the vessel now at an angle to the bank, should there be a similar stern
rejection effect?
That may be the case, but if the stern gets very close, a localised Bernoullis
effect is created which is stronger than the bank rejection effect and takes over.
What does Bernoullis effect do?
It generates a low pressure zone in the constriction between the ships side and
the bank that draws the vessel toward the bank. It is most noticeable on the
quarter.

This is bank suction.

Consequences
Although the rudder is set to starboard in order to regain a straight course, bank
suction effects may exert a force that can be as much as five times greater than a
standard rudder can manage.

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Bank Suction + Bank Rejection + Bernoulli effect + Standard manoeuvring

capability = Contact with bank
ACCIDENT!
When closing on a bank, speed should be reduced and, if possible, the distance
between the ship and the bank should be increased. A reserve rudder force must be
available at all times to counter any sudden increase in force at the bow (Bow cushion,
or bank suction aft).
5.2
Ranging and surging
Factors
1. A moving ship is approaching a moored vessel at close quarters.
2. The moored ship will possibly move briefly towards the advancing vessel
before surging forward on its moorings.
3. The high pressure zone generated by the advancing bow wave will push
forward on the stationary ships stern causing the stern moorings to tighten.
4. Forward moorings slacken off.
5. This forward motion on the moorings will be reversed as the ship completes
its pass.
This fore and aft motion is what we call ranging or surging.
Q:
A:

What happens as the moving ships bow reaches the moored ships stern?
The bow waves lateral pressure field pushes the moored ships stern towards
the quayside, causing the stern moorings to slacken. The moored ships bow is
forced out towards mid-stream by this movement, tightening the forward
moorings.

Q:
A:

What happens as the passing vessels bow moves abeam?

The moving ships bow pressure field pushes the moored ships bow back
towards the quay.

Q:
A:

What happens to the stern?

It is drawn out by the low pressure field amidships the moving vessel.

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Q:
A:

What impact does Bernoullis effect have?

Where the low pressure field exerts it will try and draw both ships together. The
result of all the motions acting together often results in a circular motion in the
moored ship, as it tugs at its moorings.

OBSERVE
The following are some other factors that can play a part in
ranging or surging speed of passing vessel, depth of water,
distance apart of the two ships and tidal flow or currents.
Find some information on them.
Consequences
Hydrodynamic interaction between the two vessels can result in considerable strain on
the moorings.
Fore surging + aft surging + successive bow and stern rejection + Bernoulli
effect = pulled off berth
ACCIDENT!
5.3
Head to head
Originally developed on Britains Manchester Ship Canal in the late 1890s, but also
much used on the Houston Ship Channel (hence its nickname, Texas Chicken), this
manoeuvre is specifically intended to allow the passing of two vessels in a very
restricted waterway. Consequently, not only ship to ship interaction, but also bank
effect and squat are factors to be considered. This manoeuvre is normally only
undertaken by very experienced ship handlers and properly trained pilots.
The two ships are lined up, head to head, with their turning points located over the
mathematical middle of the channel and approach each other on what is, essentially, a
collision course, but at a carefully regulated speed.
Shortly before they collide, at a distance that varies according to the size, blockage
factor and the space available but usually not more than one to two ship lengths
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apart, each vessel will make a slight alteration of course to starboard so as to disrupt
the pressure field symmetry surrounding them (otherwise they would simply collide).
Once offset, the bow of each vessel is rejected from the other, forcing them apart.
When the bow pressure field of each ship interacts with the midships negative
pressure field of the other, the rejection effect is neutralised and the vessels steady
briefly, before a bank rejection effect causes both bows to move to port in unison,
forcing the vessels to straighten up in the channel.
Once the midships negative pressure fields coincide, they combine very intensely and
the vessels draw bodily together. At this point vessels may also notice a change in
squat or a slight heeling towards the other as the Bernoulli effect acting between the
two passing hulls can be extreme. As long as both ships proceed at the agreed speed,
they are prevented from colliding by the interacting bow and stern positive pressure
fields causing rejection and keeping the ships apart.
Very shortly afterwards, the stern positive pressure systems interact causing the
sterns to reject and, as a consequence, the bow of each ship will sheer across the
stern of the other. At the same time, the bow of each ship will also be drawn into the
negative hole astern and the sheer will become quite dramatic, requiring
considerable helm and engine movements to counteract.
The effects can vary considerably if the participating vessels are very different in size.
However, properly executed, this manoeuvre allows ships to pass safely in very
confined situations with a separation of just a few metres.
Factors
1. Even in open waters, the interaction between the hydrodynamic pressure
waves generated by two moving ships that pass close to each other can
influence the handling of both.
2. This interaction can result in unusual behaviour.
3. The power and effect of this interaction can vary according to the vessels
relative sizes, their speed, distance apart and the depth of water.

