ME 322- Professor Molian's Lecture Notes on

MACHINING
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
MECHNICS OF MACHINING
TOOL WEAR, TOOL LIFE, SURFACE FINISH, AND MACHINABILITY
TOOL MATERIALS AND CUTTING FLUIDS
SELECTED MACHINE TOOLS AND MACHINING PROCESSES
MACHINING CENTERS

1. INTRODUCTION
US industries spend annually $60 billion to perform metal
removal operations that range from simple clean-up of castings
or welds to high precision work.
What is Machining?
Machining is a process designed to change the size, shape, and
surface of a material through removal of materials that could be
achieved by straining the material to fracture or by thermal
evaporation.
Why Machining?
Offers important benefits such as
Excellent dimensional tolerances

-Example is forged crankshaft where holes and

bearing surfaces require tight tolerances.
External and internal geometrical features
- Sharp corners, grooves, fillets, various geometry
Surface finish
-Example is a copper mirror by diamond turning
Removal of heat treat distortion
- Parts such as crank and camshafts undergo distortion
during heat treatment. Machining is a process for
"straightening" the parts.
Economical if small quantities
There are limitations that include
o Material waste
o Time consuming
o Energy, capital and labor intensive
What constitutes a machining system?
A machining system consists of three components: machine tool,
cutting
tool, and workpiece (part to be machined).
How do we classify machining processes?
See Figure 1 and also Figure 8.1 of Text.

Chip Forming Processes Chipless Forming Processes

(Cutting) (Finishing) (Non-traditional)
Turning Grinding Electrical Discharge

Boring Lapping Laser

Drilling Honing Plasma
Milling Polishing Water-jet
Planing Buffing Chemical
Shaping Electrochemical
Broaching
Sawing

What are the three fundamental machining parameters?

Cutting speed (V) is the largest of the relative velocities of

cutting tool or workpiece. In turning (Figure 2), it is the speed of
the workpiece while in drilling and milling, it is the speed of the
cutting tool. In turning, it is given by the surface speed of the
workpiece, V = D1N where D1 is the diameter of the
workpiece.
Depth of cut (d) is the distance the cutting tool penetrates into
the workpiece. In turning, for example, it is given by: d = (D1D2)/2
Feed (f) is movement of the tool per revolution. In turning, it is
the distance the tool travels in one revolution of the workpiece
and is given the units of mm/rev or in./rev.

What is Material Removal Rate (MRR)?

The volume of material removed per minute. In turning, MRR=
Vfd.
2. MECHANICS OF MACHINING
In general, machining is 3D-process. For providing an
understanding of mechanics of machining, we simplify the

process into a 2D-process called as Orthogonal Cutting as shown

in Figure 3. In orthogonal cutting, the workpiece is a flat plate (it
can be a thin tube too) and is machined using a wedge-shaped
tool with a rake angle of and a relief angle of . The workpiece
is moving at a cutting speed of V with a depth of cut to. The
width remains unaffected.
The chip formation is a localized shear process in a narrow
region where the metal is compressed and then made to flow on
the face of the tool. See the diagram (Figure 4) and video of an
aluminum plate machined.
The shear angle, , is of fundamental importance. A smaller
angle implies a large shear plane leading to requirement of high
cutting forces. Let us develop some equations that help us
understand the process better.
1. Cutting ratio, r
See Figure 8.2. If the chip thickness is tc, then we can show
that
r = to/tc = Sin /Cos( - )
WORK OUT PROBLEM 8.89
r is always less than unity. Rearranging the equation gives,
tan = r Cos /(1-r Sin )
2. Shear Strain

Consider a square element subjected to a shear stress.

If the distance sheared is "a" and the edge length of
square is "b", then the shear strain is given by: = a/b.
In metal cutting, the shearing process is similar to a
deck of playing cards sliding against each other as
shown in figure. See Figure 8.3. We can write:
= AB/OC = (AO + OB)/OC = Cot + tan ( - )

Low shear and rake angles result in high . A value of >5

indicates much greater deformation in machining than in metal
forming where it is under 1.
WORK OUT PROBLEM 8.90

3. Velocity Ratio
If the velocities are considered (see Figure 8.3),
Q = w toV = w tc Vc
V/Cos ( - ) = Vs / Cos = Vc/Sin

4. Shear Strain-rate
d /dt = Vs/d where d = OC ~ 10-3 to 10-4 inch
Shear strain rate is on the order of 103- 106/sec
Thus, it is this combination of large strains and high strain rates
make it difficult to predict chip formation.

5. Chip Formation (Figures 8.4 through 8.9)

Chip formation affects the surface finish, cutting

forces, temperature, tool life and dimensional
tolerance. A chip consists of two sides 1) the side in
contact with the tool is called shiny side (flat, uniform)
due to frictional effects, 2) the other side is the free
workpiece surface that has a jagged appearance due
to shear.
A. Continuous

- Narrow shear zone, there is also a secondary shear zone

- Excellent finish
- Usually for ductile metals
- Occurs at high cutting speed and rake angle but may
form at low speed, low rake angle in castoff soft
metals, and characterized by
Wider shear zone that causes distortion, poor finish, residual
stresses
-Entanglement of chips with the tool holder. Use chip-breakers.

B. BUE (continuous)

Built-up-edge (BUE) forms when there is a chemical

affinity between workpiece and the tool. It becomes
unstable, breaks up and then forms again. The process
is repeated continuously.

- Favorable growth conditions such as high strainhardening, low speed, large depth of cut, low rake
angle, and high temperature
- Degrades the surface finish changes tool geometry
- Thin BUE helps to improve the tool life
- Cutting fluids will prevent the formation of BUE

C. Discontinuous
-Occurs in brittle materials
-Inclusions/impurities promote this

- Very low or hi V
-Large depth of cut
-Lack of cutting fluid
Because of the discontinuous nature of the chips, forces vary
continually leading to vibrations and chatter in the machine tool
with the end results of poor surface finish and loose tolerances.

D. Serrated chips

- Semicontinuous with zones of high and low shear strains

o Occurs in metals where strength decreases sharply
with temperature. Example: Titanium.

6. Force Analysis

The objectives are:

1. to properly design machine tools for vibration and chatterfree operations.

2. to understand how material strength affects the cutting
forces.
3. to determine the HP of motor to be installed on the machine
tool.

The forces acting on the cutting tool are shown in Figure 8.12.
Except Fc and Ft, all other forces can not be experimentally
measured. A dynamometer (force transducer) mounted on the
workpiece or tool holder is used to measure Fc and Ft. Draw the

free body diagrams of chip, tool and workpiece to understand

how the forces act on. We can write the forces as:

R = (Fc2 + Ft2)1/2 = (Fs2 + Fn2)1/2 = (F2 + N2)1/2

Fc = R cos ( - )
Ft = R sin( - )
Fs = R cos( + - )
Ft = R Sin( + - )

These forces are small on the order of few hundred newtons, but
the local stresses are very high due to smaller contact areas
leading to wear, chipping, fracture. The tool-chip contact length
is also small (about 1 mm).

Coefficient of Friction

At the tool-chip interface, there is friction. The coefficient of

friction, , can be written as:
= F/N = tan
F and N are expressed in terms of other forces using a circular
force diagram shown in Figure 5.
F = Fc sin + Ft cos and N = Fc cos - Ft sin
= F/N = (Ft + Fc tan )/ (Fc-Ft tan )
is on the order of 0.5 to 2 indicating the chip faces
considerable frictional resistance when climbing over the tool
face.

Cutting and Thrust Forces

We rewrite the cutting force, Fc = R cos ( - )
where R = K fadbV-c where K, a, b, c = constants
From Tables 8.2 and 8.3, you note that Fc increases with
increasing d, decreasing V, and decreasing rake angle.
We rewrite the thrust force, Ft = R sin( - )=K fadbV-c sin( - )
Thrust force causes deflection of the tool and reduces the depth
of cut and affect tolerances. The machine tool and tool holder
must be stiff enough to withstand Ft.
Ft = Fc tan ( - )
and since Fc is always positive, Ft can be positive or negative
depending on ( - ). Negative Ft implies upward force. See
Figure 8.13. High rake angle and low friction generally result in
upward forces. High rake angles are not common in machining.