OBSERVE
Can you think of any instances when you have experienced such
unusual handling behaviour caused by interaction when part of a
Bridge team?
Share those experiences with your fellow students.
What can you learn from the experiences of others?
Q:
A:

What do vessels travelling in opposite directions experience as they pass?

Mutual bow rejection.

Q:
A:

Why is that?
Because their advancing positive pressure fields are interacting.

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Q:
A:
Q:
A:

What happens when the forward high pressure fields and amidships low
pressure fields interact?
They stabilise, but only briefly.
What effect does this have on the vessels?
The vessels draw together, despite the combined effect of the high pressure
fields.

Finally, just as the manoeuvre seems complete, their sterns are pushed apart as the
high pressure zones aft combine to cause rejection. Each vessel is then in danger of
steering into the low pressure field astern of the other.

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NOTE
Any interaction between vessels may be complicated by
secondary forces such as bank rejection from the edge of a
channel, the bottom, or from the pressure fields of other vessels
operating in the vicinity.

Consequences
Hydrodynamic interaction between the stern high pressure zones continues to affect
the manoeuvre as it is completed, so that the sterns are pushed apart.
Sterns mutually reject + loss of steering control = vessel sheers into low
pressure field astern of other
ACCIDENT!
5.4
Overtaking from astern
Factors
1. Overtaking another vessel from astern can be a hazardous manoeuvre. It
should be planned to maximize passing distance as far as possible.
2. The relative speed of both vessels can result in a longer encounter.
3. So far as circumstances and safe operational parameters allow, the
overtaking vessel should proceed as quickly as possible (without
embarrassing the overtaken vessel) and must always bear in mind the
Colreg 13 obligation to keep out of the way of the overtaken vessel.
4. In confined channels, or under pilotage, those conducting the navigation of
passing vessels may arrange speed differentials that are appropriate to the
prevailing situation but this will largely be a matter of experience.
5. Once initiated, bridge teams should carefully monitor the overtaking
manoeuvre closely and immediately seek clarification where uncertainty
arises.
6. The relative sizes of the vessels can also increase the dangers. The larger
vessel has greater influence over the smaller vessel.

OBSERVE
Can you think of any instances when you have experienced such
unusual handling behaviour caused by interaction when part of a
Bridge team?
Share those experiences with your fellow students.
What can you learn from the experiences of others?
Q:
A:

What does the overtaken vessel feel at some distance, especially in confined or
shallow water?
The advance high pressure field of the approaching vessel.

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Q:
A:

What does the vessel being overtaken experience?

A slight increase in speed as it surfs on the encroaching pressure field.

Q:
A:

How does the approaching vessels bow wave interact with the slower vessels
quarter?
It causes the stern to be rejected.

Q:
A:

What can be the result of this?

A slight alteration towards the path of the overtaking ship.

Consequences
This hydrodynamic interaction is initially very difficult to detect and will often be
countered, unnoticed, by the auto-helm until the effect has increased to such a degree
that the off course alarm sounds.
By this time, the slower vessel may already be sheering into the path of the overtaking
ship.

NOTE
There is an extra risk if the faster vessel is also larger.
The smaller ship may become trapped in the bigger vessels
intense amidships pressure field and be sucked in.