Shear Angle
This is a challenging parameter to determine. Several theories
are advanced to find the shear angle. One of the earliest analyses
(Merchant's) says, "the shear angle leads to maximum shear
stress".
Hence we write, = Fs/As = R cos( + - )/(w to/sin )
Differentiate the shear stress w.r.to the shear angle and set it
equal to zero (assume that is independent of ), then we find

= 45 + ( - )/2
see Figure 8.17 to see how this equation poorly predicts the
experimental data. Note another equation (8.21) has been
developed but does equally poor in predicting the experimental
data.

As the rake angle increases, the shear angle increases. An

increase in shear angle will reduce the chip thickness (how) and
reduce the temperature rise.
Let us substitute the above equation in Fc, which becomes

Fc = R cos ( - ) = R sin 2
Stresses in shear plane
There are two stresses in the shear plane caused by Fs and Fn.
The average shear stress is:
= Fs/As and = Fn/As

WORK OUT PROBLEMS 8.91, 92 and 93.

7. Power Analysis
The cutting force system in 3D-turning consists of three forces:
Fc is the largest force that accounts for 99% the power required,
Ft requires very small power because feed rates are very small,
and Fr the radial force contributes very small also because
velocity in the radial direction is negligible.
Ignoring the thrust and radial forces, the total input power to
cutting is given by:
Pc = FcV
Pc = Ps + Pf = FsVs + F Vc
where Ps = power required for shearing

Pf = power to overcome tool-chip interface friction

Additional power for creating new surfaces and for momentum changes as the metal crosses the shear plane is
considered small.

In terms of specific energy or UNIT POWER (specific energy, energy per unit volume of material removal), UNIT
POWER IS A MATERIALS PROPERTY.

UNIT POWER = ut = FcV/w toV = Fc/w to

See Table 8.4 for unit power of different materials. This UNIT POWER has been corrected for motor efficiency,
which is assumed to be 80%. That is, Pmotor = Pc/0.8 . For dull tools, you have to multiply the table data by 1.25.

We can also find out the portion of frictional specific energy,

uf = [sin sin / cos ( - ) cos ( - )] ut

Note that us = ut - uf
Usually 30-40% of the total energy goes to overcome the
friction. Go through example problems 8.1 and 8.2.

WORK OUT PROBLEM 8.115.

8. Heat and Temperature in Metal Cutting

The energy dissipated in cutting operations is largely converted
into heat, raising the temperature of chip, tool, and workpiece.
The cutting fluid, if used, is an excellent heat sink. There are
three sources for heat development:

1. the shear process itself.

2. the tool-chip interface friction.
1. the flank of the tool rubbing the workpiece (especially
if the tool is dull).
Most of the heat produced is carried by the chip (see Figure
8.22) implying that the shear process (plastic deformation) is
most effective in producing heat. Experimental data showed that
o typical values of the temperature rise are 600 to 1500oF
see Figure 8.19 and Figure 8.21

o Temperature can adversely affect the following:

On the cutting tool - Reduce strength and wear resistance
On the workpiece- Dimensional accuracy and surface integrity
Temperature rise is obtained using thermocouples and infrared
pyrometers (experimental) and by heat flow models.
Temperature rise in orthogonal cutting is predicted by:
T = 1.2 (Yf/ c) (Vto/K)1/3
T= Mean value at tool-chip interface, oF
Yf= Flow stress of workpiece, psi
c= Volumetric specific heat of workpiece, in.lb/in3 oF
K =Thermal diffusivity of workpiece, in2/sec
Thermal properties of tool are relatively unimportant.
WORK OUT PROBLEM 8.116

SUMMARY EQUATIONS OF MECHANICS OF MACHINING

1. Cutting ratio = chip-thickness ratio = to/tc = Sin /Cos ( )

2. Shear strain, = Cot + tan ( - )
2

Velocity ratio, V/Cos ( - ) = Vs / Cos = Vc/Sin

3 Shear strain rate = Vs/d where d = 0.01 to 0.001 mm

4

Shear angle, = 45 + /2- /2

Typical = -10o to +20o for which <20o

6. R = (Fc2 + Ft2)1/2 = (Fs2 + Fn2)1/2 = (F2 + N2)1/2
Fc = R cos ( - )
Ft = R sin( - )
Fs = R cos( + - )
Ft = R Sin( + - )
7. Coefficient of friction, = F/N = (Ft + Fc tan )/ (FcFt tan )
8. Stresses in shear plane, = Fs/As and = Fn/As
9. Power analysis
UNIT POWER = ut = Fc/w to
Friction UNIT POWER = uf = [sin sin / cos ( - ) cos ( )] ut
10. Temperature rise at the tool-chip
T = 1.2 (Yf/(c) (Vto/K)1/3