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Counter helm applied + overtaken ship displaced from course = both vessels
dangerously close + Bernoulli effect
ACCIDENT!
5.5
Boundary zones
There is one area that requires special attention, and that is the boundary zone
between high and low pressure fields. It is here that forces can change very rapidly
and with significant impact.
The most common example of this is when a tug is manoeuvring at close quarters to a
moving vessel.
This can sometimes work to the tugs advantage, as it gets a free ride in the low
pressure zone astern the Sweet Spot mentioned earlier - but boundary zones can
change in an instant, and become deadly traps.

Here is a case study which illustrates what can happen, and the dangers involved.
CASE STUDY
1. A 1,600 GT cargo vessel in ballast. A harbour tug was assigned to assist
her to berth.
2. The tug was instructed to make fast on starboard bow
3. The speed of both vessels was about 4 knots.
4. As the tow line was being passed the tug took a sheer to port and the two
vessels touched the vessels stern striking the tugs port quarter.
5. The tug took an immediate starboard list and within seconds it capsized.
6. One man was drowned.

OBSERVE
What is your personal experience of the hydrodynamic
interaction of boundary zones?
Have you been part of a bridge team that has had to deal with
their effect?
Share your experiences with others.
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TELL-TALE SIGNS

We have looked at a whole series of situations that can arise as part of your everyday
work. Weve looked at what causes them and what effect they can have. But in order
to be able to respond to them effectively, you first need to know what to look for. You
need some tell-tale signs.
Here is a list of those tell-tale signs, how they are caused, and how you can recognise
them. Also included is a recommended action.

Tell-tale signs
Type:
Engine
noise

Cause:
Sound waves produced
by the engine bounce
back from the channel
bed and banks in confined
water. Sound changes as
banks get closer or water
more shallow

How to recognise:
Learn to identify the
changes in sound which
warn of hydrodynamic
effects

Action:
Observe
..
Note: Changes
in sound
indicates a
potential risk
..
Check the chart
and echo
sounder
..
Reduce speed
slowly if
necessary

Frothy wash
and wave
changes

1. Shallow water more

liable to turbulence as
following wave pattern
wavelengths and
frequency shorten
..
2. Changes may cause
water to be more foamy or
frothy
..
3. Frothy water less dense
so propellers meet less
resistance

4. Engine can race

Changes in the ships

wash and excessive
aeration in the form of
bubbles are both good
indicators

Reduce speed
slowly, reduce
engine
revolutions or
change
propeller pitch

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Type:
Change in
following
wave height
(amplitude)
and length
(period)
.

Cause:
Waves bunch together as
they impact on the seabed. As they get higher,
they also get slower and
so catch up with each
other
.

Wave
making may
change at
the bow

Ship bow waves are likely

to change and increase in
dimension

Steering

Speed

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How to recognise:
Careful observation of
how stern waves forms
in deep and shallow
water

Particularly noticeable
on a shoalling beach as
the vessel passes

Action:
Observe
notify engine
room/
Master/pilot if
necessary
.
Check the chart
and echo
sounder
.
Put engines on
standby
.
Reduce speed
slowly if
necessary

Affected steering leads to:

1. Slow rudder response
.
2. Stalling
.
3. Reversed rudder
application.
.
As a result, vessel strays
from track

Identify changes in
steering pattern.

Vessel turning circle

may increase
considerably as the
water shallows

Reduce speed
slowly, reduce
engine
revolutions or
change
propeller pitch

Increasing engine power

results in greater
resistance and slower
speed. Especially relevant
in confined waters.
.
It is also worth noting that
a positive pressure field
ahead of a vessel
approaching from astern
can result in similar
problems for the ship
ahead.

Constant monitoring of
engine revolutions and
speed through the
water is the ship
slowing down for no
apparent reason?

Stopping distance and

times will increase
dramatically.

Reduce speed
in small
increments. This
avoids:
1. The vessel
surfing
forward.
.
2. Loss of
propulsion as
entering a
dock or lock.