3. TOOL WEAR, TOOL LIFE, SURFACE FINISH AND MACHINABILITY

Tool Wear
See Figures 8.23, 8.24 and 8.25
o Degrades the surface finish
o Increases the tolerance and
o Increases the cost of machining

_PRIVATE __Types of wear

Mechanisms

Flank

Temperature, Adhesion, Abrasion, Plastic flow

Crater

Temperature, Diffusion, Oxidation

Chipping, Fracture

Mechanical shock and Thermal fatigue

(interrupted cutting)

Adhesion: High pressure/temperature cause adhesion of of asperities between

the tool and the chip.
Abrasion: Hard particles in the workpiece cause abrasion of the tool-Dominant mechanism for flank
Plastic Flow: High temperature softens the tool and high stresses cause the
plastic deformation of the cutting edges
Diffusion: Exchange of atoms across the contact boundary between the chip
and the tool. Tool may lose "hard atoms"
Tool Life is determined by different types of wear. Flank wear is said to be the
governing factor.
Flank wear increases with time as shown in Figure 6. In the break-in period,
the cutting edges lose their sharpness rapidly. In the steady-state, there is an
uniform wear, and in the accelerated region, there is rapid wear
due to high-temperature.
If we plot flank wear as a function of time, we find Figure 7. Flank wear (also
called as wear land) is the distance VB which is the criterion for tool life (tool
has to be resharpened or changed). VB is measured using a toolmaker's
microscope.
See Table 8.6 for the maximum value of VB allowed for different machining
operations.
VB is established based on Taylor's tool life equation given by

V Tn = C (for given values of d, f)

V = cutting speed, most critical parameter
T = tool life, minutes, to develop flank wearland VB
C = constant = Tool life for 1 min
See Figure 8.27. The plot is log-log. In general, T = 60-120 min for HSS tool to develop VB
and 30-60 min for carbide tool to develop VB.
WORK OUT PROBLEMS 8.97 and 98
Factors affecting n, C
C is influenced by the type of workpiece and cutting conditions.
n is a function of the cutting tool material
Since flank wear is cumbersome to evaluate in production environment, several simple,
subjective criteria may be used.
-- Complete failure of the cutting edge
-- Visible observation of the flank wear
-- Fingernail test across the cutting edge
-- Changes in the sound
--Changes in chip formation
-- Degradation of surface finish
-- Increased consumption of power
(watt meter connected to the machine tool)
-- Number of workpieces machined

-- Cutting time
Surface Finish and Integrity
Finish represents geometric properties while integrity pertains to properties such as fatigue
life, corrosion etc. Read Section 4.2.1 for more information on surface integrity.

_PRIVATE __Finish (geometric features)

Roughness
Waviness
Lay
FlawsIntegrity

Residual stresses
Phase transformation
Plastic deformation
Cracks

Figure 4.2 shows the surface terminology and symbols.

Roughness -- closely spaced , irregular deviations

Waviness -- greater spacing deviations caused by the
deflections of tools, dies, thermal warping, uneven lubrication,
vibrations etc
Flaws -- scratches, holes, cracks, depressions, inclusions
Lay - direction of the predominant surface pattern
Measures of Surface Roughness
1. Arithmetic average (AA) - Widely adopted
2. Root mean square (RMS) - Used mostly prior to 1950
3. Roughness height (Peak-to-valley distance)

Surface profilometer (Figure 4.4) is used to measure surface roughness. Read section 4.3.
Figure 8.33 shows the roughness data for various machining processes. Variables that
influence the roughness are:

BUE - more damaging effect on roughness

Tool radius- sharper the tool, higher would be roughness
Feed - larger the feed, higher is roughness
Vibration/chatter - increase the roughness

Machinability
Machinability is a term that includes several parameters: finish, integrity, tool life, cutting
speed, force, chip formation, composition and properties of material etc. In general, tool life
and surface finish are measures of machinability. The ratings are given for materials. AISI
1112 steel is given rating of 100. What it means is that, the steel can be machined at 100 fpm
for 60 minutes of tool life. Some other materials ratings are:
Material Machinability Rating
AISI 3140 55
Brass 300
2011 Al 200
Gray iron 70
Inconel 30

4. TOOL MATERIALS AND CUTTING FLUIDS

Tool Materials
A cutting tool is subjected to:
o High temperatures (300 to 1500oF)

o High contact stresses (103 to 106 psi)

o High speed chips (10 to 1000 fpm)

Required Properties
o Hot hardness
o Wear resistance
o Chemical inertness
o Toughness (for interrupted machining)

Tool Materials

Steels

Cast Alloys

Carbides

Ceramics

Carbon

Co-Cr-W

WC, TiC, some

Co

Si3N4, CBN,
Diamond

High-speed

READ THE TEXT FOR DETAILS (READING ASSIGNMENT)

Cutting Fluids
Cutting fluids reduce the heat, wash away the chips, and protect
the machined surface from oxidation. It is a coolant as well as a
lubricant. See Figure 8.49 for the high activity of cutting fluids.
The cutting fluid accelerates the thermal cycling in interrupted
cutting operations such as in milling. This condition leads to
thermal stresses and causes cracking. The mechanism of cutting
fluid action involves capillary action in which case the fluid
should have small molecules and proper wetting of the surface
(see Figure 8.50). The cutting fluids are applied in flood or in
mist conditions. Flood cooling is applied in lathe, milling, gun
drilling, and end milling. Mist cooling is applied in grinding.
Selection of the cutting fluid depends on the workpiece
(minimize chemical reactions, staining, stress corrosion etc), on

the machine tool (slideways and bearings are to be compatible

with the fluids), and on the operator safety.

5. SELECTED MACHINE TOOLS AND MACHINING PROCESSES

Lathes - Oldest machine tools
Engine Lathe - Simple and versatile but require a skilled
machinist because all controls are manipulated by hand. It is
inefficient for large production runs (Figure 8.55).
Tracer Lathe - Machine tool with an attachment that is capable
of turning parts with various contours.
Turret Lathe - Several cutting tools are mounted on the turret in
the cross-slide. They are capable of performing multiple
operations such as turning, boring, drilling, facing, thread
cutting.
Automatic Lathes - Also called as chucking machines, they are
usually vertical and do not have tailstock and are used for
machining regular and irregular shapes.
CNC Lathe- turret lathe controlled by CNC. Automated, suitable
for low to medium volumes of production (Figure 8.56).

Operations on a Lathe
SEE Figure 8.51. Straight turning, taper turning, grooving,
threading, facing, profiling, drilling, boring, cutting off, and
knurling.
TURNING

The turning parameters include tool geometry, feed, depth of

cut, and cutting speed.
Tool Geometry
Turning operations use single-point geometry cutting tools. The
tool geometry affects cutting speed, chip control, surface finish,

tolerances (vibration and chatter) and cutting force. The

geometry of a right-hand cutting tool (i.e. tool travels from right
to left) is shown in Figure 8.52.
The effects of tool geomtery on various aspects are given in the
table below.
Feed, Depth of Cut, and Cutting speed
See Table 8.14 for a summary
See Table 8.12 for typical values of cutting parameters.
Forces in Turning
See Figure 8.53. These forces are important in the design of
machine tools as well as in the deflection of tools for precision
machining.
WORKOUT PROBLEMS 8.96, 8.100, 8.101, 8.102, and
8.103
Turning Process Capabilities
1. Production Rates - See Table 8.15, relative ratings
2. High-speed machining, > 2000 fpm
-Important in aerospace and automotive to improve
productivity only when cutting time is the largest.
1. Ultraprecision machining - surface finish in nanometers,
and accuracies in sub-micron range. Examples are optical
mirrors, computer memory disks, drums for copying
machines. Diamond turning is common. The workpiece
materials include Cu, Al, Ag, Au, Ni, and plastics. The depth
of cut is in the nanometer range. High-stiffness machine
tools, vibration-isolation tables, and dust-free environment
are needed.
2. Hard turning - use CBN tools for finish-machining hardened
steels.