Type:
Ship
movement
and attitude
may change

Cause:
Cushioning effect of
reducing water layer
under the hull has a
dampening effect on
vessel motion
.
Squat is likely to increase
as water shallows

How to recognise:
Rolling, pitching and
heaving motions may
reduce as the vessel
moves from deeper to
shallower water

Vessels trim may

change

Action:
Observe roll
and pitch timing
periods
.
Observe
draught gauges.
They may show
a change in the
vessels fore
and aft readings
.
Note changes.
Notify Master /
pilot / engine
room

Mud
plumes,
rising
around the
vessel
caused by
flocculation
of bottom
mud
.
Unusual
eddies
around the
vessel
.
Engine
cooling
water
intakes
becoming
clogged
and thus
less
effective

Vessel hull is coming

close to the bottom and
the underwater pressure
is interacting with sea bed

Watch for mud plumes

in the ships wash and
wake

Unusual readings on
echo sounder

Unusual water speed

(STW) readings

Engine temperature
readings change rapidly

Unexpected increase in
vibration

Observe and be
aware notify
engine
room/Master/pil
ot if necessary
.
Check the chart
and echo
sounder
.
Engines on
standby
.
Reduce speed
if necessary
.
Change engine
room sea
suctions from
low to high if
necessary

Now we have looked at the impact of hydrodynamic interaction on your ship. But what
about the impact you are having on other vessels, even those far away?
This brings us on to the final interaction we need to consider.

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INTERACTION AT A DISTANCE

As a member of the bridge team it is not enough to maintain a constant awareness of

pressure fields around your own ship.
What kind of effect do you think you are having on other craft in the vicinity? And what
influences that effect?
When making a judgment the following factors need to be taken into consideration:
1. Size. A big difference in relative sizes increases the impact on the smaller
vessel.
2. Speed. This influences the size and strength of all the pressure fields
generated by the vessel.
3. Open or confined waters. What difference does it make to the distance
hydrodynamic effects can be felt?

OBSERVE
Have you ever had the experience of being in a small craft caught
up in the pressure field of a much larger vessel, either in open or
confined waters?
Can you remember what it was like?
Share your experiences with others.
There is evidence gathered from open water collisions to suggest that the pressure
field at the bow of a moving vessel can extend up to 3 times the ships length. For a
Very Large Crude Carrier this can mean affecting the handling of another ship over
half a mile away.

NOTE
Examples of this have been recorded in places such as port
entrances near pilot stations, relatively shallow straits, e.g.
Dover and Malacca, and in tidal estuaries.

Imagine having an impact on the manoeuvring abilities of another ship so far away it
cannot even be seen. That is the range and extent of hydrodynamic interaction, in
confined waters.

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SUMMARY

It is the intention of this Reference to help you understand the basic principles of
Hydrodynamics and Interaction as they impact upon you in your daily work. As you will
no doubt agree, it is a complex subject but we believe it can be summarised as
follows.

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Interaction is an aspect of ship handling that is often insufficiently understood, in both

its causes and effects.
We hope by now you have gained a better understanding and knowledge of
hydrodynamics and interaction, and feel more confident in dealing with situations as
they arise in your daily work.
Please refer back to the video for more information, and to review any section.

CASE STUDIES

Case Study 1 Running aground

At approximately 16.32 on 3 June 2004, a double hulled chemical tanker ran
aground on Lymington Banks in the west Solent. The vessel suffered bottom plate
indentation forward but no hull penetration. Nobody on board was injured and there
was no pollution.
Synopsis
Having completed loading a cargo at Fawley Marine Terminal, Southampton, UK, a
pilot was ordered, and the vessel sailed at 15.15. The Master had decided to proceed
to the English Channel via the west Solent and Needles Channel, as he had done on
a previous occasion 6 weeks before. This decision was contrary to his companys
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standing instructions that required its vessels to use the east Solent route when
arriving or sailing from Southampton.
The pilot disembarked, automatic steering was engaged and the vessel continued her
passage through the west Solent. It was a clear day, with little recreational craft traffic
and no other commercial traffic in the west Solent. Neither the second officer nor the
cadet were sure of who was responsible for plotting positions on the chart, although
both did some rudimentary checking off of buoys passed. The Master was not paying
attention to the navigation of the vessel, and was distracted, using the ships mobile
telephone.
The vessel ran aground on Lymington Banks at about 16.32, at a speed of about 11
knots. At this point she was approximately 0.5 mile north of her intended track.