Geometry

Advantages

Limitations

Rake Angles

Control chip flow

Weakens edges

-5 to 20

Reduce Fc

Difficult to grind

Reduce Temp

Decrease cutting
angles

Improve surface finish

Relief (about 6)

Reduce friction
Less flank wear

Side cutting (about

15)

Reduce the heat

Change f and d
Improve surface
finish1

End cutting (about 15) Reduce heat

Nose radius (about

1/8")

Separate the tool and

workpiece,
Tool chatter

Reduce surface
finish1, Chatter

Improve cutting speed Separate tool and

work
Improve surface
finish2
Tool chatter

1. hmax = f/(cot Cb + tan Cs)

2. hmax = f2/8R

High stresses on the

edge

Equations 1 and 2 do not include the effects of workpiece

material, vibration and type of machine tool.
BORING
Boring consists of producing circular, internal profiles in hollow
workpieces or on holes. The boring bar is long and must be stiff.
Boring can be accomplished in the lathe or in boring mills if
large pieces are used. SEE Figure 8.58.
DRILLING
Drilling machine, called as drill presses, are vertical machine
tools. Significant problems include the chip disposal, accurate
locations, carefulness in preventing the drill from breaking and
supplying cutting fluid.
Operations: Drilling, Reaming, Tapping
DRILLING
See Figure 8.60
Drilling - uses standard chisel-point twist drills with diameters
ranging from 0.006 in. to 3 in. Trepanning technique can be used
to drill larger diameter holes about 6 in.
Core Drilling - Drill a larger hole on a smaller hole.
Step drilling - Double sized drill
Counterboring - stepper hole. Useful to seat bolt heads in the
holes.
Countersinking -Hole is cone shaped for flat head screws.
Reaming - Enlarge the hole, provide better tolerance/finish.
Center Drilling - To begin the center for a hole.
Gun Drilling- deep holes with aspect ratios > 300
REAMING
Is an operation to make an existing hole dimensionally more
accurate than can be obtained by drilling alone and to improve

surface finish. A reamer is a multiple-edge cutting tool that

removes very little material. The most accurate holes are
produced by a sequence of operations that involve centering,
drilling, boring, and reaming.
TAPPING
Internal threads in the holes of workpieces are produced by
taps. After tapping, the tool is mechanically collapsed and
removed without having to rotate it. Sizes up to 4 in.
Mechanics of Drilling Table 8.17 for parameters
Axial speed of the drill = f N = feed rate and
MRR = (Hole area) (fN)
Horse power for drilling is to overcome thrust and torque forces.
UNIT POWER = (power for torque + power for thrust)/MRR

Thrust force, if excessive, will break the tool. Usually it is small,

on the order of few hundred lbs. It is a function of cutting
parameters in addition to the strength of workpiece material. It
can be small when compared with torque. WORK OUT
PROBLEMS 8.104 and 8.105
MILLING

Includes a number of processes that are capable of producing a

variety of configurations. See Figure 8.63.
Types of milling machines and their components
1. Horizontal spindle (see Figure 8.70)
2. Vertical spindle (see Figure 8.71)
Three forms of milling:
o Slab Milling (Horizontal)
o Face Milling (Vertical)

o End Milling (Vertical)

See Table 8.18 for milling parameters and formulas.

Slab milling , (see Figure 8.64) also called as peripheral milling,

the axis of cutter rotation is parallel to the workpiece surface.
The depth of cut is in the range 0.04" to 0.3". Go through
Example 8.8
Face milling, (see Figure 8.65) the cutter is mounted on a
spindle having axis of rotation perpendicular to the workpiece
surface. See next apages for calculations. Go through Example
8.9.
End milling, where the cutter is smaller than the face miller,
can be used to produce various profiles including dies.

Conventional (Up) and Climb (Down) milling

Up Milling

Down Milling

- Beginning chip thickness is

small

- Beginning chip thickness is

large

Advantages

Advantages

1. Oxide scale or hard surface of 1. Low temperature (long tool

work does not matter
life)
2. Rigidity is not critical
because the cutter is opposed
by the feed of the work
(machine is even).

2. Smaller feed marks

3. Downward part of cutting
force holds the workpiece
(slender parts)

Drawbacks
1. Tool chatter
2. Feed marks

Drawbacks
1. Rigid setup is needed due to

3. Clamp workpiece
(work moves up)

the cutter pulling the workpiece

along.
2. Not suitable for oxide scale
surfaces.

WORK OUT PROBLEMS 8.106, 107, 108, 109, 110 and 111.

6. MACHINING CENTERS
READ TEXT SECTION 8.10 (READING ASSIGNMENT)

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