How could knowledge of hydrodynamics and interaction have helped here?

What tell-tale signs could have warned of imminent danger?
What action could have been taken?

Learning points
1. Lack of training meant an inability to recognise early indications associated with
shallow water effects, for example increased engine vibration, bank rejection,
the autopilot applying counterhelm.
2. Poor bridge team management on the vessel resulted in a lack of accurate
vessel positional awareness and an inappropriate division of tasks.
3. The use of the mobile telephone distracted the Master from his primary
responsibilities.
4. The routine transit of large vessels, some carrying hazardous cargoes and
some carrying large numbers of passengers through the west Solent and
Needles Channel, is a cause for concern. The route passes through an
environmentally sensitive area but the navigable channel is narrow. Given the
shifting shingle of the seabed, there is no pilotage available and the area is not
monitored by any local Vessel Traffic System.
Case Study 2 Collision.
On Saturday, January 23, 2010, about 09.35 an oil tankship collided with a 597-footlong general cargo vessel at the Port of Port Arthur, Texas, USA. A 297-foot-long
barge, which was being pushed by a towboat, subsequently collided with the oil
tankship.
Synopsis
The tankship was inbound in the Sabine-Neches Canal with a load of crude oil en
route to an oil facility in Beaumont, Texas. Two pilots were on board, as called for by
local waterway protocol. When the tankship approached the Port of Port Arthur, it
experienced several unintended heading diversions culminating in the tankship
striking the cargo vessel, which was berthed at the port unloading cargo.
A short distance upriver from the collision site, the towboat was outbound with two
barges. The towboat Master saw the tankship move toward his side of the canal, and
he put his engines full astern but could not avoid the subsequent collision. The forward
barge collided with the tankship and breached its starboard ballast tank and the No. 1
centre cargo tank a few feet above the waterline. As a result of the breach, 862,344
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gallons of oil were released from the cargo tank, and an estimated 462,000 gallons of
that spilled into the water. The three vessels remained together in the centre of the
canal while pollution response procedures were initiated. No crewmember on board
any of the three vessels was injured.

How could knowledge of hydrodynamics and interaction have helped here?

What tell-tale signs could have warned of imminent danger?
What action could have been taken?

Learning points
1. The vessel was out of position with respect to the channels mathematical
middle and the hydrodynamic effects of bank rejection and bank suction
combined to rob the vessel of effective steering.
2. The US National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) determined that the
probable cause of the collision of the tankship with the cargo vessel, and the
subsequent collision with the barge was the failure of the first pilot, who had
navigational control of the tankship to correct the sheering motions that
began as a result of the late initiation of a turn at a mild bend in the
waterway.
3. Contributing to the accident was the first pilots fatigue, caused by his
untreated obstructive sleep apnoea and his work schedule.
4. Guidelines were not followed which meant a radio call was not answered by
the second pilot. Also contributing was the lack of oversight by the Jefferson
and Orange County Board of Pilot Commissioners.
Case Study 3 Dont pass on bends.
Two vessels collided while passing one another on a bend of a busy river. Both
vessels had pilots on board and were regular visitors to the river.
Synopsis
The inbound vessel was running with the tide at about 7 knots over the ground, while
the outbound vessel was making 5 knots over the ground against the 4 knot tide. Both
vessels had been responding normally to helm, and the pilots had agreed by VHF that
they would pass on a particular bend in the river. This meant that neither vessel would
have to slow down, and that the bend was relatively wide and open. Both pilots had
passed vessels on this bend previously.
Although the outbound vessel was known to handle poorly at low speeds, at a speed
through the water of about 9 knots this was not seen as a problem. However, this
speed was reduced as the vessel approached the bend by bringing back the pitch on
the controllable pitch propeller. As the vessel entered the bend, the inbound vessel
was about 180m ahead, on a reciprocal course, and looked safe to pass about 30m
apart.
The pilot on the outbound vessel applied 10 starboard helm to bring his vessel more
toward mid-river, but noticed the bow swinging slowly to port. He therefore increased
helm to hard a-starboard, but, since there was no effect, he instructed the Master to
kick the engine ahead. When the vessels were about 50m apart, with the outbound
vessels bow still falling off to port, the pilot ordered full astern to reduce the inevitable
impact. The vessels collided seconds later.
How could knowledge of hydrodynamics and interaction have helped here?
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What tell-tale signs could have warned of imminent danger?

What action could have been taken?

Learning points
1. In trying to pass on a bend, multiple hydrodynamic effects come into play,
including bank rejection and bank suction, loss of steering capability and loss of
power. Good Situational Awareness would have prepared for this.
2. This accident would not have occurred had the pilots agreed to pass on a
straight section of the river. A slight delay of one vessel was all that was
needed to ensure that the vessels met in a straight, either side of the bend.
3. The manoeuvrability of the outbound vessel was known to be poor at slow
speeds, and reducing speed on a controllable pitch propeller would have had
the effect of creating a baffle to the flow of water over the rudder, exacerbating
this problem. This effect could have been minimised by ensuring that the speed
was reduced gradually. An earlier reduction of speed would also have allowed
power to be increased again just before the helm was applied, thus
maximising the flow over the rudder.

10

FURTHER INFORMATION

Regulations
The International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and
Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW), as amended
The International Regulations for Preventing Collision at Sea 1972 (COLREGS) as
amended
The International Safety Management (ISM) Code
Standard Marine Communication Phrases (SMCP)
Publications
The Behaviour and Handling of Ships by Henry H. Hooyer FNI, published by
Cornell Maritime Press
Guide to Port Entry
Manoeuvring Information for the Pilot/Navigator. Its Source, Value and Limitations
by Thomas G. Knierim, Sandy Hook Pilot 1991. Published by the Society of Naval
Architects and Marine Engineers USA
Manoeuvring Single Screw Vessels Fitted with Controllable Pitch Propellers in
Confined Waters by Captain H. Hensen FNI, published by The Nautical Institute
MCA Marine Guidance Notice MGN 199 (M), Dangers of Interaction
New Thinking on Ship Generated Hydrodynamic Fields (RINA STS-11
Conference. Proceedings for 2nd International Conference on Ship Manoeuvring
in Shallow and Confined Water, Trondheim 2011)
NP100 The Mariners Handbook
Ship Design and Performance for Masters and Mates by Dr C.B. Barrass
Ship Dynamics for Mariners by Ian C. Clark MSc FNI, published by The Nautical
Institute
Ship Generated Hydrodynamic Fields Nautical Institute Seaways Magazine,
August 2010
The Ship Handlers Guide by Captain R. W. Rowe FNI, 2nd Edition, published by
The Nautical Institute
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Tug Use in Port by Captain H. Hensen FNI, 2nd Edition, published by The Nautical
Institute

Websites
http://www.shallowwater.ugent.be/EN/kc_EN.htm
Ship Squat: Are We Out of Our Depth
http://www.pilotmag.co.uk/2008/02/01/squat-part-1/
www.nwint.net
Videotel training programmes
Leadership and Team Working Skills - Vessel Resource Management Series:
Part 1 An Introduction to Resource Management (Code 1142)
Part 4 - Bridge Watchkeeping (Code 1145)
Part 6 Working With Pilots (Code 1147)
Part 7 Resource Management & Accident Prevention (Code 1148)
Part 8 Five Case Studies (Code 1149)
Pilot On Board! Working Together (Code 945)
Ship Handling in Head Seas (Code 661)
Ship Handling in Restricted Waters Ship Squat and Shallow Water Effect (Code
697)
Ship Handling in Restricted Waters Bank Effect & Interaction between Two
Ships (Code 748)
Vessel Resource Management Training Course (Code 884)
Working With Tugs (Code 972)

Videotel 2012